The most important improvement in photographic processes that has been introduced since Maynard first made collodion, and Archer discovered its adaptability to the production of photographic negatives, is the gelatine bromide dry plate.

Wet plate photography had reached its utmost point of adaptability to the demands of the times.

A few men of marked ability, and the skill of long study and practice, had reached the point of highest excellence in working with collodion, and the great multitude were pressing on toward that designated height to which it was given to but few to attain.

It had been demonstrated that wonderfully beautiful effects could be produced by the collodion process, but that there was a limit beyond which progress could not be made. The great range of subjects in still and animate life requiring very rapid exposures, were practically out of the power of collodion, to compass satisfactory results. At this time, when there seemed to be a very constant and increasingly urgent demand for more rapid acting lenses and for "lightning processes," there appeared the wonderful argentic bromide Gelatine Emulsion, which, in four short years, has superseded the collodion process almost, if not altogether, and besides (notwithstanding the opposition of the elite of the profession, whom for a time it p8 leveled with the rest of the workers, but who were quick to see and acknowledge the extraordinary merits of the new candidate) it has caused such a quickening of the pulses of the business, and such an increase in its range and adaptability as never before was known, and which, in the year or two past, has caused such an activity in invention and in other ways, as to make that period of time so remarkable for the many new things that have been brought out, and the many new processes that have been adopted, as to render a detailed account of such for the profession, and also for the amateur, most desirable.

It is with such a view that this book is offered to the photographic public, and that numerous and still increasing army of amateurs, who have taken up photography as an amusement, to while away a leisure hour.

For to these latter a few hours' study of a good hand-book is about all that is necessary to enable them to expose and develop a dry plate, a little practice only being requisite to the successful performance of the same.

There may be many, however, who, having made a promising commencement, would like to proceed farther and acquire a knowledge of former photographic processes, as well as those which succeed the making of the negative, such as printing, toning, fixing, etc., and in fact, learn how to make a finished photograph.

To such, particularly, and to all photographers, this book is offered, in full confidence that it will be a useful companion in the studio and in the field.

To accomplish this end we will take the reader as an apprentice, and commencing at the beginning, instruct him in that knowledge he would have to acquire were he an actual apprentice in a photographic studio, p9 working the wet collodion process, after which an equally full course of instruction will follow for the dry plate and other new processes, both for negative making and for printing.

In the following pages, also, will be found many useful formulÆ that have been carefully culled from a mass of published contributions, from many of the leading spirits in photography, most of which have been verified practically by the author, and others bear on their faces so plainly the impression of their practicability as to need no assurance that they are reliable.

In getting up this work I have availed myself of information from any and all sources at my command, giving credit where possible, and endeavoring to make everything clearly understandable, and neglecting no details necessary to the successful working of every formula, even by the youngest learner. p10

GLASS.

QUALITY OF GLASS SUITABLE FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PURPOSES AND HOW TO PREPARE IT.

Mr. Hardwick, than whom there can be no more faithful or competent guide, says that much care should be taken in the selection of glass to be used in the production of photographic negatives.

Window glass is always unsuitable, because of its inferior quality, having scratches upon its surface and air bubbles in its substance, each of which causes irregularities, as well in the negatives as in the subsequent printing; also the squares are seldom flat so that they do not lie true in the holder, and hence a part of the image may be out of focus; and also they are extremely liable to be broken by compression in the printing frames.

Formerly many photographers used a thin plate glass of very fine quality, but of late years the great demand for glass suitable for such purposes has made it possible for the manufacturers to prepare a cheaper quality, well adapted to the uses of photography.

TO PREPARE THE GLASS FOR USE.

Before proceeding to wash the glass, each square should have its edges roughened, by means of a file or a coarse stone, or the edges of two pieces of glass may be abraded against each other in such a manner as to remove the sharpness, which is so liable to injure the fingers in the various manipulations.

In the process of cleaning the glass it is not sufficient p11 to wash it with water. Other means are necessary to remove grease, rust and dirt, which would not yield to the influence of water alone, and for this purpose a solution of caustic potash is most generally used.

