B. E. Fernow

A very good brief statement of present conditions of forestry in Switzerland with some historical references may be found in HandwÖrterbuch der Schweizerischen Volkswirthschaft, Berlin 1903, with two chapters by Dr. J. Coaz and Prof. C. Bourgeois.

F. FANKHAUSER, Geschichte des bernischen Forstwesens bis in die neuere Zeit, Bern 1893, gives insight into the developments in one of the cantons, beginning in 1304.

LANDOLT, Ueber die Geschichte der Waldungen und des Forstwesens, ZÜrich, 1858.

L’Évolution forestiÈre dans le canton de NeuchÂtel, Histoire-Statistique 1896.

BURRI, Die kulturgeschichtliche Entwicklung und wirthschaftliche Bedeutung des schweizerischen Waldbestands, Luzern 1898.

MEISTER, Die Stadtwaldungen von ZÜrich, 2d ed, 1903, exhibits on 225 pages in great detail the history and methods of management of this remarkable city forest of only about 3,000 acres.

Report of the British Foreign Office on Swiss Forest Laws, by CONWAY THORNTON, 1888, gives a very satisfactory exposÉ of the earlier legislation.

The interest which we have in the development of forestry in this small territory, of somewhat less than 16,000 square miles with over three million people, lies in the fact that it is a republic, or rather an aggregation of republics, the oldest in existence, and that, occupying an Alpine mountain country, it has developed a unique co-operative policy of forest protection. Being largely German by origin and sentiment, German influence on the development of forestry methods, outside of the administrative measures, has here been as strong as in Austria.

Switzerland did not exist as a power in name until the 17th century, and as a unit not until the reconstruction of 1815, and in its present settled condition and constitution not until 1848, although the nucleus of its political existence dates back at least 600 years, when, in 1291, the people of the three forest cantons, Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, formed their first league to resist encroachments on their rights by the church and by the feudal barons.

The country became settled, similarly to Germany, by Germans, and especially Burgundians, a free people; but when the control of the ObermÄrker over the free communities began to ripen into feudal superiority, it found resistance in the forest cantons, and these formed a league to fight the duke of Hapsburg, who partly as feudal lord, partly as Reichsvogt, the emperor’s representative, claimed obnoxious rights. Through admission of neighboring lands and cities to the league, the number of confederates had by the middle of the 14th century grown to eight, and when, by the battles of Sempach (1386) and NÆfels (1388), the Austrian Hapsburg supremacy had been permanently destroyed, the number of allies grew, and, by conquest and annexation and otherwise, their territory attained nearly the present size by the middle of the 15th century; the war against feudalism being the cause for this growth.

These various small republics, however, always formed a part of and owed allegiance to the German Empire, although they resisted the arms of the Emperor as Archduke of Austria—until, with the peace of 1499, this connection became entirely nominal. The final separation from the German empire and acknowledgement of independence was not pronounced until the peace of Westphalia, in 1648.

The league of cantons was only a very loose confederation without any central power, although a diet, to which each canton sent a delegate, had deliberative functions. Almost immediately after the alliance was formed it became fatally divided, especially when religious differences arose, and throughout the 16th and first half of the 17th century, continuous warfare existed between the different allies.

It must not, however, be understood that the peasants in the different cantons were entirely free from the ancient tyrannies. With the exception of the three forest cantons, which were truly democratic republics, the majority of the Swiss peasants, free in the eyes of the outside world, were mere serfs until the beginning of the 18th century, and secured their freedom only after many revolts.

After nearly 500 years of this loose federation, it was reserved to Napoleon to proclaim the Helvetian Republic one and indivisible, in 1798, after a short struggle of 74 days. This constitution fell with the fall of Napoleon, and gave place, in 1815, to a reorganized federation, in which the former sovereignty of each canton was re-established, the inviolability of the territory being guaranteed by the European powers. Finally in 1848, the seventh and last phase of reconstruction brought into existence the “Bund,” the Confederation of Switzerland, very much after the pattern of the United States, the constitution then adopted being once more revised in 1874.

The country is divided into 19 entire and 6 half states or cantons, which are a unit towards foreign powers, but have as much independence among themselves as each of the United States, each self-governing. A parliament (Bundesversammlung) of two chambers—the Nationalrath of 145 members corresponding to the House of Representatives, the Standesrath with 44 members, equivalent to the Senate—represent the interests of the whole federation. The administration of the cantons lies in the hands of the “great” and “small” councils, with an executive ministry of three members chosen for two years by the former council. The administration of the Bund is in the hands of the Bundesrath of 7 members, elected by the parliament, which also elects one of the members as president for one year. The Referendum, which, if 30,000 voters demand it within 3 months, requires reference of any law to the direct vote of the people is used as a check on legislation.

