THROUGH the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by phases of colour and form, varying in individuals according to temperament. The artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to natural faculty, though much may be acquired by intelligent study.

Perception

In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the eye. Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are essential, these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of paramount importance, and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the layman.

The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of subject and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical attitude than that of the artist, to whom—as a craftsman—the interest is often merely that of technique. These possibly represent the two extremes; the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the ideal without consideration of schools and isms.

Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined knowledge than from the actual visual aspect—are apt to take forms for granted, to assume, for example, that an object is round when it is really subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence, being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and direction. Many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a form as a right angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained, it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile combinations. It is the business of the teacher to train the vision so that the perceptive faculties are developed, and instil in the mind of the student that art is only concerned with appearance. Any fact not visually apparent should be ignored.

Accepted Conventions

The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience, forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations, and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and tradition. Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the surface by a line or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions. When shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid in the suggestion of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more lucid explanation, the work remains a convention if colour and atmosphere are rendered in monochrome.

It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright colour to the child and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations are only appreciated by comparatively few, the faculty for colour being extremely rare.

Influence of Fashion

The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average woman is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume certainly do not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour selection evidently the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of these colours being to excite the complementaries, is hardly favourable to the misguided wearer.

The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he is observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive dislike to anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take the initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex.

In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a lining for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may be influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and upholstery that is associated.

Harmonious Consistency

The colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the particular apartment. A sunny room should be treated differently to one with a north-east aspect, in which an appearance of warmth is desirable. Furniture, too, must be considered, reds being an unsuitable setting for oak as a rule, while mahogany is best associated with delicate greens and greys.

It is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should result in greater discrimination, and when the exercise consists of representing, it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and values. In original design the harmonious effect depends on the individual, who, in early attempts in colour, jumps at it, being unconscious of any guiding principle.

Natural Suggestion

It would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various natural aspects apparent to all, would surely influence selection; that it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation. Nature left alone never makes mistakes, and the colouring in flowers, land, sky, and water, the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena, is always harmonious if seen in original environment. When the balance and correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference, as is evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and horticulturist.

Colour Scheme

In decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one colour, and the contrast is merely that of tone; in other words, of lighter and darker phases. This method of colouring, which is quite suitable in some instances, is fairly safe, as the latitude for error is greatly reduced, but certainly is not courageous.

The problem arises, when the scheme involves the use of more than one colour, and the successful effect depends on judicious association and balance. The simple rule is never to display two only of the primary colours in juxtaposition, the presence of the third being essential to harmonious and satisfactory effect.

This, as a principle, forms the basis of much of the Moresque decoration, in which the details were picked out in blue and red of positive hues, and separated or outlined with gold.

More consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in request, and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative. As any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category, so those associated should be proportionately remote.

Respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small part of the surface, when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas. For such contingencies it is impossible to give exact formulÆ, as the pigments employed are not always constant. In the case of manufacturers of mixed paints, it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or season, and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint in subsequent mixing. The same applies where coloured papers and textiles are concerned; therefore judgment based on principle and experience can be the only guide.

The Primary colours are Red, Yellow and Blue; admixture of any two of these result in the Secondary colours which form the complementaries of the Primaries not involved. Thus blue and yellow combined result in green, which is the complementary of red, the complementary of yellow being purple, and that of blue, orange.

Intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably, and this variation should be proportional in other tints associated. Part of the charm of colour often depends on its complexity, in natural aspects due to atmosphere and varied phases of light. Pure colours should at times be avoided, that is, in the sense in which they are obtainable as pigments.

Early Training

Students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing before taking the study of design seriously, though probably part of the early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that direction. Undoubtedly, too, many enter on this phase of study without adequate preparation, having little appreciation of the underlying geometric construction, not only in design but in all form.

This, on investigation, can always be found, and either the general mass or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing the more intimate details. Correct approximation and placing are essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing. Too often through lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away, without the necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes.

Nature Study

The study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective designers. Subjects should be selected as season or opportunity permit, not merely from plant and floral growth, but any form available, animate or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental treatment.

Students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a stumbling-block, and in making their studies from nature cannot at first grasp the idea that selection should be exercised, and that only those phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded. Design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as pattern, and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should be dealt with. To perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both time and energy.

Aspect and Attitude

In too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is recorded, even without any regard to natural attitude. It may be a spray of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub, which is fixed up in any position that comes handy. For this there is no excuse; the spray should not only be placed consistently, but to the best advantage, the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of decorative development.