The glass is immersed in the potash solution, each piece separately, and when the dish is full, it should be left not longer than is necessary for the potash to have its proper action, for when left for a considerable time the solution of potash (if strong) will attack the surface of the glass, to its injury.

When a suitable time has elapsed (which in the case of new glass should not be more than one day or night, and in the case of old negatives not longer than to cause the film to slip off), the glass should be removed and washed with water, after which it should be immersed in the same manner, in a solution composed of four parts of water to one of commercial nitric or sulphuric acid, or the two mixed, as may be the most convenient.

This latter solution removes rust or other metallic blemishes, that have not been affected by the potash, and also effectively neutralizes all traces of the potash that have remained on the surfaces of the glass.

The glass may be permitted to remain in the acid an indefinite time, as it can have no injurious effect on it, as might the potash, and when required for use, it should be carefully washed and immediately albumenized and set up in racks to dry.

ALBUMENIZING THE GLASS.

While the glass is still wet from the washing, after being taken from the acid, it should be coated with a preparation of albumen, prepared as follows: p12

To the albumen or white of a fresh egg, add eight ounces of water; put it in a bowl and thoroughly beat it with an egg beater, or in any manner that may be convenient, until the fibre or structure is completely destroyed, when it should be filtered through loose cotton, and after the addition of a few drops of strong ammonia, it is ready for use.

Many prefer to beat up the albumen before adding the water, in which case it should be beaten into a stiff froth, when the proper amount of water is added, and after the froth has subsided the whole is filtered and the ammonia put in last.

The albumen being prepared and the glass ready, a square is taken in the left hand, and clean water flowed over it, until no particle of dust can be seen adhering to either surface, when a small portion of the albumen is flowed on it, and after covering every part of the surface the excess is allowed to drain off the right hand lower corner, after which, if running water is at hand, the back of the same portion of the plate should be passed under the faucet, and the water will carry off any excess of albumen which might return or crawl, as it is termed, up the back of the plate from the point where it is drained.

The greatest care should be taken to avoid dust settling on the plate during the coating and afterwards while drying, and after the glass has been coated, if it is found that any dust adheres to the albumenized surface, it should be again washed and recoated.

It is important that the back of the glass should be kept free from the albumen, so that when the plate is afterward collodionized and immersed in the silver solution, there should be no albumen uncovered to p13 contaminate the bath, and as most of the glass used has some slight inequalities of surface, the albumen should always be flowed on the concave side, for two reasons:

The first is, that when sensitized and placed in the holder, the pressure, being against the convex side, may have a tendency to counteract the curve and make the plate flatter and more perfectly adjusted to the focus.

The other reason is that the pressure of the printing frame has a less tendency to break the glass when against the concave side.

The amount of glass required having been albumenized and set up in racks, it should be carefully covered with paper to exclude dust, and it should be set away to dry, after which it should be placed in its proper receptacle in the dark room, ready for use.

The reasons for albumenizing the glass are important.

Before this process was adopted, all glass used for photographic purposes, after being subjected to the action of potash or acid, or both, had to be finely polished with rottenstone or some other polishing substance, to render its surface sufficiently free from all traces of acid, organic matter, rust, etc., which would injuriously affect the collodion or the deposit of silver iodide derived from the bath.

This polishing was very laborious, and in consequence it was often very imperfectly done, causing much loss of time and material; also the glass thus prepared did not offer to the collodion a surface to which it could adhere with much tenacity, and in consequence it would frequently slip from it in the subsequent manipulations. p14

The first reason for Albumenizing then, is to cover the surface with a substance chemically pure, and when dry of a crystaline nature and impervious to, or at least not soluble in the silver solution, thus saving the labor of polishing.

Another reason is that the albumen offers a surface to which the collodion will adhere with extreme tenacity, thus saving and preventing the film from slipping.

COLLODION.

"The discovery that explosive cotton was soluble in ether, was made by Mr. Maynard, who gave it the name of Collodion, and later, in 1848, published in the American Journal of Medical Science the formula for its preparation."

