  METAL, MOULDS, AND THE METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. Having now passed in review the various forms of weapons, tools, ornaments, and vessels belonging to the Bronze Period of this country, it will be well to consider the nature of the metal of which they are formed, and the various processes by which they were produced and finished ready for use. Some of these processes, as for instance the hammering out of the cutting-edges of tools and weapons, and the production of ornamental designs by means of the hammer and punch, have already been mentioned, and need be but cursorily noticed. The main process, indeed, of which this chapter will treat is that of casting. Bronze, as already stated, is an alloy of copper and tin, and therefore distinct from brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc. Many varieties of bronze—or, as it is now more commonly called, gun-metal—are in use at the present day; and one remarkable feature in bronze is that the admixture with copper of the much softer metal tin, in varying proportions, produces an alloy in most if not all cases harder than the original copper; and when the tin is much in excess, as in the metal used for the specula of telescopes, so much harder that, À priori, such a result of the mixture of two soft metals would have been thought impossible. The following table compiled from a paper in Design and Work, reprinted in Martineau and Smith’s Hardware Trade Journal,
Lord Rosse, however, in casting specula, preferred using copper and tin in their atomic proportions, or 68·21 per cent. of copper and 31·79 of tin. The addition of tin, while increasing the hardness of copper, also renders it more fusible. In small proportions it but little affects the colour of the copper, Besides the superiority of one alloy over another, it appears probable that the method of treatment of the metal may somewhat affect its properties. M. Tresca
was superior in all respects to either the common gun-metal A or the phosphor-bronze B cast at Bourges, the constituents of which were as follows:—
The results of both ancient and modern experience as to the proportions in which copper and tin should be mixed, in order to produce a tough and hard though not brittle metal, appear to be nearly the same; and nine parts of copper to one part of tin may be regarded as the constituents of the most serviceable bronze or gun-metal. In the following table I have given the results of some of the more recent analyses of bronze antiquities found in the United Kingdom, and have omitted the early analyses of Dr. Pearson It will be seen, for instance, that in the flat and flanged celts, the palstaves, and even spear-heads, lead, if present at all, exists in but very minute quantity; whereas in the socketed celts and swords, which are probably later forms, and especially in those from Ireland, this metal occurs in several cases in considerable proportions. This prevalence of lead is very remarkable in some of the small socketed celts found in very large numbers in Brittany, which from their diminutive size have been regarded as “votive” rather than as destined for actual use. In some of these Professor Pelligot This variation was no doubt partly due to occasional scarcity of tin; but, as Dr. W. K. Sullivan has pointed out, With regard to the early sources of the copper and tin used in this country, and in general through Western Europe, it will not be in my power to add much to what has already been published on this subject. It seems probable that gold, which commonly occurs native and brilliant, was the first metal that attracted the attention of mankind. The next metal to be discovered would, in all probability, be copper, which also occurs native, and has many points of resemblance with gold. The use of this metal, as I have observed in the Introductory Chapter, no doubt originated in some part of the world where, as on the shore of Lake Superior, it occurs in a pure metallic state. When once it was discovered that copper was fusible by heat, the production of the metal from some of the more metallic-looking ores, such as copper pyrites, would follow; and in due time, either from association with the metal, or from their colour and weight, some of the other ores, both sulphuretted and non-sulphuretted, would become known. When once the production of copper in this manner was effected, it is probable that the ores of other metals, such as tin, would also become known, and that tin ores would either Native copper and many of its ores occur in Hungary, Norway, Sweden, Saxony, and Cornwall; but copper pyrites is far more generally distributed, and is found in most countries of the world. So far, therefore, as the existence of this metal is concerned, there was no necessity for the Britons in CÆsar’s time to make use of imported bronze, especially as tin was found in abundance in Cornwall, and long before CÆsar’s time was exported in considerable quantities to the Continent. And yet his account may to some extent be true, as a socketed