Although the larger part of the population of 3 million people is German, parts of Switzerland are French, and other parts Italian.

From this brief statement of the political development of the country it will appear that the development of forestry must also have varied.

1. Forest Conditions and Property Rights.

Topographic and soil conditions necessarily had also their influence on this development. In the plains, the plateau, and the hill country, the distinction of forest and field as it now exists had been in general attained in the 15th century, while in the mountain country, forest destruction began only in the 18th century and continued till the middle of the 19th century, stimulated by the development of the metal industry and the improvement in means of communication. The clearings made here were turned into pasture and, being overpastured, became waste lands. Thus, owing to topographic and soil conditions, a very uneven distribution of forest has resulted and we find a variation in forest area from 9% (Genf) to over 39% (in the Jura) of the total land area of the different cantons, the average being 20.6%, leaving out of consideration the area above timber limit (5,000 to 7,500 feet) and the waters and rocks below. This is less than in Germany and Austria, more than in France; but, if allowance is made for unproductive soil which is included in the German area statements, the percentage of forest area on productive soil would about equal that of Germany. In the last 25 years, the area has increased by 10 per cent. to 2,140,000 acres. This area is insufficient to supply the demand, from 15 to 25% of it being imported. In 1907, the imports had risen to nearly 25 million cubic feet, valued at $9 million.

Property rights developed at first similarly to those developed on German soil, except that, as we have seen, feudal conditions were not allowed to gain foothold to the same extent, and liberty from serfdom was secured earlier. In 1798, seigniorial rights had pretty nearly been extinguished. At present, ownership is still largely communal: nearly 67% are so owned, making this property of highest forest political importance; private owners hold only 28.5%, and the cantonal forests represent but 4.6%; the Bund as such owning none. It is also to be noted that communal property is constantly increasing by purchases from private holdings.

2. Development of Forest Policy.

No doubt, in some parts the first beginnings of care for forest property and forest use date back even to Roman times. Charlemagne had his forest officials here as elsewhere, and the number of ban forests seems to have been especially great, some 400 “bannbriefe,” documents establishing them, having been collected at Bern. The first forest ordinance regulating the use of a special forest area in Bern dates from 1304. But the first working plan seems to have been made for the city forest of ZÜrich, the so-called Sihlwald, in 1680-1697, and to this day this corporation property, with its intensive and most profitable management, is the pride of all Switzerland. The Bernese cantonal forests were first surveyed and placed under management from 1725 to 1739, and fully regulated by 1765.

An excellent forest code for BÂle was drawn up in 1755 by Bishop Joseph William; and in 1760, through the propaganda of the two scientific societies of Zurich and Bern, the teaching of forestry was begun, and forest organization in the two cantons secured in 1773 and 1786. The canton of Soleure (Solothurn) was the first to start a regular system of instruction, two citizens from each woodland district being given the opportunity to qualify themselves as foresters.

Each canton had, of course, its own laws protecting forest property against theft and fire; in the latter respect especially great care was exercised and burning of brush could only be done by permit and under a force of watchers.

The example of ZÜrich and Bern in organizing the management of their forest areas was followed more or less by other cantons, but a real serious movement is not discernible until the beginning of the 19th century, when with the impetus of modern life and trade the value of forest property increased, and most cantons issued regulative forest laws.

Forest ordinances had from time to time attempted to prevent the decrease of forest area by forbidding clearings, regulating pasture, and forbidding wood export to other villages or cantons, a local timber famine being dreaded. But, only when a severe flood, in 1830, had accentuated the protective value of forest cover, were the forest ordinances more strenuously enforced, and a general movement for better management began in the various cantons. This was partly signalized by sending young men to the forest schools of Germany.

Largely through the influence of a lively propaganda carried on by such men as Landolt and Coaz, backed by the Swiss forestry association, (founded in 1848), and through the increase of torrential floods, especially in 1834 and 1868, was it made clear that a central power would have to be clothed with authority to regulate the use at least of the alpine forest.