"This ethereal solution, having a certain proportion of alkaline iodides, and iodides of silver added thereto, constituted the collodion first employed by Mr. Archer," who thus shares with Mr. Maynard, and with a Mr. Legray (who first published an account of its use as a photographic agent) the honor of having given to the world the collodion process in photography.

The progress that has been made since Mr. Archer's time in perfecting the adaptability of collodion to photographic uses could not be better illustrated than by comparing the formulÆ for collodion first published with those in use at this time.

The practice of photography in the present day by the collodion process is divided into two branches, the positive and the negative.

In the first the object is to obtain in the camera a p15 direct image, which is to be viewed by reflected light, and as it is desired that the pictures so produced should possess pure blacks and whites, certain modifications of the collodion, silver solution and developer are resorted to, which cause these preparations to differ somewhat from those prepared for the production of superior negatives, consequently the formulÆ given hereafter will be designated as positive or negative.

These modifications, however, are not of such a character as to render either of the solutions prepared for one process totally unfit to be used for the other, for in fact, many photographers at this day use the same collodion bath and developer for making both positives and negatives.

THE POSITIVE COLLODION PROCESS.

In the first place, we will take up for consideration the positive process.

The first positives on glass were called ambrotypes, and were the successors to the daguerreotype, which they superseded and displaced by the superior facility of their production.

For the same reason the ambrotype was succeeded by the ferrotype, which was a positive collodion picture, made on a thin iron plate with a black japanned surface.

The ferrotype or tintype is now about the only product of the positive collodion process of considerable importance, and is the only one that will receive consideration in these pages.

Ferrotype plates are sold by all dealers in photographic materials; they are mostly manufactured by two large concerns in Worcester, Mass. p16

COLLODION FOR POSITIVES.

As has before been stated, to produce the finest results in positive photography requires certain modifications of the collodion bath and developer, which, while not unfitting them altogether for negative work, yet would render them quite unsuitable for high class work.

The formula for positive collodion here given has many merits, and among those is a certain quality of film, which might be termed opacity, but not in the strict sense of the word; it is that quality in the film which enables it to cover up any small scratch or water mark on the surface of the plate that would infallibly spoil the picture, if almost any other collodion were used.

This quality, with great clearness or transparency in the shadows, and a beautiful gradation of light and shade, make it unique as a positive collodion.

There may seem to be a contradiction between the terms opacity and great transparency of shadows, which may need further explanation. As the shadows of a positive collodion picture are produced by the black surface of the plate showing through the collodion, any defect on that portion of the surface would be expected to show very plainly, and it does so with the use of the ordinary collodions sold by the dealers, but not so with the collodion under consideration, which may be because it is less permeable by the silver solution, and that consequently the deposit of iodide of silver lies more on the surface and less within the texture of the film, and is thus kept from contact with organic matter or other defects on the surface of the plate; in some such manner only, can I account for a very valuable quality that has saved thousands of p17 plates, that would under other usage have been thrown away.

This formula has never before been published, and must be prepared as directed.

Alcohol and ether equal parts; gun cotton sufficient to make a moderately thick film, say 5 or 6 grains to the oz.; put the cotton in the ether first; when it is well saturated, pour in the alcohol. To which add:

Iodide of Ammonium	4 grains to oz.
Iodide of Cadmium	2
Bromide of Cadmium	1
Bromide of Copper	1

The latter ingredient can only be had in aqueous solution, I believe, and requires close calculation to get at the right quantity.

This formula gives 8 grains of salts to the ounce of collodion, and would require a silver solution of 50 grains to the fluid ounce to balance properly.

The silver solution may be prepared as per directions on page 29, under the heading—The Negative Bath.

HOW TO COAT PLATES.