celt of what is almost undoubtedly Breton manufacture has been found near Weymouth, Copper and its ores are abundant in Ireland, especially copper pyrites and gray copper. Although tin was formerly found in abundance in some parts of Spain, and also in less quantity in Brittany, The argument, however, that the Phoenician bronze would have been lead-bronze, because the Phoenicians derived their civilisation and arts from Egypt, and had continual intercourse with that country, where lead-bronze was early known, appears to me wanting in cogency. For though the Egyptians may have used The presence in greater or less proportions of other metals than copper and tin in bronze antiquities may eventually lead to the recognition of the sources from which in each country the principal supplies of metal were obtained. Professor Sullivan, in the book already cited, arrives at the following among other conclusions from the chemical facts at his command:— 1. The northern nations in ancient times used only true bronzes—those formed of copper and tin—of greater or lesser purity according to the kind of ores used. 2. Many of these bronzes contain small quantities of lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt, iron, and silver, derived from the copper from which the bronze was made. 3. Though some bronzes may have been produced directly by melting a mixture of copper and tin ores, the usual mode of making them was by treating fused crude copper with tin-stone. 4. The copper of the ancient bronzes seems to have been smelted in many different localities. Some analyses of bronze antiquities found in other countries are given in the works indicated below, ANALYSES OF BRONZE ANTIQUITIES. * In this case oxygen to the extent of 3·83 was present. The bronze had become so friable as to be easily pulverised in a mortar. Mr. J. Arthur Phillips writes about it as follows:—“When a freshly-broken fragment of it is examined under a low magnifying power, it is seen to consist of a metallic net-work enclosing distinct and perfectly formed crystals of cuprite, surrounded by a greyish white substance which is chiefly bioxide of tin. In this alloy the nickel, silver, and iron are evidently accidental impurities, but the lead is no doubt an intentional ingredient.” The specific gravity after pulverization is about 7·26 only. ** Specific gravity 8·59. I have here given most of the trustworthy analyses already published, and have only added two new analyses kindly made for me by Mr. J. A. Phillips, F.G.S., of a socketed celt from Yorkshire and of a small dagger from Newton, near Cambridge. Those who wish for detailed information as to the composition of the bronze antiquities found in other countries are referred to De Fellenberg’s essays and to Von Bibra’s comprehensive work. The copper which was used by the bronze-founders of old times appears to have been smelted from the ore and run into a shallow concave mould open at top, in which the metal assumed the form of a circular cake, convex below and flat above; but before becoming sufficiently cold to be quite set into tough metal, these cakes seem as a rule to have been disturbed and broken up into numerous pieces, better adapted for re-melting than the whole cakes would have been. This method of breaking up the solid cakes while hot saved also an infinity of labour; as to cut such masses into small pieces when cold would, even with modern appliances, be a difficult task; and with only bronze and stone tools at command would have been nearly impossible. Many of the cakes are, however, interspersed with cavities formed in the metal, and in some cases there seems reason to think that this may have been produced intentionally, so as to render the breaking of the cakes even when cold more readily practicable. Many of the blocks of metal cast in rough moulds, and known by Italian antiquaries as Æs signatum, have a similar broken appearance at the ends. Professor Chierici Some pieces of metal which have been regarded as ingots, and which not improbably are really such, have the form of a double-ended axe with a very small shaft hole. They have been discovered with several of the bronze-founders’ hoards in France. Dr. V. Gross, of Neuveville, has a fine example of this kind found at Locras, in the Lac de Bienne. Rough lumps of metal have frequently been found with deposits of bronze implements in Britain, these latter being sometimes in a worn-out or broken condition, and apparently brought together as old metal for re-casting. In other deposits the instruments seem new and ready for use, or again they are in an unfinished condition. All the circumstances of these discoveries, however, go to prove that they are in fact the stock-in-trade of the ancient bronze-founders. The jets or waste pieces from the castings, of which I shall subsequently have to speak, are often found mixed with the rude lumps. These lumps have usually the appearance of pure copper, and in many cases have proved to be so on analysis. Some copper cakes appear, however, to belong to Roman