Louis Figuier

The Passerines (from passer, the Latin name for Sparrow) form the least natural group of the class Aves. Here one seeks in vain for the homogeneous characteristics which distinguish the preceding races. Indeed, it is difficult to detect the bonds which connect them together. For example, where is the link which unites the Crow to the Swallow or to the Humming-birds? Nevertheless, all these winged creatures, though so different externally, belong to the PasserinÆ. It may be said that this order presents only negative characteristics, bringing together in a somewhat odd assemblage all birds which are neither web-footed, wading, gallinaceous, climbing, nor rapacious. The only physical feature on which much stress can be laid, which is common to all Passerines, and even that not of much value, is that the outward toe is united to the middle one in a more or less extended manner. Their food consists of seeds, insects, and fruit. They live singly or in pairs; they fly gracefully and easily; their walk consists of a leap; and they build their nests and take their rest under the thick foliage of trees, or under the eaves of buildings.

In this extensive group we find most of the songsters whose melodious voices so charmingly wake the echoes of the woodlands. Some of them have even the gift of imitating to a certain extent the human voice, as well as the cries of wild animals. Many are remarkable for their brilliant plumage; others are appreciated for their delicacy on the table. Man has reduced numbers of them to comparative tameness, but has altogether failed in bringing them to a domestic state.

Cuvier divides the PasserinÆ into five great families—the Syndactyles, Tenuirostres, Conirostres, Fissirostres, and Dentirostres. The first is based on the structure of the feet; the other four on the formation of the bill. But this classification is very arbitrary, as it is not always possible to assign a place to certain groups by an inspection of the beak alone. We shall, however, follow this distribution, as being that generally adopted.

Syndactyles.

The Syndactyles (having the toes united) have the external toe nearly as long as the middle one, and united to it up to the last articulation. The birds which constitute this group have little analogy with each other, the physical characters which we shall have occasion to notice being purely artificial as a means of classification. The family includes the Hornbills (Buceros, Linn.), the Fly-catchers (MuscicapidÆ), the King-fishers (Alcedo, Linn.), the Bee-eaters (Merops, Linn.), and the Momots (Prionites, Ill.).

The Hornbills, or Calaos, are remarkable for their enormous development of beak, which is long, very wide, compressed, and more or less curved and notched, and in some species surmounted by a large helmet-like protuberance. This immense beak is nevertheless very light, being cellulose, as in the Toucans. The Hornbills have in some respects the bearing of the Crow: this led Bontius to class them among the Crows, under the name of Indian Crow (Corvus indicus). They walk with difficulty, and their flight is clumsy, their favourite position being on a perch at the summit of lofty trees. Great flocks of these haunt the forests of the warmer regions of the Old World, especially Africa, India, and the Oceanic Archipelago. They build their nests in the hollows of trees. They are omnivorous, and the fruits, seeds, and insects of those regions are their principal food; yet they feed also on flesh. In India they are domesticated, their services in destroying rats and mice being much appreciated. The plumage of the Hornbill is black or grey, of various shades; but there is a species described by Dr. Latham and Dr. Shaw, under the name of the Crimson Hornbill, which Mr. Swainson thinks may prove to be a link between Toucans and Hornbills, and thus combine the beauty of plumage of the former with the peculiarity of form of the latter. Their flesh is delicate, especially when fed on aromatic seeds. Many species are described, varying in size, among which the Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros), Fig. 200, is the most worthy of notice. This bird is so named from the singular protuberance with which its bill is surmounted: this is a smooth horny casque or helmet, curving upwards from the bill, somewhat resembling the horn of the rhinoceros. It is a native of India and the islands of the Indian Ocean.

Fig. 200.—Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros, Gould).

The Fly-catchers (MuscicapidÆ) are a family of insectivorous birds, many of which are British, comprehending, according to Temminck, the Todies (Todus), distinguished by long, broad, and very flat bills, contracting suddenly at the tip. Characteristics:—Tail short, slender, and rounded; legs long and weak; toes short, the outer one more or less united to the middle one. T. viridis, the only species, according to Temminck, has a bright green plumage above, whitish beneath; a scarlet throat; sides rose colour; and the tail-coverts yellow. It is a native of South America and the Antilles; and Sir Hans Sloane, under the name of "Green Humming-bird," describes it as "one of the most beautiful small birds he ever saw." Mr. Browne states that it is a familiar little bird, and will often let a man come within a few feet to admire it before becoming alarmed. "It keeps much about the houses in country parts," he adds, "flies slow, and probably may be easily tamed."

It lives almost entirely on the ground, feeding on insects, which it catches in the evening. It builds its nest in the crevices on river banks, or in the soft rocks, in which it hollows out a dwelling by means of its bill and feet.

The King-fishers (Alcedo), the Martin-fishers of some authors, form a highly interesting group, of which Alcedo ispida (Linn.) is the only known species indigenous to Britain. M. Vigors finds an intimate resemblance between them and the Todies. The King-fishers are very singular birds. Their bill is strong, straight, and angular, being of immense length compared with their size; the tip of both mandibles acute; the commissure perfectly straight; the head strong and elongated; wings and tail of moderate size; tarsi short, and placed far back (Fig. 201). The King-fisher (A. ispida) has behind each eye a patch of light orange brown, succeeded by a white one; from each corner of the mandible proceeds a line of rich blue, tinged with green; the crown of the head is deep olive green; the feathers are tipped with a verdigris shade; chin and throat with yellowish white; breast, belly, and vent with orange brown; tail a bluish green; shafts of the feathers black; and the legs a pale brick red. This beautiful bird is as interesting in manners as in appearance. Living on the banks of rivers, they feed almost exclusively on fish. The King-fisher watches patiently from a fixed station, generally a naked twig overhanging the water, or a stone projecting above the surface, for its prey: in this position it will sometimes wait for hours, absolutely immovable. When the fish comes within reach, with great rapidity it pounces upon it, seizing it in its powerful mandibles, and after destroying it by compression, or by knocking it against a stone or the trunk of a tree, it swallows it head foremost. When fish is scarce it feeds also upon aquatic insects, which it seizes on the wing. Its aËrial movements are rapid and direct, but weakly maintained, being performed by a series of quick, jerking beats of the wings, generally close to the surface: the action of the wings is so rapid as to be scarcely perceptible. The short tarsi render the King-fisher a bad walker.