The ferro-plate is held between the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand. The collodion bottle is held in the right hand, and the collodion is poured on the right upper end of the plate, flowed to the left upper corner, by deflecting the plate in that direction, and then down the left side toward the hand, and the excess run back into the bottle from the right lower corner, when it has all run off, the plate should be gradually brought to a perpendicular position and rocked from right to left, that is, perpendicular to the end, p18 then to the side, until the film has set or become fixed, which may be ascertained by touching the film at the lower corner of the plate, when, if it breaks and does not run farther, it has set and should, without delay, be immersed in the silver solution, where it should remain until it has become fully sensitized, which will be in from 2 to 5 minutes.

The plate should be lowered into the bath by one continuous motion; any stoppage will cause a line and spoil the plate.

The plate is sensitized when on removing it from the bath it presents a smooth, yellowish surface; if it shows lines as of water running off a greasy surface, it is not coated; return it to the bath.

EXPOSURE OF THE PLATE.

The plate having become sufficiently coated is taken from the bath, well drained, and placed in the holder or shield, and a piece of glass of the same size put behind it, which is to receive the pressure of the spring on the door of the holder, and force the plate into its proper position evenly, so that all parts will be in focus.

The holder containing the plate is then taken to the studio, or light room, where the subject, we will say, has already been posed; the camera set and focused, the exposure is then made, after which it is returned to the dark room for development.

DEVELOPER AND DEVELOPMENT.

In the preparation of a developing solution for plate pictures, we must consider that we desire to produce a picture, which, to be admired, must have p19 pure whites, clear shadows, be full of detail and have an easy gradation of light and shade.

That you may succeed in this object, use the following formula, and persist until you have learned its every modification:

DEVELOPER.

Water	64 ounces f.
Protosulphate of iron	4
Acetic acid	4
Alcoholic solution of tannin, 10 grains to the ounce	4

The four ounces of iron should be dissolved in the sixty-four ounces (fluid) of water, and the acetic acid and tannic alcohol added.

In using this solution, develop your plate over a large filter, which will receive all your surplus developing solution, and conduct it into a bottle for use again; drain the plate into this filter before washing, wash carefully and then place it into the fixing solution—the developing solution which has filtered through into the bottle is afterwards used in the proportion of one-half of old to one-half of the new or fresh solution. This greatly improves the high lights of the picture, and by using more or less of the old solution, effects can be produced that are impossible by any other means.

Great care should be taken to cause the developing solution to flow evenly and with one sweep, as it were, over the whole surface, so that the action may be as near as possible equal on all parts of the surface.

In a very few seconds after the action of the developer has commenced the picture will show up. The plate meanwhile should be kept in motion and the p20 solution caused to flow from side to side and from one end to the other, in order that the development may progress evenly and with the same speed on all parts.

The picture will gradually grow and brighten, until all the detail that might be expected is seen in the shadows; then pour off the remaining solution into the filter and proceed to wash the plate until all traces of greasiness disappear; when the plate is sufficiently washed and is ready to be fixed or cleared. Another developing solution is prepared as follows:

Make a 64-ounce saturated solution of protosulphate of iron, into which drop tannin solution enough to cause a precipitate, which remains undissolved after shaking, then add drop by drop pure nitric acid, until the precipitate is taken up and the solution becomes clear. To one ounce of this add water, until it tests 18 to 20 grains to the ounce by the hydrometer, then add one ounce acetic acid, which perfects the formula and constitutes the developer.

FIXING SOLUTION.

The solvent most generally used for fixing or clearing positives is cyanide of potassium.

By the term "fixing" is meant the dissolving from the collodion film all the iodide of silver not acted on by the developer; the remaining portion of the silver is in a metallic state and constitutes the image; the cyanide very readily dissolves the iodide, but acts very slowly on the metallic silver.

This fixing solution should be contained in a glass upright dish, enclosed in a wood case, with a tight or close-fitting cover, this in order that as little exposure to the air as possible may be had, as the fumes p21 arising from the evaporation of the solution are injurious.

Two ounces of cyanide to 64 ounces of water will make a suitable fixing solution for plate pictures; if, however, its action is thought to be too slow, add more.