times. They differ in shape from those already described, in being of nearly even thickness, but with the edge inclined as if they had been cast in a small frying-pan. They are from 10 to 13 inches in diameter and about 2 inches thick; and on more than one found in Anglesea Turning now to the instances of lumps of rough metal being found with bronze weapons and tools, the following may be cited, though other instances are given in the tables at page 462:— Lanant, Cornwall, Kenidjack Cliff, Cornwall, St. Hilary, Cornwall, Near Worthing, Sussex, several lumps of metal, with palstaves and socketed celts. Beachey Head, Wick Park, Stogursey, Somerset, Kingston Hill, Surrey, Beddington, Surrey, Wickham Park, Croydon, Surrey, Danesbury, near Welwyn, Herts, Cumberlow, Herts, Westwick Row, Hemel Hempsted, Romford, Essex, Fifield, Essex, High Roding, Essex, Kensington, Sittingbourne, Kent, Meldreth, Cambs, Carlton Rode, Norfolk, Helsdon Hall, Norwich, Earsley Common, York, Martlesham, Suffolk, West Halton, Lincolnshire, Roseberry Topping, Yorkshire, In the Heathery Burn Cave, Durham, and in the Guilsfield find, there was in each case at least one lump of metal. Besides the cakes of copper, bars of that metal appear to have been hammered into an oblong form, and then cut into lengths of from 4 to 5 inches, weighing each about ¼ lb., and in that state to have served as the raw material for the bronze-founders. Thirteen of these short bars were found at Therfield, near Royston, Herts, In Scotland some “lumps of brass” were found with the swords, spears, &c., in Duddingston Loch. Although, as already observed, Spain may have been the principal Western source of tin in early times, and possibly Malacca
This, he points out, is a more fusible alloy than the ordinary plumbers’ solder, which consists of 1 of tin to 2 of lead, and fuses at 441 degrees Fahr., as it contains nearly 4 of tin to 1 of lead, and would fuse at 365 degrees. Whether this bar was intended for use as solder, or represents a base tin exported to Scotland from the tin-producing districts, is an interesting question. Professor Daniel Wilson Some fragments of pure metallic tin have from time to time been found on the Continent. A small hammered bar found at the Lake-dwelling of Estavayer, Besides being found in Cornwall, tin occurs in France, This metal is said by Dionysius Fig. 514.—Falmouth. 1/12 A large ingot of tin, in shape like the letter H, was dredged up in Falmouth harbour. What appear to be ingots of copper rather than votive or mortuary tablets have been found in Sardinia, As to the method of melting the metal but little is known. It seems probable, however, that the crucibles employed must have been vessels of burnt clay provided with handles for moving them; while for pouring out the metal small ladles of earthenware may have been used. At Robenhausen, The methods of casting were various. Objects were cast— 1. In a single mould formed of loam, sand, stone, or metal, the upper surface of the casting exhibiting the flat surface of the molten metal, which was left open to the air. In the case of loam or sand castings a pattern or model would be used, which might be an object already in use, or made of the desired form in wood or other soft substance. 2. In double moulds of similar materials. The castings produced in this manner when in unfinished condition show the joints of the moulds. When sand was employed a frame or flask of some kind must have been used to retain the material in place when the upper half of the mould was lifted off the pattern. The loam moulds were probably burnt hard before being used. In many cases cores for producing hollows in the casting were employed in conjunction with these moulds. 3. In what may be termed solid moulds. For this process the model was made of wax, wood, or some combustible material which was encased in a mass of loam, possibly mixed with cow-dung or vegetable matter, which on exposure to heat left the loam or clay in a porous condition. This exposure to fire also burnt out the wax or wood model and left a cavity for the reception of the metal, which was probably poured in while the mould was still hot. Sir John Lubbock The moulds formed of burnt clay have but rarely lasted to our times, though some have been found on the continent of Europe. One for a perforated axe found among the remains of Lake-dwellings near Laibach, in Carniola, is in the museum of that town. Others will subsequently be mentioned. The single moulds found within the United Kingdom are all of stone, and are adapted for the production of flat celts, rings, knives, and small chisels. In some cases it is hard to say whether a mould was intended to be used alone or in conjunction with another of the same kind, so as in fact to be only the half of a mould. The single mould, which I have engraved as Fig. 515, was found near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, and, as will be seen, is for a flat celt of the ordinary form. The material is a micaceous sandstone, which a recent possessor of