Amor Fenn

IN interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form of the framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval; and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails or ribs, while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.

Wall Treatment

In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily employed.

In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of pilasters—the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to the conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of pilasters in exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces between them are occupied by panels or other features.

Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the form of a Dado or surbase.

In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in

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No. 186. Wall Division.

A. & B. Pilaster Treatment.

C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.

some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.

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No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. M. Angelo.

In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.

Ceilings

When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some relation to the general construction, though in the past this rule has not always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden or plaster mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated. When mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.

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No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.

The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs geometrically arranged with paterÆ in between and fleur-de-lys details on the outer angles where the ribs met.

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No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence. Plan of general arrangement.

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No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.

Jacobean

In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These bands were disposed in various ways—sometimes intersecting at right angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.

If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.

Carolean and Georgian

In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or oval in form—the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes the angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably left plain.

Adam Ceilings

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No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall, Westmorland.

The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons—an arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended

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No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.

as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated with the characteristic fan detail.

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No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.

Vaults and Domes

In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size towards the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more properly speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as circles, unless the diameter be relatively small.

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No. 194. Adam Ceiling.

The Cove

In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is technically known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be decorated.

When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make a break in the frieze or cove.

It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in interior decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use it may be urged that, though considerations of actual weight and structure are not involved, yet the appearance of support has to be maintained, and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should realise the effect of stability.

The Frieze

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No. 198. Festoon Frieze. Continuous treatment with vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, Tivoli

In considering the decoration of the various parts, the two principal questions to be asked are—what is the purpose? and, what is the attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be said to be to bind, and the attitude of the Frieze is certainly a horizontal one—therefore the usual continuous treatment is justified. This is not the only way in which the Frieze can be treated, however, for the continuous horizontal treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the Doric order. The employment of Festoons with intermediate

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No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice, Sansovino.

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No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal division, resulting in panels. Villa Madama, Rome.

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No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial division.

pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle is involved in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be in alignment with adjacent and dominant details.

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No. 199. Frieze. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, Rome. Horizontal direction suggested by Gryffons, with vertical contrast by Candelabra.

All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as much interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary repetition.

Borders

Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations, where some license is permissible).

As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.

The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the length, while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles. This treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple forms.

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No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.

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No. 201. Interlacing Borders.

The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and then returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is alternately dispensed with.

Geometric Elements

The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character. The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various angles, or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a combination of straight lines and curves.

The Undulate Line

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No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric Curves.

Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and dark masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting straight lines. When segmental curves are employed either the chequered or interlacing effect may be obtained. Such patterns are essentially geometric and mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from either side of the border. This effect may be used with purely artificial detail, such as arises naturally from the spaces left, or with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident that the curve of the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres from which the arcs are struck.

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No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate Borders.

A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will be obtained by basing the stem upon

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No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.

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No. 205. 14th Century Textile composed of Undulate Borders arranged obliquely.

a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The latter device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded.

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No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century, composed of Borders.

Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional flowers or rosettes to break the monotony.

Repetition and Alternation

Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal character, and should consist of the repetition of units with no interest beyond that imparted by alternation.

The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit can be designed.

Treatment of Angles

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No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a Border.

A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal

The meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special treatment, and in those positions the detail should be compact and stronger in appearance than the general pattern. The simplest expedient is some form of patera or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border. The only forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles, are the undulating stem, the wave, and its square form the key or labyrinth; but even with these the proportion of width to height at times needs modification. If a common divisor is not possible, the difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal and letting the two sides meet in the centre of the border, so that any slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.

Pilaster Treatment

As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural requirements, and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis and vertical in direction.

When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be unequal in number—seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only one-third of the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the pilaster. In either case the general rule must be observed that the cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height.

Panelled Pilasters

Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about half the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably in pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped panel. Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this purpose the undulate stem should never be employed. Such detail requires a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster, but for the rest, it may consist of the same unit repeated, or of two alternating units.

In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and labels.

Capitals and Bases

The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a modified Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster has plain or decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a composite form in which the Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be used. The Ionic type would also be suitable; when the base of the pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus may be bound with cross ribbons.

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No. 208. Pilaster Treatment. French Renaissance.

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No. 209. Treatment of Pilaster Capital, with Vertical Emphasis.

Treatment of Panels

Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be considered—that is to say, the only question is, as to whether the surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane. In the decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane, since it is not desirable to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate diagonally or diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a ceiling, details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should grow towards the centre of the ceiling.

