TRADITIONAL ornament is replete with forms and details that were originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment this was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their Æsthetic value.

Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in the Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory, sacrifice and religious observance.

Early Symbolic Ornament

It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus, which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were therefore esteemed.

These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line, are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the periodical inundation of the Nile.

The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.

The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it was the symbol of Resolution overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief was that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.

Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times, implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the general community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is to be deplored.

A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however is fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which represents the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the operation of venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the respective bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to blood-letting, the other for final bindings.

Customs

The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a survival—the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery—the latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that one can stand unprotected.

The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient times, if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it denoted a declaration of war; but if carried with the point behind, he came in friendship and peace.

There are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest, because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.

Origin of Mythology

Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to how they affected his personal comfort.

The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.

Nature Myths

Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of natural phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural. Inducing a belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in future existence. With this belief these aspects were eventually invested with personality.

An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to GÆa (Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.

A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest god Tani, who effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.

Light and Darkness

Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting. The Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all his children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the Grave), which three Time cannot consume.

An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except Zeus, for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.

On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being that of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being the sunrise.

Melanesian Myth

An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and his brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and setting forth in search, was successful in his quest. On his return he told his brothers to sit quite still, and when they felt something in their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep. When Night had lasted long enough, Qat took a slab of red obsidian and cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A tradition reminiscent of the “dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery, though the slab of red obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion.

Darkness as a Devouring Monster

In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun, e.g., the Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by Apollo, and in Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by darkness.

Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according to tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.

Season Myths

In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god was killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of Odin, everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was forbidden to injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was made into an arrow and shot at random. It effected his death, but by general request of the gods, he was restored to life.

Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the tradition of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her mother, Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of Orpheus and Eurydice.

Sun Myths

Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the Sun, or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.

Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing the morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.

Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his daily course.

Belief in Natural Phenomena

It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena, indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day. Thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and intelligence. We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the Sea treacherous, the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also customary to speak of the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of the sea and the “mouth” of a river or a cave.

Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,” “howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile” or the sky “threatens.”

These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and consciousness—a belief originally simple, but later becoming more complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in assigning different deities to the various elements.

Greek and Roman Deities

In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and six goddesses.

Greek.	Gods.	Roman.
Zeus.	The air or the living one (king)	Jupiter.
Apollon.	The Sun God.	Apollo.
Ares.	The War God.	Mars.
Hermes.	The Messenger.	Mercury.
Poseidon.	The Sea God.	Neptune.
Hephaistos.	The Smith.	Vulcan.
Goddesses.
Hera.	Queen.	Juno.
Demeter.	Tillage.	Ceres.
Artemis.	Moon-Hunting.	Diana.
Athene.	Wisdom.	Minerva.
Aphrodite.	Love and Beauty.	Venus.
Hestia.	Home life.	Vesta.

These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as follows:

Dion?sus.	The God of Wine.	Bacchus.
Eros.	The love lad.	Cupid.
Pluton.	God of the Inferno.	Pluto.
Kronos.	Time.	Saturn.

Scandinavian Mythology

In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or first created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold, nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet, from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants.

Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks; the brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a wall of defence against the Giants.

As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly hills between the Earth and the Rainbow.

The other gods or Asa were:

Thor.	God of Thunder and War.
Tyr.	God of Wisdom.
Baldur.	God of Sun.
Bragi.	God of Eloquence.
Vidar.	God of Silence.
Hodar.	The Blind.
Harnod.	The Messenger (divine intelligence)
Odur.
Loki.	God of Mischief.

All these were sons of Odin—the youngest being Vale. The mansion of Odin was Gladsheim—that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”

The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits of warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.

Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.

The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash tree Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one to the Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a fountain of wonderful virtue.

In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four stags; lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent NithhÖggr, while the squirrel RatatÖsker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife between the serpent and the eagle at the top.

Rising and Setting Symbolised

The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the setting.

Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the setting sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was dedicated, symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with two horns on a stem rising from her head.

The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of the Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the death of Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.

Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the Latmian Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.

Winds Personified

That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo or Boreas, son of AstrÆus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind, and lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were Notus, (South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), ArgestËs (North-East), Volturnus (South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).

The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away till only her voice remained.

Predestination

To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes would be attributed to the wrath of some deity, even though there was no personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief in predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of Orestes and Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return of Ulysses from Troy.

The Fates

The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were arbitrarily controlled by the ParcÆ or Fates, of which there were three—Clotho, who held the distaff—Lachesis, who spun the thread of life and Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was ended.

Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread between life and death.

The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm) indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind. Equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there were likewise three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood), Alectro (implacable), and MegÆra (disputatious).

Propitiation and Sacrifice

Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the natural outcome, and the various traditions are probably records of actual occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous conditions.

In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story of Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next twelve months. This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was deferred till she reached womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet arrived at Aulis on its way to Troy. Calchas declared this would be wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled, but Artemis interposed at the last moment by spiriting Iphigenia away from the altar and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.

A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the country and to appease the offended deity.

Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition of Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of Troy. The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed, and in consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.

Early Burial Customs

The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have souls.

It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their ministrations in the future life.

Taboo

The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the present day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which means “consecrated” or “set apart.”

It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty, whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.

Roman Lares

The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares were the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors. They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in the Lararium or shrine.

There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of streets and roads.

This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom modified in later times to the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone in public buildings.

Typical Legend

Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated traditions of demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil one, the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the structure.

Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other animal being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every instance greater than his vanity.

Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.

With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun and Moon, as it announced the hours.

The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius. Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should be sacrificed.

Early Spiritual Belief

Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of being—physical and spiritual.

In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to wake the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be unable to return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and other forms of tombs.

Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics

Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by devils which would be released by making a hole in the head. This treatment was apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive instruments and ignorance of anÆsthetics in that remote period it could hardly have been a pleasant experience.

The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life through the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a superstition that it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.

Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death chamber.

Prohibition

A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act or question.

The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife of Orpheus, who, killed on her wedding night, was redeemed on condition that Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world. Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.

The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by AËdonius, King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty. Orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled; therefore he lost her a second time.

The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar in idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and devotion.

As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in abandonment.

A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards. She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to visit her on that day.

Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.

Belief in Magical Qualities.

The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual world, but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus and Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of Iceland.

The Shirt of Nessus

More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition, Nessus the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by Hercules for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to Dejanira, assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love her exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on wearing it was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove the garment, he immolated himself on a funeral pyre.

Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by Queen Morgan la Fay.

Swords

Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its origin in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural origin; e.g., the sword of Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung or Gram (literally “grief”).

The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother smith, cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the cut was so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he attempted to move, when he fell in two pieces.

Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered the wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing the sheath, though he retained the sword.

Invulnerability

Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired. In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his mother Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he received his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.

Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that sprang from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by MedÆa with the Promethean unguent.

Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden leaf had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his death, being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.

This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be unprotected.

Belief in Numbers

Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic significance, e.g., “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of Beginning, Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of Trinity is Triad, and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.

That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to be under the rule of three gods—Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and Pluto (Hades). The first has three thunderbolts—Neptune, the Trident, and Pluto, Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.

Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.

Muses

The Muses were three times three as follows:

Calliope.	Epic Poetry.
Clio.	History.
Melpomene.	Tragedy.
Euterpe.	Lyric Poetry.
Urania.	Astronomy.
Terpsichore.	Dancing.
Polyhegmnia.	Religious service.
Erato.	Erotic Poetry—Geometry.
Thalia.	Comedy.

The world is compounded of three elements—Earth, Water and Air.

Man also is three—Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of Nature—Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.

There are three Christian Graces—Faith, Hope and Charity, and three enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.

The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World—the Winds—the Gospels—the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.

“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.

“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages in the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the sleepers of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the world.

Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc.

Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the Deities.

The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter; the Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was given to the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic games had a wreath of wild olive—of green parsley in the Nemean games, and of dried parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.