the mould has thought so well adapted for use as a whetstone, that the mould is in places scored with the marks where apparently a cobbler’s awl has been sharpened. A celt cast in such a mould would be flatter on one face than the other, and be blunt at the ends, though much thinner there than in the middle. Before being used it would be submitted to a hammering process, which would render the two faces nearly symmetrical, and at the same time condense the metal and render it harder and fitter for cutting purposes, especially at the edge which was drawn out. In an Irish specimen in my collection there is in one face a deep conical depression, apparently caused by the contraction of the metal in cooling. It was probably necessary to add a little molten metal to the casting while cooling Fig. 515.—Ballymena. ½ Moulds of the same kind have been found, though rarely, in England. In a field near Cambo, Stone blocks with moulds cut in them have been found in Scotland. One with a mould for a large celt in the centre, and near it in one corner of the slab a mould for a very small celt, was found in a cairn near Kintore, Aberdeenshire. Another large block, forming the end of a cist, near Kilmartin, Argyleshire, The stone moulds from Trochrig, near Girvan, Ayrshire, A mould for casting rings, 2½ inches in diameter, found at Kilmailie, Invernessshire, is in the Museum at Edinburgh. One for two flat celts on the one face, and for a larger celt and perhaps a knife on the other, is in the Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh. These moulds are more abundant in Ireland. One in the Belfast Museum, On a slab in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy Two moulds formed of stone, and apparently intended for flat or slightly flanged celts, have been found at Bodio in the Lago di Varese. Moulds for palstaves and socketed celts have been found both of stone and of bronze, but it will be well to reserve the latter until all the forms of moulds made of stone have been considered. Such celt moulds have always been made in halves. In Fig. 516 is shown the half of a mould for palstaves, which is now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. The other half is with it. They are formed of sandstone. It is uncertain in what part of Ireland they were found. Another mould, formed of mica schist, and now in the British Museum, was found in the river Bann, and was intended for short palstaves about 3½ inches long. ———Fig. 516.—Ireland. ½ —————Fig. 517.—Ireland. 1/1 The half of a mould for casting palstaves of a somewhat broader form was found near Lough Corrib, Galway, The half of a mould for a small palstave, with transverse edge, is shown full size in Fig. 517. The original is of green schist, and is in the Royal Academy Museum at Dublin. It is remarkable that a mould for so rare a form should have been found. A stone mould for transverse palstaves of the same kind has, however, lately been discovered in the Lac de Bienne On the Continent stone moulds for ordinary palstaves have been found Moulds for looped palstaves have been found in the Lac du Bourget, Savoy. Others have been found in Hungary. A few stone moulds for casting socketed celts have been found in England. The half of one, apparently for celts without loops, was found near Milton, Dorsetshire, In another instance a set of moulds has been formed of three slabs of stone, and would produce two varieties of socketed celts, one half of the mould of each being engraved on the two faces of the central slab. It is only this central piece which has been preserved. It was, I believe, found at Bulford Water, near Salisbury, and not at Chidbury Hill, near Everley, as stated in the “Barrow Diggers.” Stone moulds for socketed celts, with vertical ribs upon them, have been found in the Lacustrine Station of Eaux Vives, near Geneva. There are often moulds on each face of the stones. Others in sandstone for socketed celts have been found in Hungary. Several moulds for such instruments have been discovered in Sweden. Stone moulds for socketed celts have also been found in Scotland. Two pair from the parish of Rosskeen, Ross-shire, In Ireland stone moulds for socketed celts are rare, and they appear to The mould, or more properly half of a mould, for a tanged knife, with a central rib along the blade, is shown in Fig. 518. It is of close-grained sandstone, and was found near Ballymoney, Co. Antrim. The surface on which the knife has been engraved is ground very smooth, as if to fit another half mould. In this other half there was probably little more than grooves for the central rib and tang, as the mould at the edge of the knife would produce a casting fully 1/16 inch thick, which would require a good deal of hammering out. —Fig. 518.—Ballymoney. ½ ——————Fig. 519.—Broughshane. ½ Fig. 519 shows the half of a mould for a dagger blade of elegant form. It is of mica slate, and was found near Broughshane, Co. Antrim. It is about 1 inch in thickness; and on the other face are moulds for a small flat chisel with side stops, in total length about 2? inches, for a flat triangular celt-like tool about 1½ inch long, and an unfinished mould for a segment of a flat ring. Stone moulds for daggers have been found in the Italian terramare. —————Fig. 520.