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No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth from Angle.

When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule; but if the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it should remain vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform to the width.

The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude, should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate terminals. If the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by its general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole surface may not be occupied.

Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the panel—certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration than on adornment in more subordinate positions.

The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be carefully considered.

No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central Feature based on Circle.

Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the position of the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of panels; greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs.

Juxtaposition

When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the other, they may exert influence on one another. For example, vertical features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent panel even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels are one above the other, central features should be avoided and the interest should be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the effect will be spotty and lacking in repose.

As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to which the more structural features must submit, there is open to them

a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first place, the panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on in mural decoration. If not treated pictorially, ornament of a traditional character, or designs derived more directly from natural forms can be made use of. In either case the ornament must complete itself within the given area.

The Growth Line

In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used, but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected growth. The disposition of leaves and other elements must also be characteristic, and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such forms as branches or leaves approach or cross, they should always do so at decided angles; their points or extremities should never be directly opposed to other details or to margins. The main growth should be clearly discernible, and the direction of the stem lines evident even when clothed with foliage.

Grouping and Massing

It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a design. In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped and massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious whole. Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in keeping with the general environment.

Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail, because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is obvious that the result will again be uniform—the only difference being that a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not undesirable in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.

Division of Area

The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent should be guided by the scale. One expedient in panel designing is to draw within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other shape, a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to that which is to be less conspicuous.

Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses, but the grouping of these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling growth lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.

Human and Animal Life

Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to composition, inasmuch that they

must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the boundaries or framing lines.

The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if consistency has to be observed.

The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the memorial of Mr. Dick.

Forms in the Round

Forms in the round—such that can be seen from any point of view—need special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical lines, any one of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite, would appear straight, whereas those approaching the profiles would appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature.

Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according to the profile curvature, and in decoration, for bodies that are bulbous in form, the foreshortening and its effect on details must be taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.

Supports and Balusters

Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts, and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously suggested. Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in wood, these forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case may be further decorated by carved work. In supports, the general tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to enhance the structural suggestion.

Standards

In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in interior fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate but will convey the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable, but when the standard is small the base can be circular, square or polygonal. The commonest form is a shaft, which is frequently tapered. This is supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base. At the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind. These different parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.

The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size, should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must also vary according to material.

Proportion

Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and diameter. Obvious repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided. The profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting harmony or contrast—the curves either approaching one another in a flexible line or being deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used at intervals to mark the various stages.

Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may take other forms—they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When unity of line is desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily into each other, even if broken at intervals by mouldings. In contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order to avoid indecision of form.

Positions for Decoration

The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by mouldings. The nature and direction of the decoration will be determined by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform curvature.

If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an oblique direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or twining round the shape.

In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with contrasting details between the panels. In order to give variety it may be desirable to combine two treatments—for instance, the horizontal band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves.

Working Drawings

For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel lines. It is obvious that except for profiles and general height, further details must be given for a working drawing.

The Segment or Stretch Out

In designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area. This is easily done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident, and the extreme width and circumference easily obtainable. If the object is not in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the diameter as expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is about one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of the diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete area on which detail has to be drawn.

Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone—that is, with straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must necessarily be different. In this case the lines of the sides should be extended till they intersect. This intersection forms a centre from which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base. The greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the arcs were struck. The result is a fan-shaped figure bounded by these outer lines and the two arcs. This figure gives the entire area of the surface of the truncated cone.

In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the surfaces can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of a unit repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be necessary to reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles are straight or tapered.

As the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter gives one-sixth.

In the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined, but it will be found that the height, when measured on the centre line, is less than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual height.

When the profiles are curved, the procedure is more complicated. As in the case of the cone shape, there is naturally some discrepancy between the height of the elevation and the profile, the actual dimension of which is affected by perspective (as also in plan curvature).

To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which will readily embrace the curvature.

If a division of a third or a sixth is required the diameter or half diameter can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing.

In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on the new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the parallels through.

The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give the required segment or area on the flat.

If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required, it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the division can be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been vertically divided as before, and the plan to be circular, a circle should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its circumference divided into the required number of parts. Lines are then drawn through to the centre. On the same centre other circles are struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals, and each identified with the corresponding number or letter. The heights are obtained as before, and the diameters of the variations in the curvature can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in succession.

In the case of the plan being other than circular, the same rules apply, but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual example.

Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable to employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on straight or slightly curved profiles.