In design it is conditional that each individual detail should be primarily effective as a silhouette, surface interest being of secondary consideration.

Any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to satisfactorily comply with this condition, and this can easily be achieved by slightly shifting the point of view, as it is generally due to extreme foreshortening, or perspective that is confusing in appearance.

Points of study to be noted are the stem growth, junctions and angles of branching and articulation of leaves, the difference in development of leaves on main stem and those on flower stalk, and phases of the flowers. The drawing should be explanatory as far as possible, and any detail not quite clear should be expressed in separate lucid diagrams. When readily accessible, a series of studies should be made of the same plant or growth at differing stages, so as to form a record of the life history and development.

Care should be exercised to arrange the study with its explanatory details on the paper so as to satisfactorily occupy the area, not necessarily symmetrically, but with a view to desirable balance. Those with a natural faculty for design will probably do this instinctively, but the observance is important in developing the sense of arrangement.

Treatment

The drawings, which should be carefully detailed as to form, and intimate detail—in fact diagrammatic—can be in pencil or ink outline, light and shade is generally unimportant, though it may be lightly suggested.

With regard to colour, except in examples of special suggestion, little time need be wasted in still life renderings, though suggestive colour schemes may well be noted, but the drawing should at least be lightly tinted, this serving the double purpose of fixing the pencil lines, and defining the silhouette shapes.

These studies should form material for designs, not at first ambitious, but dealing with single leaves or flowers, and deriving from them details suitable to some form of decorative expression. These can be expressed in flat colour, with or without outline, or further ornamented by treatments suggestive of veining or striation. The blotching of some leaves during autumnal changes or any natural markings can often be turned to decorative account.

Drawings for Reproduction

Designs in some instances are in the form of perspective sketches, when it is desirable to convey an idea of their final appearance, but as a rule they are expressed as working drawings. This is imperative when the final production is the result of some mechanical production, as in book decoration and advertisement either black and white or in colour. Drawings for these are generally made larger and reduced to the required size by photography, and the blocks for printing made from the photograph.

There is no fixed rule as to size of drawing or reduction, but if the designs are drawn for one-third reduction there will be no material alteration in values when produced. But as the reduction is increased there is a proportionate risk in alteration of values. It is desirable to bear the proposed reduction in mind and to work more boldly or with thicker lines, otherwise the final effect may be thin and weak. In pen drawing, the lines should be clear and distinct whatever their thickness.

For designs in black and white, hot-pressed paper, Bristol board or smooth card are most suitable. The ink should be waterproof, as, if necessary, corrections with Chinese white can be more neatly made. Fine pens, except for very minute work, are not desirable, a Gillott’s ladies’ fine writing nib yielding as fine a line as is ordinarily required. For some classes of work a brush will be found more suitable, but care should be taken that all lines—whether thick or thin—are equally black.

Designs in colour for illustration or advertisement, which are to be reproduced by lithography or the three-colour process, can be on card or Whatman paper. The colours employed being transparent or opaque, whichever is more suitable to working and effect. Larger designs for advertisement, such as posters, are usually painted in tempera or opaque colour, and these should be applied as far as possible edge to edge, overpainting being avoided.

Opaque Colour

Care should be taken in mixing the colour to the required tint or shade. This requires some experience, as when white forms part of the mixture, the effect when dry is always lighter and colder than when the paint is in the fluid state; therefore allowance for this should be made. Opaque and tempera colours are not used so fluid as ordinary transparent water colours, and if applied too thin will fail to cover the surface solidly, or dry blotchy. Cartridge paper is not only good enough but more suitable for opaque colour than papers of better quality. Not merely is there no advantage in these, but the texture is an unnecessary embarrassment; moreover cartridge paper can be obtained in continuous form of good width.

Enlarging and Reducing

When drawings are enlarged or reduced, the linear dimensions and not those of the area are implied; thus one half means one half of both width and height—really one-fourth of the area. It is obvious that half the area would be a different proportion, and it is the proportion that is concerned.

Divisional measurement is rendered unnecessary by the diagonal method of proportion. Given a rectangular shape, which has to be reduced or enlarged, a diagonal line should be drawn, and prolonged if the latter, through opposite angles. A line parallel to either the vertical or horizontal can be drawn and returned at a right angle where it intersects the diagonal, and regardless of any dimensions, this will ensure the exact proportion of the original rectangle.

It is obvious that such designs as the foregoing should be complete, and both in drawing and colour a perfect anticipation of the painted result, owing nothing of their effect to mechanical reproduction.