Fig. 201.—King-fishers (Alcedo ispida, Linn.).

The King-fisher is a solitary bird, living generally in secluded places, and is rarely seen even with birds of its own species, except in the pairing season. Like the Todies, they build their nests in the steep banks of rivers, either in the natural crevices, or in holes hollowed out by water rats; and these dwelling-places are generally disfigured by the fragments of their repast. Father and mother sit alternately, and when the young are hatched they feed them with the produce of their fishing. The bird has a shrill and piercing note, which it utters on the wing. Their flesh is very disagreeable.

The King-fisher is the Halcyon of the ancients, who attributed to it after death the power of indicating the winds. The seven days before and the seven days after the winter solstice were the Halcyon days, during which the bird was supposed to build its nest, and the sea remained perfectly calm. To its dead body the attributes of turning aside thunder-bolts, of giving beauty, peace and plenty, and other absurdities were ascribed. Even now, in some remote provinces of France, the dead birds are invested with the power of preserving woollen stuffs from the attack of the moth; hence they are called Moth Birds by drapers and shopkeepers. They are inhabitants of almost every region of the globe, and comprehend a great number of species, spread over Asia, Africa, and America.32 Europe possesses one species not larger than a Sparrow, and which is remarkable for the rich colouring of its feathers. What, indeed, can surpass the brilliancy of the King-fisher as it suddenly darts along some murmuring brook, tracing a thread of azure and emerald? Some authors separate the King-fishers, properly so called, or riverside birds, from the Bee-eaters and other Fissirostral birds, which, while they resemble each other in many physical characteristics, differ essentially in their habits; in short, while the one haunts the river, feeds upon its inhabitants, and nests upon its margin, the other keeps to the woods and forests, feeds upon insects, and builds in holes in trees.

The Ceyx Meninting of Lesson (Alcedo Biru of Horsfield) very closely resembles the King-fisher of Europe in its habits; it darts in short, rapid flight along the surface of lakes and rivulets, emitting shrill, discordant sounds; it perches on trees on the river banks, and feeds on small fishes and aquatic insects. The tarsus is smooth, the inner toe suppressed; in other respects its habits are those of the King-fisher.

The Bee-eaters (MeropidÆ) have the beak long, thin, slightly curved, and pointed, the mandible having a trenchant edge; the tarsi short; the wings long and pointed; the tail well developed, tapering, or forked. They are slender, light, and clamorous; their cries are incessant, while they skim through the air on rapid wing with well-sustained flight. Their name of Bee-eaters they take from their principal food, which consists of various Hymenoptera, especially bees and wasps. They seize their prey either on the wing, like the Swallows, or they hide themselves at the opening of their hives, and snatch up all that enter or depart. They are skilful in avoiding their sting. Living together in numerous flocks, they rapidly clear a district of wasps and wild bees.

They build their nests in the banks of rivers or rivulets, in holes which they excavate to the depth of six or seven feet. Some species are highly esteemed as table delicacies by the French.

Fig. 202.—Common Bee-eater (Merops apiaster, Sw.).

The Bee-eaters inhabit the warmer regions of the Old World, such as Bengal, the west coast of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope, Morocco, and Malta. One species alone is found in Europe, the Common Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), Fig. 202. From the coast of Africa it migrates in small flocks into the countries skirting the northern shores of the Mediterranean. Some individuals proceed into France, Switzerland, and Germany; others spread themselves over Turkey and the southern parts of Russia. In England it is occasionally met with in Cornwall, Devonshire, and along the Hampshire coast. It has been shot in the Mull of Galloway. In France it arrives in the month of May, and remains but a short time. As a rule it rarely ventures further north than the South of France.

The Momots (Prionites, Illiger) are birds still very imperfectly known. They are remarkably massive in form, heavy and slow on the wing. They are placed by systematists near the Toucans (Ramphastos), from similarity of habits, and especially from the structure of the tongue, which is in both long, and so much ciliated at the sides as to resemble a feather. The feet, however, are totally different from those of the Toucans. In the Momots the beak is long, robust, and crenated at the edge. They are very wild, and lead an isolated life in the thick forests of South America, where they build in holes in trees.

Fig. 203.—Momot (Prionites, Sw.).

Tenuirostres.

The Passerine Tenuirostres are characterised by a long slender beak, straight or curved, but always without indentation. They are insectivorous, and comprise the Hoopoes, Humming-birds, Creepers, and Nuthatches.

The Hoopoes (Upupa, Linn.) have the beak long, slender, triangular, and slightly curved. This group, which Mr. Gray designates the UpupidÆ, includes a number of birds whose general form presents the greatest analogy, but which possess their own peculiarities of plumage and special physiognomy. This has necessitated its subdivision into sub-genera, of which the Hoopoes (Upupa), the Promerops (Brisson), and the Epimachus are worthy of notice.

Fig. 204.—Hoopoes (Upupa epops, Linn.).

The Hoopoes are easily recognised from the double range of plumes which form an arched crest on their head, which they have the power of raising at pleasure. These feathers are, in the Common Hoopoe, of a ruddy buff colour, tipped with black. They are solitary birds, living by preference in low grounds and humid places, where they prey on the worms, insects, and terrestrial mollusks. They are migratory, and are occasionally found in the British Islands in autumn: instances have occurred of their breeding there. They take their departure for warmer regions in September. They have a light and graceful walk, and nearly pass their existence on the ground, rarely perching, and flying with visible effort. They have no song, and only utter two notes, which may be rendered by the syllables zi, zi; houp, houp. They nest in the clefts of rocks or walls, and in holes in the trunks of trees. When captured young, they become very tame, and seem to be susceptible of great attachment to those who take care of them.

The Hoopoe (Fig. 204) is found in summer as far north as Denmark and Sweden; and southward, in France and Italy, at Gibraltar and Ceuta, and in Egypt, where it breeds, as it probably does over Northern Africa. It has been seen occasionally at Madeira, and is abundant at Trebisond, whence it comes every year to pass the summer season in Europe. During the spring and summer it abounds all over France. At the period of its departure—that is to say, in the month of September—it is plump enough to be a choice morsel for the table, as its flesh is very delicate.