In 1857, the Bund ordered an investigation of the mountain forests in all parts; this was made by Landolt. But opposition by the cantons against restrictive measures prevented any legislative result. At the same time, an annual vote of $2,000 was made to the forestry association for reforestation and engineering works in the Alps. This grant was changed, in 1871, by voting an annual credit of $20,000 to be expended by the Bundesrath for similar purposes. The floods of 1868 brought such distress in certain cantons that contributions from all other parts were required to assist the flood sufferers; and $200,000 of the collections were appropriated for reforestation. Finally, in 1874, through the effort of the forestry association, it was determined to create a central bureau of forest inspection for the whole Bund in the Department of the Interior, and an article was inserted in the constitution declaring the superior right of oversight by the Federation over the water and forest police in the high Alps, at the same time proposing to aid in the engineering and reboisement work necessary to correct the torrents, and to take measures for the preservation of these works and forests.

The result was the installation of a federal forest inspector with one assistant, in 1875, and the enactment of a law, in 1876, which determined the area within which the federal government was to exercise supervision. The execution of the law was, however, left to the cantons—the jealousies of State rights as against federal rights being even more strongly developed in Switzerland than in the United States. Each canton proceeded in its own way, or neglected to proceed, and hence no uniform progress in applying the law was made. Indeed, not a single prescription of the law was applied within the prescribed time, although again and again extended, and even to-day some cantons have not yet complied. Stubborn opposition to the law continues even to date in some cantons.

Besides the unwillingness to submit to federal authority, the lack of technically trained foresters—their employment being a requirement of the law—and the objection to their employment by the cantons, who looked on them as disguised policemen, impeded the progress of the reform. Until 1884, each canton held its own examinations for forest officials, but in that year a standard was enacted for employment within the federally supervised territory.

The most frequent quarrel was as to what was to be considered forest and what pasture, so that finally as a compromise a classification between the two, called pasture woods, was introduced.

It will be noted that the federal surveillance was to extend only to the High Alps above a certain limiting line. This limitation was removed, in 1898, by resolution of the Council, and change of the constitution, by which the federal exercise of water and forest police was extended over the whole country, and a bill to carry this into effect was introduced. Finally, in 1902, a revised law was passed establishing fully the present Federal forest policy.

This law places the surveillance of all forest police in all forests of Switzerland in the Bund, the private forests as well as the public, i.e., State and communal or corporation forests. But, as there are distinctive differences in the manner of this surveillance, a differentiation of ownership conditions and forest conditions was to be made by the cantons within two years.

The forests are to be divided into protection and non-protection forests (by the cantons with sanction of the Bund), the former being such as are located at headwaters or furnish protection against snowslides, landslides and rockfalls, floods, and climatic damage. Most of this segregation had already been made and mapped in consequence of the law of 1876. In 1904, 71% of the total forest area had been classed as protective forest; nearly 80% of the communal, and over 50% of the private forest property.

All public forests are to be surveyed and their corners permanently marked by the cantons according to instructions by the Bund, the latter furnishing the needed triangulation survey, and inspecting and revising any older surveys free of charge.

The surveyed public forests are to be fully regulated according to a sustained yield management, under working plans made according to instructions by the Cantons, to be sanctioned by the Bundesrath. For the unsurveyed forest areas at least a provisional felling budget is to be determined, as nearly as possible representing the sustained yield. In protection forests the working plans must conform to the objects of these forests, and clearings in these are as a rule forbidden. The fellings are to be made under direct supervision of foresters, and, after being cut, the wood must be measured. Sale on the stump is forbidden, otherwise no interference in the management is intended.

Up to 1902, under the law of 1876, working plans for 540,000 acres had been made. In 1907, 90,000 acres of State forest, and over one million acres of corporation forests were under working plans.

For other than protection forests the law provides a number of restrictions, such as the following: Pasture woods may not be decreased in area except by permission of the cantons. Communal forests are not to be subdivided without consent of the cantonal government, except where two or more communities have joint ownership, nor are they to be sold except with such permission. Rights of user in public forests, especially in protection forests, may be forcibly extinguished by the cantonal government, but under appeal to the Bundesrath. Money equivalents are to be the rule, territorial equivalents to be given only by special permission. By 1902, over $300,000 had already been spent in extinguishing 2,842 different rights of user. The establishment of means of transportation, roads, etc., is encouraged by subventions from the Bund and in other ways.

Private forests as far as they fall under the classification of protection forests are subject to the same supervision and rules as the public forests as regards their survey, the prohibition of clearings except by permission of the Federal Government, of diminishing pasture woods, the extinguishment of rights of user, the prevention of damaging use, and assistance in establishing means of transportation. The cantonal government is obliged to insure the execution of these laws.