Textiles

In designs for printed and woven fabrics, though the process of production varies, it is still necessary that the drawing be complete in the technical indications. Otherwise the reproduced version may suffer, or at least not fulfil the intention of the designer, and it follows that the drawings should be concise in every detail, even to the colour effect desired.

The drawings are usually to the full size in most printed fabrics. The design is not reproduced by any mechanical process, the blocks or rollers used in printing being cut by hand from a transferred tracing made from the original. Hence the importance of exactitude in joining and dimensions.

In some instances the whole of the pattern is cut in relief in the wood, but in others, lines are the result of narrow strips of ribbon-like brass embedded in the surface of the block or roller. These have their influence on the design, as in the former method of production the lines can vary in thickness and can be invested with greater interest than the employment of the wire can give. The metal results in a hard line of unvarying thinness.

Drawings for printed and woven fabrics are usually in opaque colour, and each tint employed should display a defined edge, graduated effects being only technically possible by means of tapering lines or stipple. Each distinct colour or tint involves separate printing; therefore as it is economically desirable to attain the best effect with the minimum cost, the utmost should be made of the colours employed.

Wallpapers

Wallpapers as a rule are printed in opaque colour, but in textiles, when the colour is transparent, more elaborate effects are possible by overprinting or super-imposing one colour on another. In woven fabrics similar effects can be obtained by judicious manipulation of the shuttles, but in all cases it should be borne in mind that a working drawing is necessary in which the details are clearly indicative of the final result.

Designs that have to be realised by some form of handicraft require the same care and concise regard to detail, though the drawings need not be so complete as to appearance, and may be to scale or drawn full size according to condition.

Architectural Drawings

Architectural drawings are drawn to scale, that of eight feet to one inch being general, with working drawings to a scale of half an inch to the foot accompanied by full-size details and profiles of mouldings. The drawings are geometric, that is in plan, elevation, and section, expressed in line and generally tinted. On plans and sections arbitrary colours are employed to indicate material, for instance, red denotes brick, purple-grey, stone, warm grey, cement, Prussian blue, iron or steel, and burnt sienna or Vandyke brown, wood.

These drawings convey little idea of the intended effect to the lay mind, and it is customary to suggest the eventual appearance by perspective views, but for practical reasons they constitute the most convenient form from which dimensions can be taken for working purposes.

Structural Design

In all structural design similar drawings are necessary, although sketch designs in perspective may be made to suggest effect, working drawings are imperative to the execution of the work. These, when reduced to the essential conditions of rendering, with explanatory details and sections, assume a very different aspect to the original sketch.

The success of the completed work depends upon skilful detailing, which must be thoroughly explicit to be of real value.

For convenience such working drawings are generally made on detail paper, which is usually obtainable in rolls sixty inches wide by twenty-five or fifty yards. This is sufficiently transparent to be employed for tracings, a great convenience when copies are in request, and is a good surface for pen, pencil or chalk, though somewhat thin for colour.

Designs can be sketched in charcoal, and the desired lines drawn in ink. When dry the charcoal lines can be obliterated by rubbing with a leather or soft cloth, by which the charcoal is distributed, forming a tone over the whole surface. This is easily removable by india-rubber, and excellent relief effects can be obtained by judiciously taking out lights and strengthening shadows, though to avoid any possible misunderstanding it is usual to also indicate the relief by sections drawn through the details.

Lucid Arrangement

In geometric and working drawings when plans and sections are incidental to lucid explanation, these latter should appear relatively; that is, the plan should be in alignment with the elevation, etc. Statements and directions as to procedure are often necessary, and these, placed with judgment and in good lettering, are valuable in balancing the drawing. Not that this has any effect on the work, but because it has a good influence on the designer.

Possibly the story of Giotto and the circle that figured in the early school primers is responsible for the very general impression that the use of mechanical instruments is inartistic. Another characteristic of the young beginner is a total disregard for anything in the nature of exact dimension.

No useful purpose is served, and much valuable time is wasted, in attempts to accomplish freehand, forms that may be perfectly achieved by proper implements. Familiarity with the use of these will be found of great assistance in all design in which geometric construction, apparent or not, plays so large a part.

Of this the average beginner has little conception, and though Geometry has been a subject of their early training, they seldom have any clear idea as to its employment in design. Except in few instances, they are unpractised in the use of geometrical instruments, and at times oblivious that these serve any practical purpose.

Mathematical Equipment

In design, where accuracy is of paramount importance, a reasonable equipment is imperative. Drawing boards vary in size, but for most ordinary work the antiquarian will suffice; the best type being that commonly used in engineering and architectural offices, with battens for adjustment and invariably a steel guide for the T square.