The Epimachus are remarkably beautiful birds. When at maturity the side-feathers develop themselves in delicate lines or elegant panicles, while their plumage, richly coloured, is brilliant with diaphanous metallic reflections. Little is known of their habits. They are natives of Australia and New Guinea. The very remarkable species, E. multifil (Fig. 205), has six long fillets on each side of its body. The equally striking species, E. magnus, has the elongated side-feathers raised and curling, of a glittering steel blue, azure, and emerald green; the breast and belly lustrous with the same diaphanous tints. This bird is an inhabitant of New Guinea.

Fig. 205.—Epimachus (Epimachus multifil).

The Promerops are distinguished from the other UpupinÆ by the absence of the crest, by their very long tail, and by their forked and extensible tongue. They are natives of Africa, and their habits, like those of the former, are little known.

The Colibri of Cuvier may be divided into Humming-birds (TrochilidÆ), or species having the beak straight, and true Colibri, having the beak curved. With this slight difference, the TrochilidÆ and Colibri closely resemble each other. They have the same slight, elegant figure, the same brilliancy of plumage, and the same habits—describe the one, and you describe the other. We must be permitted, therefore, to treat of them together.

The Humming-birds (TrochilidÆ) are the most lovely of the winged race. Nature seems to have endowed them with her rarest gifts. In creating them she surpassed herself, and exhausted all the charms at her disposal; for she imbued them with grace, elegance, rapidity of motion, magnificence of plumage, and indomitable courage. What can be more delightful than the sight of these little feathered beauties, flashing with the united fires of the ruby, the topaz, the sapphire, and the emerald, flying from flower to flower amid the richest tropical vegetation? Such are the lightness and rapidity of some of the smaller species, that the eye can scarcely follow the quick beat of the wings. When they hover they seem perfectly motionless, and one might fancy they were suspended by some invisible thread.

Specially adapted for an aËrial life, they are unceasingly in motion, searching for their food in the calyx of flowers, from which they drink the nectar with so much delicacy and address that the plant is scarcely stirred. But the juice and honey of flowers, as some authors affirm, are not their only food—such unsubstantial diet would be insufficient to sustain the prodigious activity displayed almost every moment of their existence.

The tongue of the Humming-bird is a microscopic instrument of marvellous arrangement. It is composed of two half-tubes placed one against the other, capable of opening and shutting like a pair of pliers. Moreover, it is constantly moistened by a glutinous saliva, by which it is enabled to seize and hold insects—an arrangement not without its analogy in the Woodpeckers.

Proud of their gay colours, the Humming-birds take the greatest care to protect their plumage. They frequently dress themselves by passing their feathers through their bills. Their vivacity often amounts to petulance, and they frequently manifest belligerent propensities not to be expected in such minute creatures. They attack birds much larger than themselves, harassing and pursuing them without intermission, threatening their eyes, and always succeeding in putting them to flight. They frequently contend with each other. If two males meet on the calyx of a flower, bristling with anger, and uttering their cry, they rush on one another. After the conflict is over the conqueror returns to reap the reward of his valour.

Fig. 206.—Nest of Humming-bird.

The nest of the Humming-bird (Fig. 206) is a masterpiece. It is about the size of half an apricot. The materials are brought by the male, and arranged by the female. These consist of lichens, and are most artistically interwoven, the crevices being closed up with the bird's saliva: the interior is padded with the silky fibres furnished by various plants. This pretty cradle is suspended to a leaf, sometimes to a small branch, bundle of rushes, or even to the straw roof of a hut. The hen bird lays twice a year a pair of eggs of a pure white, about the size of a pea.

After an incubation of six days the young are hatched; a week later they are capable of flight. During the breeding season the males are tender and demonstrative, and both parents show much affection for their progeny.

These little creatures are universally admired for their elegance and beauty, and the names given them are generally descriptive of their excessive minuteness. The creoles of the Antilles call them Murmurers; the Spaniards Picaflores; the Brazilians Chupaflores, or Flower-suckers; finally, the Indians call these darlings Sunbeams.

Humming-birds are much sought after—not for their flesh, which is valueless from its minute quantity, but for their feathers: these ladies turn to various uses, such as collars, pendants for the ears, &c. Some of the Indian races which have been converted to Christianity employ them to decorate the images of their favourite saints. The Mexicans and Peruvians formerly employed them for trimming mantles. The French soldiers who shared in the Mexican expedition report that pictures with the feathers of the Humming-bird are fresh, brilliant, and effective.

Humming-birds cannot be preserved in captivity—not that they do not become familiar and affectionate, but their extreme delicacy unfits them for confinement, and in spite of the utmost care that can be bestowed on them, they will die in a few months. In their habitat they are killed with very small shot or with the sarbacane: if desired alive, they are taken with a butterfly net.

Among the most formidable enemies of the TrochilidÆ may be reckoned the Monster Spider (Mygale avicularia), which spins its web round their nests, and devours eggs or little ones; even the old birds are sometimes its victims. Humming-birds are scattered over the whole of South and North America, even as far north as Canada; but in Brazil and Guiana they are most abundant. At least five hundred species are known. Cuvier included them in his genus Colibri. Mr. Gould has described three hundred of which he has actual specimens; these he divides into fifty-two genera. Among the more remarkable species we may note the Topaz-throated Trochilus (T. pella, Gould), a native of Brazil; the Sickle-winged Humming-bird (Trochilus falcatus, Sw.); Gould's Humming-bird (Ornismya Gouldii, Less.); the Double-crested Humming-bird (Trochilus cornutus, Wied.); Cora Humming-bird (Ornismya cora, Less.); the Giant Humming-bird, which attains the size of the Swallow; the Dwarf Humming-bird, whose size does not exceed that of a bee; the Bar-tailed Humming or Sapho Bird of Lesson (Fig. 207), a native of Eastern Peru; and the Racket-tailed Humming-bird, so named from the shape of its tail, which spreads out at the extremity in the form of a racket.

Fig. 207.—Bar-tailed Humming-bird (Trochilus sparganurus, Lesson).