—Knighton. ¼ ————Fig. 521.—Knighton. ¼ In Figs. 520 and 521 I have reproduced on the scale of one-fourth the engravings of two stone moulds which were found near Knighton, Fig. 522.—Maghera. ½ On the larger, by the side of the main mould, is a second, which would produce a slightly tapering casting, ribbed longitudinally on one face and flat on the other. It is difficult to judge of the purpose for which it was intended, but it may possibly have been at once an ornament and a support for the scabbard of the blade. Some fluted pieces of bronze, such as would be produced from a mould of this kind, are in the museum at Tours, found in a hoard at St. Genouph. A mould for a short leaf-shaped sword has been found in Ireland. A stone mould, formed of green micaceous schist, and found at Maghera, Co. Derry, is in the collection of Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., and is shown in Fig. 522. As will be seen, it is for a spear-head of the ordinary Irish type, with loops on the socket. These, however, were probably flattened down during the finishing process. The outside of the mould has been neatly rounded, and has shallow grooves in it to assist in keeping the string in place with which the two halves of the mould were bound together when ready for use. In the same collection is the half of a mould for spear-heads, from Armoy, Co. Antrim. It is much like the figure, but 7? inches long. I have the half of a mould for a nearly similar spear-head, made of light brown stone, with the sides left square, and not rounded. This is also from the North of Ireland. It is difficult to understand the manner in which the cores for forming the sockets of the spear-heads were supported in the moulds. Possibly small pins of bronze were attached to the A mould for spear-heads of the same kind as Fig. 521, found near Claran Bridge, A stone mould found at the edge of Lough Ramer, Co. Cavan, Fig. 523.—Lough Gur. ½ Fig. 524.—Campbelton. ½ A moiety of a stone mould for casting spear-heads of various sizes, and also pointed objects, “possibly,” though not probably, “arrow-heads,” was found at Lough Gur, There is a similar notch in a mould for leaf-shaped spear-heads without loops in the Preusker Collection at Dresden. It would seem as if the pin which formed the hole for the rivet was also of use to support the core. Another such mould is in the museum at Modena. There are similar notches in a stone mould for spear-heads, in one of burnt clay for socketed knives, found at Moerigen, in the Lake of Bienne, and in one found in the Lake of Varese. A small Irish mould for casting broad leaf-shaped lance-heads without loops is in the Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh. A mould of much the same character as the Irish examples was found near Campbelton, —————Fig. 525.—Campbelton. ½ ——Fig. 526.—Campbelton. ½ Dr. Arthur Mitchell, who has described this find, says that in this second mould the two halves are not alike, An English, or rather Welsh, quadrangular mould, much like that from Lough Gur, was found between Bodwrdin Of other stone moulds, I may mention one for casting buckles of a kind like those from Polden Hill, which was found at Camelford, Cornwall. I have a flat oval slab of compact grit, about 2 inches thick, having on one face a mould for a thin oval plate of metal about 5 inches by 4½ inches, and on the other a mould for a rather thicker oval plate, about 6 inches by 4½ inches. It was found near Nantlle, Carnarvon, and was given me by Mr. R. D. Darbishire, F.S.A. I am uncertain as to the period to which it ought to be assigned. Of foreign moulds of stone besides those already cited, I may mention some for double-ended hatchets and for flat celts which have been found in the Island of Sardinia. A number of moulds formed of stone, principally mica-schist, were found by Dr. Schliemann The moulds made of bronze which have been found in this country are for palstaves, socketed celts, and gouges only. They appear to be more abundant in England than in any of the neighbouring parts of Europe. At one time the whole school of English Fig. 527.