IT is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of elements common to all than with invention pure and simple.

Human Limitations

To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for instance, the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of human and bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.

The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of personality, in other words, the individual point of view of the artist; which is more or less interesting, as it is more or less personal in idea and expression.

In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible source.

Design is distinct from any phase of realistic expression inasmuch as the subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally visualised.

“Inspiration”

Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration, but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to the individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought may be accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.

It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of inspiration with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in the belief that it “does not feel like it.”

The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and conditions, and of evolving some desirable solution.

Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires a facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a fallacy, as though many designs are for convenience expressed through this medium, any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the technical details of the final method of production, to be a practical design.

Process and Material

Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this technical knowledge it is impossible to take full advantage of the method of production either in the direction of economy or effect.

Other considerations are utilitarian and Æsthetic, the former having regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.

That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian, but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the Æsthetic point of view.

An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed by popular or individual demand.

Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to work to prescribed conditions.

This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more restricted.

It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony with existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive.

Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far as possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of their best. Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall not be done would undoubtedly result in failure.

To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties; and, in addition, the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.

Early Training

The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary student, the answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly students can be directed through a course of training that will enable them to produce at least work that is good, though it may not be personally distinctive.

An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural faculty.

Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look after itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim.

Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.

The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.

Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in failing to develop the personality, which is the sole interest, and is the teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.

Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and possessed of method.

Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has little knowledge of Art, and still less of design.

Art and Existence

That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be possible—if not very interesting—if regulated only by considerations of utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the gratification of merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state Art becomes one of the mind’s necessities.

The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,” and that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”

Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”

Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in that which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory and music.

The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?

What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the actual field for artistic expression.

It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.

“Natural Taste”

There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas the individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary affairs of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.

It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be good or bad.

Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.

Commercial Production

It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result of commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the public is restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes it his business to study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as this is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised.

The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and purpose, or perception based on artistic education.

“Ornaments”

This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to the class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no possible utility and intended solely for display.

It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the display of old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance, may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils, strictly utilitarian, were incidentally made beautiful.

Modern furniture frequently offends—being too often constructed with less regard to utility than to external effect.

The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the modern house—the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed, as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent the reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease may have much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent on frequent change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture and other personal belongings.

Modern Development

The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting in the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a change in domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at hotels and restaurants.

This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less interest in personal possession and environment; still further fostered by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in frequent change of style and locality.

Public Apathy

Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal indulgence; still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and requirements.

The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.

It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which, notwithstanding all endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state, sensitive to scratches and other damage. This difficulty may have suggested intentionally covering the surface with such scratches, etc., more or less arranged, thus making a virtue of necessity.

Elementary Pattern

Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result of pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in plastering as trowel point.

Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative of any known form; and it is not till a much later period that any indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type.

Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.

The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament was presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.

Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers of clay.

There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may well be considered the first impressionists.

Early Impressionism

They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of characteristics.

The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form, and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and working condition is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast with the earlier ornament, which is not in any way imitative of, or traceable to, any natural suggestion.

On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such as directly arise from the process and material involved.

The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the third—conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of cultured appreciation of process and Æsthetic considerations.

Personal Production

It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported by his craft.

Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated

the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill, would be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the professional worker and artist.

To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early social conditions.

The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and herds; such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.

The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment.

Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.

The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the fortress or castle for the protection of the town, and the more substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture.

With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and the simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.

Early Social Conditions

The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on the various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of officials for effective collection and distribution. Social distinctions would be drawn between the various classes, governing, administrative, military, and non-combatant; the latter would furnish the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen, agriculturists and traders.

In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility, priestly and legal classes.

Influence

Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later was subjected to various influences—Political, Religious, and Commercial.

Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or interchange would result, or by conquest.

Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that of the Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman influence after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.

The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in A.D. 726 in response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the Byzantine art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine district.

Commercial Intercourse.

The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary to study market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste, thereby resulting in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source.

Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian weavers, who, contrary to their local traditions, introduced heraldry into the patterns of their fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders.

The Phoenicians were the early merchant adventurers, and traded in work of Tyrian and Sidonian production with remote parts of Europe, taking back local produce in exchange. Later on, through the medium of the Hanseatic league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron fire-backs from Sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations; of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement were considered and embodied.

Effect on Design

Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art production was further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.

When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged as a professional.

In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance.

Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical side of the craft.

Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer of the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of constructive detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so much of this work is still in existence.

Ethical Side of Art

Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare, for instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of meaning and insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the license of the Rococo.

Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of, with resultant loss of character and interest.

The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the experience and point of view of past exploiters.

Desire for Novelty

The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition a little further if possible.

Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others, and whether it is worth doing.

“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time; but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new phases, have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the forgotten. In the meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes progressing, now and then retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.

History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities and conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic development.