The Climbers (Scansores, Vig.) among birds, such as the Woodpeckers, are characterised by an arched beak and a stiff pointed tail. The family comprehends several genera and sub-genera, of which the principal are the Climbers, properly so called, as the Creepers (Certhia), the Wall-Creepers (Tichodroma), the Picumnus, the Furnarius, the Sucriers, the Soui-mangas, and the Nuthatches (Sitta).

The Creepers (Certhia) are small Climbing birds which live and build their nests in the holes they bore in the trunk or in the natural hollows of trees: the insects to be found under the bark are their food. Looking at the form of their slender beak, it is difficult to imagine how it can penetrate the hard covering of an oak, for which they exhibit a marked preference. The Tree-Creeper (Certhia familiaris) is spread over nearly every European country, and is very common in France. The Wall-Creeper (Tichodroma muraria, C. Bonap.), called also Wall-Climber (the Grimpereau des Murailles of French authors), owes its name to its habit of climbing the walls of dwellings. Supporting-points are not found in their tails, as in the Woodpeckers. Grasping the tree with their claws, they assist their feet by a slight movement of the wings. They feed on insects, and lead a solitary life on the mountains, only descending into the plains with the early frosts of winter. They are found diffused over all the South of Europe.

The Picumnus (Climacteris picumnus, Temm.) have form and habits very similar to the Creeper, but the beak is stronger and more boldly curved. They are natives of Brazil and Guiana.

The Furnarius (Furnarius figulus, Spix.) live singly or in pairs in the plains of Chili, Brazil, and Guiana. They feed principally on seeds, but also on insects. They take up their residence with much confidence in the neighbourhood of man. Their nests (Fig. 209) are remarkable for their construction, being in the form of an oven, whence their name. This structure it builds upon trees, on palisades, or on the window of a house. It is remarkable for its size as compared with its inhabitant, measuring not less than from twelve to fourteen inches in diameter; it is entirely formed of clay, and the interior is divided by a partition into two compartments, the outer and inner, the latter being that in which the female lays her eggs. The male and female alternately bring small balls of earth, out of which the edifice is constructed, and they labour so industriously that it is sometimes finished in two days. Some species construct their nests on trees, interlacing them with spiny branches, and providing one or many openings; that of the Annumbi is fifteen inches in diameter by twenty inches in height.

The Sucriers (CinnyridÆ) are American birds, so called from their attachment to saccharine substances. They feed on honey they extract from flowers, and the sap from the sugar-cane, the juice of which they suck through crevices in the stem. Like the Humming-birds, they have the tongue divided into two parts, by which they are enabled to seize insects, which form a part of their food. They are small in size, and their plumage is brilliantly coloured. Among the CinnyridÆ we find the Guits-guits, ingenious little creatures which construct a nest in the form of a horn, which is suspended from the flexible branches of a shrub: in order to protect their young from the attacks of earwigs, the opening is below.

The Soui-mangas (Fig. 210) have the same partiality for sugar exhibited by the last, justifying their name, which signifies "sugar-eater" in the Malagash tongue. They are natives of Southern Africa and India, and represent in the Old World the Humming-birds of the New. They are gay and sprightly, and decked in the most brilliant colours. Like the other CinnyridÆ, they love to plunge their tongue into the corolla of flowers and extract its sweets. Their most brilliant colours are displayed in the breeding season.

The Nuthatches (Sitta), Fig. 211, have the beak straight, pyramidal, and pointed, covered at the base with small feathers directed forward; the long toes are furnished with claws strong and crooked; their habitat resembles that of the Creepers. The Nuthatch is found in Oceania.

Conirostres.

The Conirostral PasserinÆ are characterised by a strong, robust beak, more or less conical, and without notches. They are generally granivorous, but some species are insectivorous or carnivorous. This group includes the Birds of Paradise, Crows, Rollers, Starlings, Sparrows, Tits, and Larks.

The Birds of Paradise have the beak straight, compressed, and strong, the nostrils covered with velvety feathers. In brilliancy of colouring, and in graceful, pendent, gossamer-like plumage, they take precedence in the feathered creation.

They have a very restricted habitat, being only found in New Guinea, Ternate, and in the island of Papua, situated to the north of Australia: there they dwell in the thick forests, feeding on fruit and insects. Occasionally they are found living in solitude, but more frequently are to be met in large flocks, altering their residence with the change of the monsoon.

Their flight is very swift, and has been frequently compared by Europeans resident in the East to that of a Swallow; in consequence, they have bestowed on the Bird of Paradise the name of Swallow of Ternate.

When the Bird of Paradise was first spoken of in Europe few believed that it existed. Nor is this to be wondered at, when we remember that it was affirmed that these gorgeous birds were without legs, and hung on to the branches of trees by their long aËrial plumes; that the female deposited her eggs under the feathers on the back of the male; that they passed the breeding season in Paradise; and many other stories equally absurd.

The inhabitants of Papua capture these birds, for their plumage is of great commercial value. The method they adopt is to place themselves in the tops of the highest trees: when thus concealed, they attract the birds within reach of their blow-pipes by whistling.

The Birds of Paradise are divided by Vieillot into Parotia, Lophorina, Cincinnurus, and Samalia. The most remarkable among these is Paradisea apoda, the Great Emerald, as it is sometimes called (Fig. 212), the throat and neck of which are of a bright emerald green, from which circumstance it has received one of its popular names, while on its sides are shaded tufts of yellow feathers which float on the breeze, forming an elegant aËrial plume, and giving the bird a meteor look as it shoots through the air. They live in flocks in the vast Papuan forests. When prepared for migration—for they change their quarters with the monsoons—the females assemble in small flocks on the tops of the loftiest trees, and utter their call to the males, each flock of fourteen or fifteen being attended by one male.

The King Bird of Paradise (Paradisea regia, Linn.), Fig. 213, is an inhabitant of the Molucca Islands, where it is scarce. Little is known of its habits. The beak, which is furnished at the base with small feathers pointing forward, is slender, convex, and slightly compressed at the sides. The hypochondrial feathers are broad, elongated, and truncated.

In the Superb (Lophorina superba), Fig. 214, the beak is furnished with elongated feathers, extending half its length; the feathers of the neck, rising just behind the head, expand into a wing-like form.