In addition, while the law encourages co-operative forest management of small holdings as larger units, the Bund paying for the cost of effecting such co-operation, it empowers the canton or the Bund to enforce such co-operative management of protection forest areas in specially endangered localities as at the headwaters of torrential streams. Otherwise, in the non-protective private forests, only the prohibition of clearing except by permission of the cantonal government, the obligation of reforesting felling areas within three years, and of maintaining existing pasture woods is ordered. Wherever on private properties conversion of forest into farm or pasture is permitted (after report of the forest administration of Canton or Bund) an equivalent reforestation of other parts may be ordered. Wherever by the reforestation of bare ground protective forest areas can be created, this may be ordered, the Federal or the Cantonal government contributing towards such work; or else, if the owner prefers, he may insist upon having his ground expropriated by the Canton or other public corporation; the federal government assisting in the first case to the extent of 30 to 50% of the cost, and in establishing new protection forests to the extent of 50 to 80%.

Before 1902, under the law of 1876, some 16,000 acres had been reforested and put in order at an expense of over one million dollars, the federal government contributing just about fifty per cent. In 1910, the area of planted protection forest had grown to 25,000 acres.

Besides the various restrictions with provisions of penalties for disobedience (from $1 to $100 for each transgression) and enforced execution by cantonal government, there are a number of directions in which the Federal Government makes contributions for the purpose of encouraging conservative management. For the salaries of the cantonal higher forest officials 20 to 35 per cent. are contributed, for the higher corporation and co-operative association officials 5 to 25 per cent., for the lower forest service 5 to 20 per cent. The Federation participates to the extent of one-third in the accident insurance of forest officers; a minimum salary of the officials and also their proper education being made conditions. To secure the latter the Federation pays for teachers and demonstration material under prescribed conditions.

In 1901, the federal contributions amounted to $100,000 in all. In 1903, the total appropriation was $126,000, namely, $9,000 for the Inspector-General’s office; $26,000 towards salaries of cantonal foresters; $80,000 towards reboisement; $8,000 towards survey. The cantonal governments contributed about the same amount outside of the cost of their forest administrations. It is estimated that the budget will have to be increased by $50,000 annually for some time to come. By 1910, the federal government had altogether contributed $2 million in the 35 years towards the execution of the law, outside its administrative office.

The organization which is to carry out this forest policy is still the one which originated with the law of 1876, somewhat modified by the law of 1892, namely, a forestry division in the Department of the Interior, with one Superior Forest Inspector and three assistants.

The Cantons have their own administrations, mostly under one forester of higher grade (called variously OberfÖrster, Forstinspektor, Forstmeister, Oberforstmeister). Bern has three co-ordinate Forstinspektor. The Cantons are or are to be districted into forest circles (Forstkreise), the subdivision to be approved by the Bundesrath, and some are further subdivided into ranges (UnterfÖrsterei). These forest districts, from 7,500 to 45,000 acres each, are to be managed by properly educated and paid foresters elected by the people. The eligibility depends upon an examination, the theoretical part of which is conducted by the forest school, the practical part, after a year’s practical work, is conducted by a commission of foresters, after completion of which the candidate becomes eligible; the election being for three years, and re-election being usual, unless there are good reasons against it.

In 1903, there were employed as administrators or managers 119 State (Cantonal) foresters and 33 Communal foresters, besides 11 Federal forest officials. In 1909, the total number had grown to 193, besides 1091 under-foresters, to whose salaries the Bund contributed. The State foresters are allowed to manage neighbouring communal properties.

3. Forestry Practice.

The timber forest is the most general form of silvicultural management. Selection forest with 150 to 200 year rotations is practised in the Alps and in the smaller private forest areas. Shelterwood system in compartments is in use in other parts (with a rotation of 60 to 80 years in the deciduous, and 80 to 120 years in conifer forest), supplanting largely the clearing and planting system which had found favor during the middle of last century.

In corporation forests, large areas are still under coppice with standards, but will probably soon be converted into timber forest, a policy favored by cantonal instructions. Pure coppice is only rarely met, usually confined to the overflow lands and small private holdings. In some of the public forests in the French territory it is practised with a “double rotation” (furetage) according to French pattern.

Artificial means to secure complete stands in natural regenerations is favored by the cantonal regulations, but thinning operations are still mostly neglected, except where local market for inferior material makes them advisable, which is mostly in the plains country, where the annual yield from thinnings may represent 30% of the total harvest yield.