The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.

The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athene, was anciently a symbol of peace, an olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating a peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art is generally borne by the martyr—indicating victory over Death. The Lily—which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of Eve as she went forth from Paradise—is the emblem of Chastity, Innocence and Purity and is associated with representations of the Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten Lily, which it was customary to plant on graves, was once white, the tradition being that Persephone, daughter of Demeter, delighted to wander about the flowering meads of Sicily. One springtime she tripped over the meadows, wreathed her head with wild lilies and, throwing herself on the leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of the infernal regions, fell in love with her and carried her to the nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow.

In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and represents original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the Pomegranate (generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the symbol of the future life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are symbols of Christ, and the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.

The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion—the leaf symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords or whips; the column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails; the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx, the nimbus. The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.

Sacred Animals

Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag to Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to Isis; the eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the Lares; the horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to Minerva; the bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and the lion to Vulcan.

The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of the Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead, and so remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it receives life.

Evangelist Symbols

Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.

Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a man.

Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle—the former because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the Temple, and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the divinity of the Logos.

In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on fountains. The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual inundations of the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.

The Serpent

The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety, and, considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that Æsculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.

In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery dragon, raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.

The Dragon

The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief thereby slew a dragon.

The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also a poetic allusion to flood or inundation.

The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion to the power of the sun drying up the overflow, as also the deliverance of the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille (waterspout) which lived in the Seine.

Poetic License in Tradition

In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable occurrences have been handed down—in many cases completely transformed—by reason of this poetic license; e.g., the legend of Marsyas the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest of skill and being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.

The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was one thrown away by Athene, and, filled with the breath of that goddess, still discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the respective superiority of the instruments—the Dorian mode in the worship of Apollo employing the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in the worship of Cebele the flute, the reeds of which grew on the banks of the river Marsyas.

Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos, King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos. All but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly in sieves from a deep well.

The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the Argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The soil of Argos, being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.

The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog—both slain by Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two tribes.

Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains—a Greek myth based on the peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to two ships which acted as supporters.

A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited the wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to defray the cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.

Animals in Christian Art

The Dog in MediÆval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on monuments at the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and at the feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog appears on the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.

Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:

The	Ant.	Prudence.
”	Ape.	Malice, lust and cunning.
”	Ass.	Sobriety.
”	Asp.	Christ, or Christian Faith.
”	Bee.	Industry.
”	Camel.	Submission.
”	Cock.	Vigilance.
”	Fox.	Fraud and cunning.
”	Hog.	Impurity.
”	Lamb.	Innocence.
”	Leopard.	Sin.
”	Ox.	Pride.
”	Dragon, Serpent, Swine.	Satan and his crew.
”	Lamb.	-Symbols of Christ.
”	Pelican.
”	Unicorn.

The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus, appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted carrying a banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from its breast caught in a chalice.

The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement. It is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of its breast.

The Phoenix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred years, is the symbol of the Resurrection.

The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.

The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is occasionally suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in general shape.

Association of Human and Animal Qualities

Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the association of qualities—animal and human; and probably had their origin in an early belief in Totemism.

Totemism

Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous, resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer.

Cannibalism

The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.

The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage or mentality.

The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for protection or menace.

The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.

Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as hovering, the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element denotes Intelligence, and bird claws—Ferocity.

The Sphinx

The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position, is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally female) and symbolises Intelligence and Power.

The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different meaning, that of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the tradition of the Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her destruction was accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that had resulted fatally for his predecessors.

Assyrian Winged Monsters

The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the wings suggesting mobility or ever-present.

The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the ears.

The ChimerÆ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth flames. From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.

The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the head being the crater, the goat representing the mountain slopes, and the snake tail the morass at the foot.

The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and serpent tail, is a product of mediÆval times, probably suggested by the mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of a lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted issuing from the mouth.

Pegasus

Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the ChimerÆ, also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of poetic inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with the chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.

The Harpy

In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head, with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and ferocity, and was the personification of sudden events.