In the Sifilets (Parotia) the beak is furnished with short feathers for half its length, and is slender, compressed laterally, notched and curved at the tip; they have long, broad, and loose plumes covering the sides and abdominal part. Of this group the Gold-throated Sifilet of Buffon (Parotia sexsetacea, Latham), Fig. 215, is a fine example. It obtains its name from the three thread-like feathers on each side of the head expanding into a lancet shape at the extremity, and which form a very striking ornament.

The birds which constitute the Crows (CorvidÆ) are characterised by a very strong beak with cutting edges, broad at the base, flattened laterally, and hooked towards the point; the nostrils covered with stiff feathers directed forward; also by strong claws and long pointed wings. They are divided into four groups or sub-genera—namely, Corvus, the Crows properly so called; the Magpies (Pica); the Jays (Garrulus); and the Nut-cracker (Nucifraga).

The genus Corvus, as limited by modern naturalists, comprehends the Raven (C. corax, Lesson), the Carrion Crow (C. corone, Temm.), the Royston Crow (C. cornix, Selby), the Rook (C. frugilegus, Linn.), the Jackdaw (C. monedula, Linn.).

All these species have in many respects the same characteristics, the same aptitude, and the same habits. With the exception of the Raven and Magpie, which live in pairs, the others reside together in large flocks, whether they are in quest of their daily food or roosting at night. They are all possessed of the same intelligence, the same cunning, the same mischievous habits, the same gift of imitation, though in different degrees, and the same provident habit of amassing provisions in secret places. This last peculiarity in tamed birds degenerates into a mania, which leads them to carry off and hide everything that attracts their attention, especially gems and bright articles of metal. The whole group are susceptible of domestication.

The Crows, especially the Raven and the Carrion Crow, are pre-eminently omnivorous. Living or dead flesh, fish cast up on the shore, insects, eggs, fruit, seeds—nothing comes amiss to them. Their depredations are enormous. Thus Ravens, not content with raising a tribute on moles, wood-mice, and leverets, venture into poultry-yards, and without ceremony appropriate chickens, ducklings, &c. Buffon even asserts that in certain countries they fasten upon the backs of buffaloes, and after having put out their eyes, devour them. As for the Carrion Crows, according to Lewis, it is certain that they attack the flocks in Scotch and Irish pastures. Lastly, all Crows delight in digging up newly-sown ground, eating with avidity the germinating seed. On this account the agricultural population are generally their bitterest enemies, destroying them when opportunity offers. In certain parts—Norway, for instance—laws were made ordering their extermination. But this policy was short-sighted: if they did harm, they also did good, for the quantity of noxious grubs and larvÆ formerly devoured by them, and consequently kept in check, became most formidable foes to the farmer, and most difficult to overcome. How is it that men will not use their brains—that they actually destroy the animals provided by a bounteous Creator, and whose utility is most conspicuous?

The flesh of the Raven and the Carrion Crow exhales a very bad odour, doubtlessly caused by the quantities of putrid animal matter they consume; consequently, it is unfit for human food. Not so, however, with the Rook. This bird, when taken young, is not only eatable, but by some deemed a delicacy.

Crows possess a vigorous and sustained flight; they have a keen sense of smell, and excellent vision. By exercising these latter qualities they become aware where food is to be obtained, and as they wing their way towards it they constantly utter their cry, as if inviting their companions to join them: this croak, as it is called, is very harsh and dissonant. The plumage being of a sombre funereal black, and the voice so unmusical, have doubtless been the reasons why they have long been considered birds of ill omen. When taken young, they are tamed with great facility, even to permitting them to go at large, for they will neither rejoin their own race nor desert the neighbourhood where they have been kindly treated. True, they may go into the fields to seek for food, but when the increasing shadows predict the approach of night, their familiar resting-place in the house of their protector will be sought. They become much attached to those who take notice of them, and will recognise them even in a crowd. Their audacity and their malice are incredible. When they take an antipathy to any one, they immediately show it. They suffer neither cats nor dogs to approach them, but harass them incessantly, tearing from them their very food. Finally, they choose secret hiding-places, where they store up all that tempts their cupidity or excites their covetousness. They even learn to repeat words and phrases, and to imitate the cries of other animals. These facts are confirmed by numerous anecdotes related by naturalists of undoubted veracity.

Pliny speaks of a Raven which established itself in one of the public places of Rome, and called out the name of each passer-by, from the emperor to the humblest citizen. We have all laughed heartily at the recital of an adventure which happened to an awkward horseman who lost his seat, while a Raven perched on a branch of a tree above him cried out with solemn voice, "How silly!"

Dr. Franklin thus speaks of a Raven of his acquaintance which had been brought up at a country inn:—"It had," he says, "great recollection of persons, and knew perfectly all the coachmen, with whom it lived on the greatest intimacy. With its special friends it took certain innocent liberties, such as mounting on the top of their carriage and riding out with them until it met some other driver with which it was on terms of similarly close friendship, when it would return home." The same Raven had unusual sympathy with dogs in general, and especially those which happened to be lame. These it loaded with the most delicate attentions, keeping them company and carrying them bones to gnaw. This excessive kindness to animals which are rarely in the good graces of Ravens arose from this bird having been reared along with a dog, for which it entertained such strong regard, that it attended it with unremitting assiduity when it had the misfortune to break its leg.

The same author mentions another Raven which was captured in Russia, and came to be confined in the Jardin des Plantes, of Paris. It recognised Dr. Monin when he stopped accidentally before its cage. It had belonged to him ten years before, and when brought before its old master it leaped upon his shoulder and covered him with caresses. The doctor reclaimed his property, and the bird was henceforth an ornament to his house near Blois, where it learnt to address the country-people as "great hogs." Dr. Franklin raised one of these birds himself which showed wonderful powers of imitation. "He called himself Jacob. Sometimes it made such a noise at the bottom of the stairs that you could only imagine it was caused by a party of three or four children quarrelling with great violence; at other times it would imitate the crowing of a cock, the mewing of a cat, the barking of a dog, or the sound produced by a rattle for frightening away birds from a wheat-field; then a silence would ensue; but soon after the crying of a child of two years of age would be mimicked; 'Jacob! Jacob!' its own name, probably it would then call, repeating the cry at first in a grave tone, then with shriller intonation and more vociferously; again another silence; but after a pause, a man seems to knock at the gate; if it is opened, enter Jacob, who runs about the room, and finally mounts on the table. Unfortunately, Jacob was a thief—and that was not his least fault; spoons, knives, forks, even plates, disappeared, with meat, bread, salt, pieces of money—especially if new; he carried off everything, and hid all in some secret hole or corner. A washerwoman of the neighbourhood was accustomed to dry her linen near our window, fixing the clothes on the line with pins; the bird would labour with a perseverance truly wonderful to detach these, the woman chasing him off with bitter maledictions about her fallen linen; but he would only fly over into his own garden for safety, where he would indulge in a few malicious croakings. One day I discovered, under some old timber, Jacob's hiding-place. It was full of needles, pins, and all manner of glittering objects."