Large T squares are more reliable on account of the wider head, the better sort being in mahogany with bevelled ebony edge. When accuracy is essential, the T square should only be employed for horizontal lines, those in a vertical direction being attained by the use of the set square, when the right angle can be assured by contact of the base of the latter on the edge of the T square.

Set squares indispensable for ordinary work are those of the angles of 45 degrees and 60 degrees. They should be large, about twelve inch, and in celluloid, which, being translucent, tends to greater accuracy.

Bevelled set squares, usually in mahogany with ebony edge, are desirable when the ruling pen is used, and should be placed with the bevelled side to the surface of drawing as a precaution against blotting through the ink running off the edge from the pen. For the same reason the edge of the T square should be slightly tilted, so as not to be in contact with the drawing when ruling lines with the pen.

The mathematical instruments in common request are dividers, indispensable in scale drawing. For delicate work spring dividers with needle points ensure greater accuracy. The bow or pencil compass, large with extending bar, and small; with spring bows, for minute work. For very large circles the beam compass is employed, consisting of a wood bar with two sliding clamps fitted respectively with point, and either pencil or pen which can be adjusted to the required radius.

For ink drawings the bow or pen compass is employed for circular curves; spring bows for extremely small details, medium for general purposes. The large compass in the ordinary set is provided with both pen and pencil joints, which can be adjusted as required.

Use of the Ruling Pen

For straight lines the ruling pen should be employed. In this implement, the nibs, as in the pen compasses are provided with a screw, by means of which the pen can be adjusted to form thick or thin lines as required. Care should be taken in the adjustment; for the thinnest line the points should only be in contact. If screwed too tightly the nibs may be bent and would have to be re-set.

There is a limit to the thickness of line in individual ruling pens, which are made in varying sizes for fine or bold work. Bow and ruling pens should never be filled to the full capacity, as they are then liable to flood and blot the work. It is better also to charge the pen with the filler, which is usually provided with the ordinary liquid ink, or a brush; otherwise blotting may result. If the pen is filled by dipping, the nibs should be wiped dry on each occasion on the external faces.

In use the ruling pen should be held as vertical as possible, with the nibs perfectly parallel to the edge of T or set square, any divergence from the vertical might result in a curve instead of the straight line required. If the nibs are at an angle with the ruling edge, the ink will not flow freely, and there is also a tendency to cut the surface.

Proportional Compass

Another instrument of great use, though not so commonly in request, is the proportional compass, by means of which drawings are enlarged or reduced. It consists of two shanks furnished with points at each end, the shanks being slotted out centrally to form a slide. The adjustment is accomplished by a set screw which also forms a pivot, which, set at any of the marked divisions, assures the given proportion.

Tracings

Tracing paper is largely in request, not only as a means of repeating details and units by transferring, but when copies of a drawing are required. It can be obtained in rolls varying in width, forty inch being generally useful, and in different surfaces, rough and smooth, the former being good for pencil work—the smooth being more suitable for ink tracings.

When tracings of a more durable character are required they are made on linen, which for this purpose has a highly glazed surface on which the ink will not always run equally. This can be rectified by lightly rubbing the surface with French chalk and by adding a little ox gall to the ink. The latter is a useful agent in counteracting any greasiness of surface and is often necessary in colour work.

Conclusion

The stimulus of competition is always healthy, and the necessity to attract has resulted generally in raising the standard, notably in forms of advertisement. The designer has not only to keep pace with modern conditions, but in some phases of work has also to anticipate future demand.

Students are too often infected with the phase of the moment, or by the work of some distinguished exponent. This is quite natural, and to some extent such emulation may be condoned, but if it becomes an obsession it is fatal to the development of individualism. It is desirable, indeed commendable, for students to be interested in contemporaneous work; but they should realise that personality will never be achieved by imitation, though emulation and experiment are legitimate methods of training.

Art training is largely in that of technique, consisting chiefly of the handling of the tools and mediums involved. It is obvious that when this technique is successfully acquired it implies a high standard of craftsmanship. This is essential, but personality is of greater importance and its development depends upon the individual. Some who have nothing personal to express may be capable of attaining great facility in various mediums, but stop at the imitative, and though this may be lucrative, no great artistic distinction is possible.

If personality is latent it will develop quite unconsciously, and the endeavour of the student should be to see, understand and express the subject of study or idea with sincerity, regardless of any current phase however interesting. In this way only can be attained the personal attitude and expression that really constitutes the interest in all forms of art.