—Hotham Carr. ½ In Fig. 527 are given three views of one half of a complete mould for palstaves, which was found with a hoard of bronze objects, including seven palstaves without loops, at Hotham Carr, in Yorkshire, E.R. It is in the collection of Canon Greenwell, F.R.S. Among the palstaves which were found with it only one was in an undamaged condition. —Fig. 528—Wiltshire. ½ —Fig. 529—Wiltshire. ½ As will be seen from the figure, there are projections or dowels on the face of this half of the mould which fit into corresponding depressions in the counterpart, so as to steady the two halves when brought together and keep them in proper position. At the top is a cup-shaped cavity for the reception of the metal. Any portion of the casting which occupied this part of the mould was broken off from the palstave when it was cool, and was kept for re-melting. Such waste pieces, or jets, from the moulds are of common occurrence in the old founders’ hoards, and some will be subsequently noticed. Another mould for simple palstaves was found in Danesfield, near Bangor, In the British Museum is another mould for looped palstaves, which is shown in Figs. 528 and 529, for the use of which I am indebted to the Council of the Society of Antiquaries. Several palstave moulds formed of bronze have been found in different countries in Europe. The half of one, found in the SaÔne, for looped palstaves, is in the museum at Lyons. Fig. 530—Harty. ½ General A. Pitt Rivers, F.R.S., has one from the neighbourhood of Macon. M. Charles Seidler, of Nantes, has another. Another from the hoard of Notre-Dame d’Or, Vienne, is in the museum at Poitiers. M. Forel has another found in the Lake-dwellings at Morges. A palstave mould of bronze, found near Medingen, is in the museum at Hanover. Another bronze mould from the neighbourhood of GrÜnberg, There are several bronze moulds of this character in the Museum of Northern Antiquities at Copenhagen. In Figs. 530 and 531 are engraved the halves of two moulds for casting socketed celts of different sizes and patterns, which were found with a number of other relics in the Isle of Harty, Sheppey, and are now in my own collection. I have already given an account of this discovery elsewhere; The hoard, which may very fairly be described as the stock-in-trade of an ancient bronze-founder, consisted of the following articles— Both halves of the mould, Fig. 530. 5 celts cast in this mould and a fragment. Both halves of the mould, Fig. 531. 1 celt cast in it. One-half of a smaller mould with a portion of a lead lining adhering to it, as kindly determined for me by Dr. J. Percy, F.R.S. Fig. 531.—Harty. ½ 3 celts, more or less worn out, apparently cast in it. 2 large celts from different moulds. 2 small socketed celts from other and different moulds. Both halves of a gouge mould, Fig. 532. 2 gouges, both from one mould, but it is doubtful whether they are from this. See Fig. 205. 2 pointed tools, Fig. 220. 1 double-edged knife, Fig. 253. 1 single-edged knife, Fig. 260. 1 perforated disc, Fig. 503. 1 ferrule, Fig. 377. 1 part of a curved bracelet-like object of doubtful use, with small hole near the end. 1 hammer or anvil, Fig. 211. 1 small hammer, Fig. 212. 2 pieces of rough copper. 1 whetstone, Fig. 540. Of the largest mould itself, Fig. 530, not much need be said. The dowels on the face of one of the halves have been much injured by oxidation, so that the two parts of the mould do not now fit so well together as they did originally. On the outside of each valve are two projecting pins intended to hold the cord in position, by which the two parts of the mould were held together when in use. First, the mould was tied together in proper position, and loam or clay was rammed into it so as tightly to fill the upper part. The mould was, secondly, taken apart—and the clay removed and probably left to become nearly dry. Thirdly, the lower part of the clay was then trimmed to form the core, a shoulder being left which would form the mould for the top of the celt. The upper part of the clay would be left untouched, beyond having two channels cut in it to allow of the passage of the melted metal. Fourthly, the mould would be tied together again with the prepared core inside, the untrimmed part of which would form a There is another cause for slight variations in the sharpness of the mouldings and the other details of the castings. In order to prevent the molten bronze from adhering to the bronze mould, the latter must have been smeared over with something by way of protection, so as to form a thin film between the metal of the mould and that of the casting. Modern founders, when casting pewter in brass, or even iron, moulds, The outside of this mould is provided with three knobs to keep the binding cord from slipping off. The other and smallest half-mould has a single projection in the middle, like an imperfectly formed loop. The three celts which were apparently cast in this mould show great uniformity at their upper ends, and to the reason for this I think the lead adhering to the mould furnishes a clue. It is evident that if, in preparing the cores, instead of beginning by having the mould empty and ramming clay into it, A mould for sword hilts found in Italy, But that the cores were frequently if not always made of clay, and not, as has been sometimes supposed, of metal, is proved by the numbers of socketed celts which from time to time have been found with the cores still in them, though this, it is true, has been the case in France rather than in England. In the great hoard of socketed celts found near PlÉnÉe Jugon, in Brittany, the majority Fig. 532.