Mr. Charles Dickens was partial to keeping Ravens in his youth, and has related some of his experiences in the preface to "Barnaby Rudge." He had two great originals. "The first was in the bloom of his youth, when he was discovered in a humble retreat in London and given to me. He had from the first, as Sir Hugh Evans says of Anne Page, 'good gifts,' which he improved by study and attention in a most extraordinary manner. He slept in a stable—generally on horseback—and so terrified a Newfoundland dog by his preternatural sagacity that he has been known, by the mere superiority of his genius, to walk off unmolested with the dog's dinner from before his face. He was increasing in intelligence and precocity when, in an evil hour, his stable was newly painted. He observed the workmen closely, saw that they were careful of their pigments, and immediately burned to possess some of them. On their going to dinner, he ate up all they left behind, consisting of a pound or two of white-lead. Alas! this youthful indiscretion terminated in death.

"Whilst yet inconsolable for the loss, another friend of mine," adds Mr. Charles Dickens, "discovered an older and more gifted Raven at a village inn, which he prevailed upon the landlord to part with for a consideration. The first act of this sage was to administer to the effects of his predecessor, by disinterring all the cheese and halfpence he had buried in the garden—a work of immense labour and research, to which he devoted all the energies of his mind. When he had achieved this task, he applied himself to the acquisition of stable language, in which he soon became such an adept that he would perch outside any window and drive imaginary horses all day long, with great skill in language. Perhaps I never saw him at his best, for his former master sent his duty with him, and said, 'if I wished the bird to come out very strong, to be so good as show him a drunken man;' which I never did, having (unfortunately) none but sober people at hand. But I could hardly have respected him more, whatever the stimulating influence of this sight might have been. He had not the least respect for me, I am sorry to say, in return, or for anybody but the cook, to whom he was attached—but, I fear, only as a policeman might have been. Once I met him unexpectedly, about half a mile off, walking down the middle of the public street, attended by a pretty large crowd, and spontaneously exhibiting the whole of his accomplishments. His gravity under this trying ordeal I never can forget, nor the extraordinary gallantry with which, refusing to be brought home, he defended himself behind a pump until overpowered by numbers. It may have been that he was too bright a genius to live long, or it may have been that he took something pernicious into his bill, and thence into his maw—which is not improbable, seeing he new-pointed the greater part of the garden-wall by digging out the mortar, broke countless squares of glass by scraping away the putty all round the frames, and tore up and swallowed in splinters the greater part of a wooden staircase of six steps as well as the landing—but after some three years he was taken ill, and died before the kitchen fire. He kept his eye to the last upon the meat as it roasted, and suddenly turned over on his back with the sepulchral cry of 'Cuckoo.'"

Crows (Corvus) are universally diffused over the globe. The Raven (Corvus corax), Fig. 216, and the Carrion Crow (Corvus corone), are sedentary birds, and never voluntarily abandon the place they have elected for their home. The Hooded Crow (Corvus corone), the Rook (Corvus frugilegus), and the Jackdaw (Corvus monedula), are migratory in their habits, only visiting the countries of Southern Europe on the approach of winter. The Royston Crow (Corvus cornix) inhabits the lofty mountain regions of Europe, descending into the plains during winter. Finally, the Senegal Crow (C. senegalensis, Temm.) is exclusively confined to Africa.

The Magpies are distinguished from the Crows by their shorter wings, longer tail, and by their variegated plumage; but for this difference, they greatly resemble the previously described in appearance and habits. Like the Crows, they are omnivorous, but they generally avoid dead prey; they have the same desire, whether in the wild or domestic state, to store away provisions and hide glittering objects. Their instinctive habit of appropriating all sorts of plunder is one of the causes of their popularity. Every one has heard the true story on which the drama of The Maid and the Magpie is founded—how Ninette was accused and pronounced guilty of robbing her master, and when executed found to have been innocent, the true culprit being the pet Magpie of the house.

The Magpie is a bold, impudent bird, which is easily put to flight by man, but will fearlessly harass a dog, a fox, or any of the smaller birds of prey. Having caused one of these to retreat, it pursues it vigorously, rousing by its cries all the birds of its kind; and what with its own energy and the combined efforts of its kindred, it generally succeeds in utterly discomfiting the intruder. Its action is unceasing, its movement short and jerky; but it is heavy on the wing. It cries and chatters incessantly. Hence the proverb to "chatter like a Magpie." It builds its nest of withered shrubs, dry sticks, and sand, on the highest branch of some lofty tree, it is and equally remarkable for its form, size, and solidity. This fabric has many beginnings: the foundation of the last and permanent structure is laid with infinite precautions, to avert observation. This care is taken, according to M. Nordmann, in order to mislead those who are spies on its actions; for it is in this last nest that the female deposits her eggs. If this fact were clearly established, it would show a great amount of cunning in the bird.

The Magpie lays seven eggs, which the parent birds hatch with care, each bird sitting alternately. They show great attachment to their progeny, and continue to exercise their protection and solicitude until the young are well advanced towards maturity.

The Magpie is tamed with facility, and soon becomes familiar, assiduously following its master everywhere, and eagerly seeking his caresses, so that it is necessary sometimes to shut it up to get rid of its importunities. It readily learns to repeat a few words, "mag" being the favourite in its vocabulary. The ability to pronounce words is said to be increased by extending the soft fibrous slit which binds the lower part of the tongue to the palate. But, compared with the beautiful glossy bird of the thicket, the domesticated Magpie, draggled and mutilated, is a miserable-looking object.