The plate picture having now been developed and fixed, it only remains that it should be dried, varnished, cut into shape, placed in the proper envelopes and it is ready for delivery.

Those desiring more extended instructions in the making of plate pictures are referred to the work on that subject, entitled, "The Ferrotype and How to Make it," published by E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., of New York.

ARGENTIC DRY PLATES FOR POSITIVES.

The Phenix Plate Co., the largest manufacturers of ferrotype plates in this country, and whose name is familiar with every ferrotypist, as well as most photographers, have lately placed on the market ferrotype plates, with surfaces coated or sensitized with gelatine emulsion, which they, offer as a substitute for the ordinary collodion positive or tintype.

The plates are cut to sizes and packed in much the same manner as the Stanley or any other dry plates are, and being extremely sensitive to light, they must be handled with the same care.

The manufacturers claim, that "the 'Argentic Dry Plate' will be found far superior to any other form of positive plate, giving as it does the maximum of beautiful effects with a minimum of labor, producing a rich and brilliant picture with a rapidity and cleanliness never before attained, doing away as they do p22 with the use of the silver bath and all its concomitant evils, pinholes, stains, fog, etc., not forgetting the vast saving in time and temper. The argentic plate is always ready-at-hand, and the working of it is simplicity itself. Their permanency and reliability is beyond question. These plates are extremely rapid. An exposure of from 1 to 3 seconds will suffice with a good light, 2 minutes to develop, 3 to fix, wash, dry and varnish, and the operation is complete, ready within ten minutes for delivery. For out-door views these plates work well with a drop shutter exposure, and the results, both for portrait and view work, are remarkable for fullness of detail, and great delicacy and softness of tone."

While these plates may be developed by the common ammonia pyro developer, the manufacturers claim, that "much finer effects may be produced by using the Phenix Stock Solution," that accompanies the plates, put up in 12 oz. bottles. By its use, greater rapidity of development, purer white, extreme brilliancy and finer detail can be obtained, the result being far superior to that produced by any other developer.

The following formula can be relied on to give excellent results, and by simply modifying the proportions, to "suit circumstances," will answer every purpose. As these plates are very rapid, six times more rapid than wet plates, guard well against white light.

Formula for development:

NO. 1.

Pyrogallic Acid	1 oz.
Water	12 oz.
Citric Acid	20 grs.

p23

NO. 2.

Phenix Stock Solution.

Keep the Stock Solution securely corked.

NO. 3.

Bromide Potass.	1 oz.
Water	12 oz.

DEVELOPER.

Water	4 oz.
No. 1	4 drams.
No. 2	4 drams.

If the plate be over exposed, add a few drops of No. 3. Should the plate, however, be under exposed, add one dram more of No. 2. When the plate is placed in the developer, the image will begin to appear in from 5 to 10 seconds. Continue the development until the details are all out. But be careful not to over-develop, and thereby obscure the shadows. Wash thoroughly after development, and fix in the following solution:

FIXING SOLUTION.

Cyanide of Potass.	120 grains.
Water	10 oz.

"Let the plate remain in the fixing basin until every trace of Bromide of silver disappears. Wash well after fixing, and dry with a gentle heat or flow the plate with alcohol for a few seconds. Set it aside, and it will dry in a few minutes without the aid of heat. For varnishing any good negative or positive varnish will answer. Apply a little heat to prevent chilling."

Directions accompany each box. p24

THE COLLODION PROCESS FOR NEGATIVES.

We now take up that more important branch of the collodion process, vis., that for negatives.

The formulÆ and instructions already given for positives might enable one to make a negative, but the negatives so made would bear even a remoter relation to one made by the formula about to be given than would a positive made according to these formulÆ bear to a good one made by the appropriate means. Important modifications are necessary to reach the highest excellence in either process.

NEGATIVE COLLODION.

To produce a good negative a collodion is necessary, the film of which is more permeable than that for positives, so that a heavier deposit of iodide of silver may be carried in the film, to the end that in the development a denser deposit of metallic silver may be secured on all parts of the image, but especially on the high lights, which should be sufficiently dense to prevent the transmission of light almost altogether, or at least to exclude the light sufficiently to allow the shadows and intermediate shades to print to the proper depth, while the high lights of the face and such parts of the clothing as are white shall be only slightly discolored.