—Harty. ½ The other mould from this hoard is almost unique of its kind. Two views of each of its halves are given in Fig. 532. Originally there was a loop on the back of each half, but from one this has in old times been broken off. The arrangement for carrying the core is different from what it seems to have been in the other moulds. There is in the upper part of the mould when put together a transverse hole, which would produce what may be termed trunnions on the clay core, and assist materially in holding it in proper position during the process of casting. From the upper surfaces of the gouges found with the mould, it appears that there were two channels cut for the runners of metal, one at the middle of each half of the mould, so as to alternate with the joint of the mould through which the air could escape during the casting process. What appears to be part of a mould for gouges was found in the hoard of Notre-Dame d’Or, and is now in the museum at Poitiers. I must now return to the other examples of moulds for socketed celts which have been found in this country. One, with external loops on each half, like that on Fig. 532B, was found with looped palstaves, socketed celts, and broken dagger or sword blades, at Wilmington, Another mould, found with eleven celts and fragments of weapons at Eaton, Another mould, for celts with an octagonal neck, was found on the Quantock Hills, Another mould, also in the British Museum, The half of another mould for celts, of nearly the same character, was found in the Heathery Burn Cave, Another mould was found in the fen at Washingborough, A part of another was found in a hoard at Beddington, Surrey, A bronze mould for socketed celts, found at Eikrath, was in the collection of the late Dr. Hugo GÄrthe, of Cologne. Upon the outside there are six ribs with ring ornaments at the ends, diverging from a loop in the centre. A bronze mould for socketed celts, ornamented with V-shaped lines, and found at Gnadenfeld, Another bronze mould with an external loop, also for socketed celts, was found in Gotland, Fig. 533.—Heathery Burn. ½ A magnificent mould for socketed celts was found in the Cotentin A bronze mould for spear-heads was exhibited in Paris in 1878. A part of another was in the Larnaud hoard, and is now in the museum at St. Germain. There were some fragments of bronze moulds in the great Bologna hoard. The process of casting bronze instruments in loam, clay, or sand must have been much the same as that in use at the present day; but it was very rarely that the mould consisted of more or less than two pieces. On a great many bronze instruments the joint of the mould is still visible; and in some of the large hoards, such as those which have been found in the North of France, we see the castings just as they came from the moulds, except that the runners have been broken off. For socketed celts there were usually two runners of metal; for palstaves sometimes two, and sometimes only one nearly the full width of the upper part. It is not uncommon to find castings which show that the two halves of the mould or the flasks have slipped sideways, so that they were not in proper position when the casting was made. I have a palstave from a large hoard found near Tours, in which the lateral displacement of the mould is as much as a quarter of an inch, so that there is what geologists might term a “fault” in the casting. The metal which has been in contact with what was the face of the mould is smooth, and appears to have been cast against That castings were occasionally made even from tools already mounted in their handles is proved by the Swiss hatchet, Fig. 185. Some portions of moulds formed of burnt clay were found with broken palstaves, socketed celts, gouges, knives, spear-heads, daggers, swords, lumps of metal, runners, &c., at Questembert, Brittany, and are in the museum at Vannes. Part of a mould for spear-heads formed of burnt clay was found in the Lac du Bourget; The best-preserved mould of the second kind was one for a socketed hammer, which was also provided with a core of the same kind. It seems to me, however, that the distinction drawn by Dr. Gross between the two classes of moulds does not really exist, as by enveloping such a mould as that for the hammer in a mass of clay it would be transferred from the second class to the first. Clay moulds for socketed-celts have been found in Hungary. In some Scandinavian examples Fig. 534.—Stogursey. ½ —Fig. 535.—Stogursey. ½ —Fig. 536.