The Common Magpie (Pica melanoleuca), Fig. 217, abounds in all parts of the world. Cultivated valleys with natural or artificial woodlands on their slopes; low ground diversified with fields; pastures and moors partially covered with plantations; fertile plains fenced in with wooded hedgerows, and studded with farm-houses and cottages, are the type of landscape they prefer. In spring plumage the Magpie is a fine bird, the feathers of the back being of velvety black, while the breast and a part of the wings are pure white.

The Jays (Corvus glandarius) have short bills, which are slightly notched at the tip; head rather large; feathers on the upper and anterior part of the head erectile when the bird is irritated; those feathers at the base of the upper mandible are stiff, with short barbs. It is not less shy than other members of the family, although it frequents gardens, where it feeds on beans and peas, of which it seems to be particularly fond. Its food, however, is not confined to fruit and vegetables, as it picks up worms, insects, the eggs of small birds, and crustacea, after the manner of Crows and Magpies. Naturally irascible and quarrelsome, they are nevertheless easily tamed when taken young, and soon learn to pronounce a few words. They abound in Europe and the Indies. The European Jay (Garrulus glandarius), Fig. 218, is a pretty bird of soft and blended plumage, the feathers of the fore part of the head elongated, oblong, and erectile: its general colour is a delicate brownish red tinged with grey, approaching to purple on the back. The most conspicuous trait of the plumage is the patch of ultramarine blue, banded with blackish blue, on the primary coverts.

The American variety of Jay is not quite as large as the European representative. Its plumage is less brilliant. In characteristics they are much alike, being equally mischievous and dreaded by the smaller feathered denizens at the period of nesting.

The Nut-cracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) is furnished with a long, strong, and straight bill, with which it can penetrate under the bark of trees when in search of insects, and open the cones of firs and pines, on the kernels of which it feeds; failing these, it eats the hazel-nut and wild fruit, from which circumstance its name is derived. They inhabit the mountain forests of Europe and Asia, building their nests in the trunks of trees, to which they are capable of clinging, but not of climbing.

The Rollers (Coracias garrula), Fig. 220, have in their general appearance and habits considerable resemblance to the Jays; but they differ from the beak being more robust, and the nostrils uncovered; they are also more timid, withdrawing into the thickest parts of the woods, which are their favourite haunts. When taken young from the nest it is tameable. Dr. Meyer, of Offenbach, and others, have succeeded in rearing them; but although they become so tame as to know those who attend to their wants, they never grow familiar. Their favourite food consists of insects and their larvÆ, worms, and the smaller reptiles; but in their absence they feed on berries, seeds, and certain roots.

The bill of the Roller is black towards the point, becoming brown at the base, with a few bristles; the irides are formed of yellow and brown circles; the head, neck, breast, and belly present various shades of bluish verditer, changing to a palish green; the plumage of the upper part of the body is a brilliant azure blue on the shoulders, and reddish brown on the back; rump feathers purplish. Wing primaries dark bluish black, lighter on the edge; tail feathers pale greenish blue. They abound in Europe, Africa, and Southern Asia. Although the natural habitat of the bird is oak and beech forests, M. Vieillot tells us that in Malta, where trees are scarce, the bird nests on the ground. In Barbary it has been observed to build on the banks of the rivers, and Pennant observes that where trees are wanting it builds its nest in clayey banks.

The Starlings (SturnidÆ) are characterised by a straight bill, depressed towards the point. They are remarkable for their vivacity, and grave, sombre plumage, lit up with brilliant metallic reflections of green and blue. They are sociable birds, living in numerous flocks, being, says Selby, "particularly abundant in the fenny parts of Leicestershire and Nottinghamshire, where they roost among the reeds. Before retiring to rest they perform numerous manoeuvres in the air, the whole colony frequently describing rapid counter-flights round a common centre. They will sometimes continue repeating the eccentric evolutions for half an hour before they finally settle for the night." Their favourite food is seeds and berries, and occasionally insects, worms, and small terrestrial mollusks. They choose for their nests well-protected places, such as the hollows of decaying trees, crevices of walls, the belfries of old churches, the ledges of roofs, and sometimes even the interior of pigeon-houses. The nest is formed of dry grass, in which it lays five light blue eggs. The Starling is accused of seeking the shelter of the dovecot for the purpose of sucking the inhabitants' eggs, but this is now found to be a calumnious error." They are diffused over all quarters of the globe. There are two species described among European birds—Sturnus vulgaris (the Common Starling), and Sturnus unicolor (the Sardinian Starling), which is black, and without spots, with the anterior feathers very long, tapering, and drooping from the base of the neck. It is found in Algeria among the rocks, where it builds. It passes the winter on the African coast of the Mediterranean, in company with the Common Starling. Its flesh is bitter, and consequently unpleasant to the taste, but it is sought after for its docility, and for the ease with which it is taught to speak.

The Baltimore Orioles (Xanthornis baltimorii, Sw.) have the bill broad at the base, nearly conical and pointed; the upper mandible has the dorsal line slightly arched, the ridge narrow, the sides flat and sloping at the base. They are chiefly American birds, and have considerable resemblance in form and habit to the European Starlings. Like them, they are sprightly, light, and very rapid on the wing, live together in large flocks throughout the year, feeding on seeds, berries, and especially insects, and frequently committing ravages on cultivated fields and orchards. Some of this genera exhibit remarkable industry and skill in the construction of their nests: the most ingenious represents a kind of purse, about a yard in length and a foot in diameter, the mouth or entrance being placed sometimes at the upper extremity, sometimes on the side. Naturalists have subdivided them into many smaller groups or genera, the most important being the one here described, and which may well be taken as an example. They are confined entirely to North America.

The Beef-eaters (Buphagus, Briss.), Fig. 223, owe their name to a singular habit they have of lighting on the backs of ruminating mammalia, and picking off the insects or extracting the larvÆ of Œstri which infest them—an operation which cattle submit to with great pleasure. Their food is not confined to the larvÆ of the Œstri; they feed also upon the wood-bug and locusts: hence they are likewise called Locust Hunters. They generally unite in small flocks of six or eight. They are very wild, and take flight with a sharp cry of alarm on any one approaching their haunts.