There are very many formulÆ for such collodions, some of which have proved to be eminently satisfactory, and among the best are classed the following:

NEGATIVE COLLODION. A.

Ether and alcohol, equal parts. Climax cotton (Anthony's), 3 grains to the oz. Negative cotton p25 (Anthony's), 1 grain to oz. Place the cotton in the ether first, then add the alcohol and sensitize with

Iodide of Ammonium	3 grains to ounce
Iodide of Lithium	1
Bromide of Cadmium	2

Collodion prepared after this formula gives very pleasing results and is rather more rapid than the average.

In many cases it is well to have two samples of collodion differing in formulÆ, mixing them in varying proportions, according to the effect desired.

A good formula for mixing with the above is as follows. It can be used separately if desired, but is not primarily intended to be used alone:

Plain collodion, prepared as in the preceding formula, but with a different cotton, Anthony's snowy Cotton, for instance, to each ounce of the plain collodion add:

Iodide of Potassium	2½ grains
Bromide of Cadmium	2
Iodide of Cadmium	2½

The iodide of potassium is insoluble in absolute alcohol and ether, therefore it must be first dissolved in the smallest quantity of water possible and then added to the collodion. A portion will even then most probably be precipitated; if it is not, it would be an indication that the alcohol or ether used were either one or both of a higher specific gravity than they should be.

It is more important that the ether should be pure than the alcohol, as the former is often contaminated or adulterated with water as well as with alcohol, and sometimes contains impurities of an acid nature.

Ether, for photographic purposes, should not have a p26 higher specific gravity than 720, and the alcohol should never be used for collodion when below 95 per cent., as the presence of water in the collodion makes the film weak and glutinous.

Most formulÆ for collodion prescribe alcohol and ether in equal parts, but these may be varied with advantage during the hot season; for instance, the alcohol may be used in somewhat larger proportion, as the tendency to evaporation is much more with a high temperature, and alcohol evaporates less rapidly than ether. Consequently the flowing quality of the collodion and the evenness of the film would be promoted by a not too rapid congelation or setting of the film. And again, during the cold season, the ether may be used in larger proportion, to promote a more rapid evaporation and setting of the film. By a moderately close observation of the action of collodion under varying temperatures, the operator might soon learn how to modify his formulÆ to suit all conditions of heat and cold.

It should be mentioned that it would not be correct to vary the proportions of ether and alcohol very greatly, as an over proportion of alcohol would render the collodion weak and glutinous, and, being very soluble in water, would the sooner injure the silver solution. On the other hand too great a proportion of ether would make the collodion less sensitive.

NEGATIVE COLLODION. B.

Alcohol and ether, equal parts.
Anthony's Negative Cotton	3 grains to ounce
Anthony's Climax Cotton	1

Put the cotton into the ether and let it become saturated, then add the alcohol. Excite with p27

Iodide of Ammonium	3½ grains to ounce
Iodide of Cadmium	2
Bromide Cadmium	2½

Collodion sometimes, from long keeping, loses sensitiveness and becomes of a deep red color. When such is the case, it should be set aside and fresh samples prepared, which would be improved in working quality by the addition of small quantities of the old, and thus old stock may be used up without deterioration in the work.

Negative collodion should not be so heavy bodied or thick as that for positives; neither should it be so highly excited. Good positive collodion should have as many as 8 grains of the iodides and bromides to the ounce, requiring a silver solution not lower than 50 grains strong and going somewhat higher in cold weather.

The standard silver solution for negatives is 45 grains of silver nitrate to the ounce of water and the collodion from 5½ to 6½ grains to the ounce, with a tendency to less in cold weather.

Collodion for negatives should be permitted to ripen a day or two before using, unless it is brought to that state by mixing with old.

NEGATIVE COLLODION. C.