—Stogursey. ½ The heads and runners, jets or waste pieces, from the castings were reserved for being re-melted, and are frequently found in the bronze-founders’ hoards. They are of course of various sizes, but are usually conical masses, showing the shape of the cup or funnel into which the metal was poured, and having one, two, or more processes from them showing the course of the metal into the mould. Figs. 534, 535 and 536, all from the same hoard, found at Stogursey, Jets of metal, for the most part with two runners, were found with the Westow hoard, Another waste piece, 1¾ inch long, with two runners, was found in the Heathery Burn Cave, A very symmetrical jet, circular, with four irregularly conical runners proceeding from it, was in the hoard found at Lanant, Another oval head (2 inches long), with four runners from it, has much the appearance of a sword pommel. It was found with socketed celts on Kenidjack Cliff, Fig. 537. A perforated disc, with a collar round the central hole (Fig. 503), which at one time The conical lump of metal found with the hoard at Marden, Some conical funnels of burnt clay, found in the Lake-dwellings near Laibach, have been regarded as having served to receive the metal in the casting process. Runners of the same character as those already described have been found in different countries, including Denmark We must now briefly consider the processes to which the castings were subjected before being finally brought into use. Where the objects had sockets cast over clay cores, those cores had to be removed, probably by means of pointed tools, such as that already described under Fig. 220. Where they were solid they seem in most cases to have undergone a considerable amount of hammering, which both rendered the metal more compact, and to a certain extent removed the asperities resulting from the joints in the mould. With edged tools and weapons, whether socketed or not, the edges especially were drawn down by means of the hammer. These hammers, as has already been shown, were occasionally themselves of bronze, and so also were some of the anvils. It is, however, probable that in most cases both hammers and anvils were stones, either natural pebbles and flat slabs, or occasionally wrought into special shapes. In South Africa at the present day the iron assegais are wrought with hammers and anvils of stone. Judging from the unfinished condition of the tools and weapons in some Fig. 538.—Kirby Moorside. ½ ————Fig. 539.—Hove. ½ After the hammering, the surface of most weapons and of some tools was further polished, probably by friction with sand, or with a rubbing-stone of grit. I have elsewhere described some of the stone rubbers which appear to have been in use in conjunction with sand, for the purpose of grinding and polishing the faces of different forms of perforated stone axes, which in Britain at all events belonged to the period when bronze was known. It is, therefore, probable that similar rubbers were employed for grinding and polishing the faces of bronze weapons; and the rubber shown in Fig. 538 appears to have been destined for this purpose. It was found with several socketed celts at Keldholm, near Kirby Moorside, North Riding of Yorkshire, and is now in Canon Greenwell’s collection. The material seems to be trap. No doubt many other such rubbing-stones must exist, and it is possible that some of those which I have regarded as used for the grinding and polishing of weapons of stone may have served for those of bronze. Whetstones of various kinds have from time to time been discovered in company with bronze instruments. Near Little Wenlock, Another whetstone, shown in Fig. 540, was found with the hoard in the Isle of Harty, and no doubt was employed by the ancient bronze-founder for finishing off the edges of the socketed celts and gouges in which he dealt. It is made from a sort of ragstone. Fig. 540. The decoration of the surfaces of bronze implements by sunk, and in some cases by raised lines appears to have been effected, not as a rule by any method of engraving, but by means of punches, as already described in Chapter III. I have in that chapter accidentally omitted to mention two decorated bronze celts which have been figured and described by Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A. Notches which would assist in the breaking off of superfluous pieces of metal, such as the runners in the moulds, can readily be made with flint flakes used as saws. For smoothing the surface of bronze instruments flint scraping-tools are not so efficient, as they are liable to “chatter” and to leave an uneven and scratched surface, much inferior to one produced by friction with a gritty rubber. There remains little more to be said with regard to the manufacture of the ancient bronze tools and weapons. It may, however, be observed that the processes of hammering-out and sharpening the edges were employed not only by those who first made the instruments, but also by the subsequent possessors. Many tools, such for instance as palstaves, like Fig. 65, were no doubt originally much longer in the blade than they are at present, and have in the course of use either been broken and again drawn down and sharpened, or have been actually worn away and “stumped up” by constant repetition of these processes. The recurved ends of the lunate cutting edges of many such instruments are also due to repeated hammering-out. In some instances the broken part of one instrument has been converted into another form—as, for example, a fragment of a broken sword into a knife or dagger, or a palstave that has lost its cutting end, into a hammer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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