Among the congeners of the Beef-eater may be placed the Colius (Briss. and Linn.), which, like that bird, is an inhabitant of Africa. They are small, about the size and shape of the Yellow-hammer, and have a tuft on the head. They live in flocks of from twelve to twenty, which nest in common, and feed on fruit and young birds. According to Levaillant, they creep on the branches of trees, with the head downwards; and, strange to say, even sleep in this peculiar position, pressing one against the other. Their flesh is said to be very delicate.

The Crossbills (LoxiadÆ) are remarkable for the form of their bill, the mandibles being compressed and recurved, crossing each other in contrary directions, the terminations being hooked, forming an instrument admirably adapted for dividing the scales of fir-cones so as to disclose the germs, which are favourite portions of their food. They are sometimes found near orchards, feeding on the kernels of apples, which their bill readily cuts. They are said to commit great ravages on the fruits of Normandy when they pass through that province, which they annually do in great flocks. This family present this peculiarity, which is almost unique among birds—that they build their nests and lay at all seasons. The Crossbills haunt the wooded mountains of the North of Europe and America.

The Sparrow (Passer) is, perhaps, the best-characterised genus among the Passerine Conirostres. In it are included a great number of species with bills more or less thick at the base. Coming to the most remarkable of them, we have the Grosbeak (Fringilla coccothraustes, Temm.), Fig. 225, which is the type of the genus, for it is distinguished by the possession of a bill which is about three-quarters of an inch long, not less than half an inch in thickness at the base, and of immense strength when the size of the bird is considered, which scarcely exceeds that of the Thrush. It feeds on seeds, berries, and insects; the kernels of the hardest fruit cannot resist the powerful implement with which it is provided. Widely diffused throughout Europe, it is always met with in England during autumn, continuing with us till April, but it has not been recorded as breeding here. It is constantly found in France, where it appears in open country or woods, according to temperature. It is a quarrelsome and unsociable bird; and if placed in confinement with others, it will undoubtedly maltreat, and perhaps kill them.

The Americans possess many species of Fringilla, some of them having plumage of a fine rose colour.

The Bullfinches (Pyrrhula vulgaris, Gould), Fig. 226, are pretty little birds. Their cheeks, breast, and belly are a bright crimson, shaded with orange red; grey round the shoulders, with black head. They feed on various kinds of seeds or berries. They are easily tamed, being of a gentle, docile disposition. Their attachment to their master, and the ease with which they are taught to pipe, are their principal recommendations. In their natural state they construct their nest in the most inaccessible part of the thicket, usually in a black or white thorn bush. This is composed of small dry twigs, lined with fibrous roots.

The Siskin (Carduelis spinus, Yarrell), Fig. 227, may be mentioned among the numerous songsters which charm with their melodious notes. It is very pretty, although less richly coloured than the Goldfinch and others, its congeners. It is neat and compact in form; its bill resembles that of the Goldfinch, but is more compressed, the two mandibles in some specimens meeting only at the base. The plumage is soft, blended, and glossy.

The House Sparrow (Passer domesticus, Yarrell), Fig. 228, is among the most interesting of the PasserinÆ. It abounds all over Europe, from its most southern regions up to extreme north.

Oceans of ink have flowed to prove the ravages committed by Sparrows on the corn-fields, and to demonstrate that they should be exterminated by the farmer. But it is now generally agreed that the Sparrow is a benefactor, and belongs to the list of useful birds. Have we not seen in the Palatinate that after the Sparrow was proscribed and exterminated, the inhabitants were under the necessity of reimporting them in order to arrest the ravages of insects, which, in consequence of this bird's absence, had multiplied in a frightful manner?

The Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans, Yarrell), Fig. 229, is at the same time the most gentle and peaceful of birds, and one of the prettiest of European races. It has the back brown, the face red, with a bright yellow spot upon each cheek; its voice is full, sweet, and harmonious; it is exceedingly docile, easily tamed and raised as a cage-bird; in the aviary it soon becomes familiar, testifying great attachment to those who take charge of it; it readily learns to sing and go through various exercises, such as drawing up the vessel containing its food and drink, firing a miniature cannon, and other similar tricks.

The Linnets (Linota cannabina, Yarrell), Fig. 230, have considerable analogy to the Goldfinch. They are, like them, extremely sociable, except at the period of incubation; that duty over, the individuals begin to muster in small flocks towards the end of autumn, which increase as the winter advances, when they betake themselves to sheltered districts, and to the neighbourhood of villages and farm-houses in search of food. They associate with various species, such as the Mountain Linnet, Green Linnet, and other small birds. The nest of the Linnet is generally placed in a bush of furze or heath. It is a neat structure, formed externally of blades of grass intermingled with moss and wool, and lined with hair of various kinds; sometimes with thistle-down. The female lays from four to six eggs, of an oval form, colour bluish white, marked with distinct spots of brownish black, purplish grey, and reddish brown. Should the nest be destroyed during incubation, the pair will build again, and lay two or three sets of eggs if needful; but the male is said to take no part in the building or incubation, although he watches the female with great solicitude, supplying her with food during the process.

The Linnets feed principally on hemp and linseed, whence their popular name. In the winter season, in the absence of their favourite food, they attack the young buds of trees, and pick up the stray seeds about farm-yards. Their song in confinement is remarkably sweet, brilliant, and varied, but will not compare with the thrilling voice of the Blackbird or Thrush. The species are numerous, both in Europe and America, but there is a tendency to reduce their number, and to regard them as seasonal varieties of the species under consideration.

The Chaffinch (Fringilla coeleb, Linn.) Fig. 231, lives in flocks, except when breeding, like the Goldfinch and Linnets. But they differ from these members of the group in this—that their wing is less compact, and that they disperse themselves more in search of food than their congeners. Chaffinches are met with all over Europe, either as birds of passage or as permanent residents. They feed on various kinds of seeds and larvÆ of insects, the latter of which they obtain in the early mornings of summer and autumn by searching the lower surface of the leaves of oak, ash, and other trees. They inhabit indifferently the woods, gardens, or high mountain ridges. In the early days of spring the mellow, modulated "tweet, tweet, tweet" of the Chaffinch is exceedingly pleasant to hear; but its monotony is apt to fatigue, for its eternal refrain makes it seem an affectation of gaiety, whence probably the French proverb, Gai comme un pinson.

Fig. 231.—The Chaffinch (Fringilla, Gesner).