Sirens

Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers) of whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing. Failing to entrance Ulysses, they were doomed to destroy themselves.

The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion to their musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing harps or lutes.

The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean. The Dolphin has the same significance.

Pan

A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity displayed in creation and pervading all things.

Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.

The Nymphs

To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the forest trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.

Centaur

The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was an embodiment of the Thessalonian horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the Centaurs, and the LapithÆ, caused by the rudeness of the former when entertained as guests.

The Circle

The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that of Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its employment as the crown, orb and nimbus.

In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the Assyrian version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string substituted for the asps.

The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and Authority, not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated in pagan times.

It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of the three persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre, and sometimes is triangular in form.

The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or less ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is sometimes used to envelop the whole figure.

Symbols of the Trinity

Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.

The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning nor end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.

The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is preserved in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the tests of strength.

The Wand a Symbol of Authority

Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre, mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a form which is still retained in the official mace.

The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to reward or punish.

The Hand

The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome—two joined hands signifying concord.

Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending from the fingers in token of divine Grace.

The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of violence, and is so expressed on the shield of Ulster. An allusion to the tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land in Ireland, and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung it ashore.

The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in harmonious accord.

The Caduceus

The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which the serpents twined in peaceful amity.

The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is employed as an emblem of commerce.

Thyrsus

A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with ivy leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion to the Greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine) with the new wine to make it keep.

It has also been attributed to a strategy of war, when Bacchus made a successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with branches, as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone being suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities took place at night.

The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use, are sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.

The Cross

Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it symbolised the four cardinal points.

Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life generally.

There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice extends equally over the four quarters of the world.

The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm, sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith, Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all Christian virtues.

The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms, when it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops at Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.

The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter X, and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.

The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T—frequently used in Byzantine representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent was uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the sacrifice of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.

The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes the form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.

In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more suggestive of voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical suffering belongs to a later period.

It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St. Peter’s being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his execution.

The Pastoral Staff

The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a curving head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both being indicative of authority.

Symbols of Martyrdom

Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of Triumph over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of violent death, or by other implements of execution. These are represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint, as attributes and as a means of identification.

As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as the crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear, lantern, thirty pieces of silver, etc.

Symbolism of Gems, etc.

In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond—Invulnerable Faith, the Sardonyx—Power, the Sapphire—Hope, Gold represents Power or Glory, and Silver—Purity.

Black represents Grief or Death, Blue—Hope and Divine Contemplation, pale blue—Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene conscience, Green—Faith, Gladness, pale green—Baptism, Grey—Tribulation, Purple—Justice or Royalty, Red—Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet—Fervour, and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet—Penitence, and White—Purity, Temperance and Innocence.

Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a mere shell of the immortal soul. They are also used to indicate a pilgrim, by whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or form of spoon.

Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as ascending, the significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An earlier signification in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.

Masks

Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable to the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.

The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athene, was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the three Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of Athene. As a punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed to stone. A fate to which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her reflection in the burnished shield of Perseus.

The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival, was given by the infant Zeus to AlmathÆ in gratitude, with the promise that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired. The horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably accompanies the representations of Ceres.

Symbols of Time

Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter implement, though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of Death, which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe the sickle would be more appropriate.

Secular Symbols

Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.

The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the Bird of Wisdom.

Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements, sheaves of corn and fruit.

Trophies

Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.

Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which was emulated in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.

Heraldry

Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period of complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way difficult.

Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in chimney-pieces, is quite justified as indicative of ownership. Such details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass effect and variety.

Heraldry in Design

A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion gate at MycenÆ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French Renaissance.

It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers, especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to which there could be little objection if the employment of such details were justified by conditions.

Symbolism in Modern Art

Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and to invest modern art—wherever possible—with meaning.

Present Apathy

In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the past, as is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally appreciated, but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to Æsthetic environment; regarding art vaguely as the production and display of pictures and sculpture.

The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.

The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any progress must necessarily be very slow.