Conversion from coppice and coppice with standards into timber forest, and change from clearing systems to natural regeneration (proper for mountain forest), and from pure to mixed forest have become general provisions of the working plans.

The average cut in the State forests during four years prior to 1893 was over 64 cub. ft. p. acre, and 42 cub. ft. for the corporation forests; an average for all the public forests of round 45 cub. ft.,—not a very good showing as yet. So far, the collection of material for yield tables and for a statement of increment and stock on hand in the country at large are still insufficient, although, in 1882, Prof. Landolt estimated the annual product at little less than 500 million cubic feet, or 50 cubic feet per acre.

Only for the intensively managed city forests of ZÜrich and the cantonal forests of Bern are more accurate data available. In the latter, the State forests yield 50 cubic feet in the plateau country, 73 cubic feet, in the middle country, and 76 cubic feet in the Jura, while the communal forests of that canton yield 15, 66 and 56 cubic feet respectively. Prices for wood are higher in the low country than the average in Germany and have been steadily rising for the last 40 years, especially for coniferous saw material which at present brings stumpage prices of 12 to 15 cents.

Owing to these high prices the gross yield of some Swiss forests is the largest known in Europe; the city forest of ZÜrich, exhibiting yields of $12, and the city forest of Aarau as much as $14 per acre on the average, although in the Alps forests the gross yield sinks to $3 and $4. The more intensively managed city forests mentioned spend on their management $6 and even $7 per acre, while most of the State forests keep their expenditures within $2.50 to $3.50, and in some places down to $1.50 per acre. The net yields vary therefore for the State and communal forests of the plateau country between $3 and $6.50 for some of the city forests from $6.50 to $8 and $9.

Switzerland has long ago ceased to produce its wood requirements, and imports from 8 to 9 million dollars annually of wood and wood manufactures.

4. Education and Literature.

For the education of the higher forest officials the Federal government instituted a two year course at the Polytechnicum at ZÜrich which was founded in 1885, the course being, in 1884, increased to three years. Three professors of forestry besides the faculty of the institution in fundamental and accessory branches are active here, the number of students averaging in the neighborhood of thirty-five.

Two examinations, a scientific and a practical one, the latter taken before a special commission, tests the eligibility of candidates, foreigners not excluded, for positions. For the education of the lower grade foresters, the Cantons themselves are responsible, the Bund only contributing by paying for teachers and demonstration material (about $1,250) to carry on cantonal or intercantonal forestry courses. The courses usually last from two weeks to two months, in succession or divided into spring and fall courses; they are mainly practical, and require candidates to be not less than 18 years of age and to possess a primary school education. Their number must be at least 15, and not more than 25. There have also been instituted specially conducted excursions and progressive underforesters’ courses, as well as additional scientific courses which the Bund subsidizes.

In connection with the ZÜrich school, forestry science and art are furthermore advanced by a well-endowed central Forest Experiment Station, with several substations and an annual budget of $10,000.

The greatest credit for the advancement of forestry and forest legislation is due to the Swiss Forestry Association (365 members in 1911), which was founded in 1843, meeting annually in various places, managed by a Committee of five elected for 3 years. This Association is subsidized by the Bund for its educational work. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fÜr das Forstwesen (begun 1850) is its organ, with Dr. Fankhauser as editor.

In 1898, an association of underforesters with a special organ, Der Forstwirth, came into existence (526 members in 1902), and several cantonal foresters’ associations are also active.

In the literature, which is largely in German, with some French and Italian volumes, notable works have appeared and real advances in forestry science especially with reference to management of mountain forests are due to Swiss writers.

In 1767, the SociÉtÉ d’Economie de Zurich published a foresters’ manual, and during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, Zschokke and Kasthofer developed silviculture in the Alps. Landolt, in 1860, published the results of his investigations (under the order of the Bund of 1857) into the forest conditions of the Alps, and contributed other volumes along similar lines.

He was succeeded by the now venerable Dr. J. Coaz as Inspector-General of the Bund (still active at 90 years of age), who also contributed to the science of mountain reboisement and in other directions. The work on the management of the City forest of ZÜrich by its long-time manager Meister is classic. Under the active direction of Anton BÜhler for many years, the publication of (now under Dr. Engler) Mittheilungen der eidgenÖssischen Centralanstalt fÜr das forstliche Versuchswesen, since 1891, have become important contributions to forestry science. In the direction of wood technology the name of L. Tetmajer, who is conducting timber tests, should be mentioned.