Iodide Ammonium	192 grains
Bromide Cadmium	128
Bromide Potassium	96
Ether and Alcohol	32 oz. each
Cotton	320 grains

The preceding formulÆ are for portrait work in studio. For other work, such as outdoor views, p28 landscape or architectural, or for copying engravings, etc., certain modifications of the collodion, to produce greater intensity or more contrast, are desirable. Collodion suitable for such purposes can always be purchased from the photo stock dealer, in quantities desired, and for that reason it is not best for the amateur nor the professional photographer either, to prepare small samples for special purposes. If it should, however, be found at any time necessary to prepare such a collodion, the second formula of Negative Collodion A will be found suitable for views of buildings, copies of engravings and such like work.

It was at first thought to be unnecessary to give a formula for the preparation of pyroxiline or gun cotton, as no individual not in the business can possibly produce an article that can be in any way compared to that made by manufacturers of skill and experience.

For the benefit of any one wishing to experiment, this formula is given:

FORMULA FOR MAKING COLLODION COTTON.

Sulphuric Acid	6 oz.
Nitric Acid	4
Water	2

Mix and the temperature will rise to 170° F.

Inmerse dry cotton wool (best long fibre), be sure wool is dry, draw it in long flakes and pull it under acids with a stout glass rod; do not crowd in too much, take care that each tuft is well wetted with the acids before putting in a fresh tuft. Carefully cover the vessel and put it where any slight fumes may escape; leave it for at least 12 hours—20 hours will not spoil it. When ready, lift cotton out and plunge it p29 into a large quantity of water, quickly separating the tufts with glass rods, wash in changes of water, until no acid is left, then wring the cotton in a coarse towel until dry as possible and pull it all apart and place in the air to dry.

COLLODION WITH ABOVE.

Alcohol	5 oz.
Ether	10
Cotton	100 grains

TO IODIZE:

Alcohol	5 oz.
Iodide Ammonium	60 grs.
Iodide Cadmium	30
Bromide Cadmium	20

Dissolve the iodides in the 5 oz. alcohol or in the whole 10 oz., if desired, then put in the 100 grains cotton, shake well, then add the 10 oz. ether and shake till the cotton is all dissolved; it will be ready for use in a few hours, and will improve with age.

THE NEGATIVE BATH.

The silver solution for a negative bath is prepared in substantially the same manner as for a positive.

Two thirds of the amount of silver nitrate intended to be used, should be dissolved in the quantity of water required to make the bath, and a grain or two of iodide of potassium added and placed in the sunlight until the solution has changed color, become turbid, and again clear and colorless. This change is caused by a minute portion of the silver combining with the organic matter and with other impurities in the water, if there are any; a molecular change then takes p30 places, oxygen is evolved and the infinitesimal portion of silver changes to a metallic state and sinks to the bottom, carrying with it the impurities, which induced the chemical action or change.

The solution may now be filtered, the remaining portion of the silver nitrate added, and with a few drops of pure nitric acid, the solution will be ready for use. But if on trial it is ascertained that it will not give satisfactory results, it will be found that it has not been sufficiently excited, or an acid reaction has not been induced.

If the first supposition is true, more iodide of potassium must be used, as a silver solution must receive as much or nearly as much of the iodide as it will hold in solution, before it will work harmoniously with the collodion; the grain or two put in the solution with the first portion of nitrate of silver have not been sufficient.

A very little more may be added, which will combine with the silver, forming a white curdy precipitate, which, on shaking the bottle, will in a short time redissolve. If any remains, it should be filtered out, as no more can be held in solution.

An other plan is rather more convenient, but requires more time. It is to coat with collodion as large a plate as the bath will receive; immerse it in the bath, leaving it there some hours, usually all night.

After trying one of these remedies, if the bath refuses still to yield good results, more nitric acid should be added, until the solution will turn blue litmus paper slowly red.

I have never known a silver bath to fail to come to terms under this treatment. p31

The silver solution, when in constant use, rapidly deteriorates, and unless there is a very large quantity, it will soon become unfit for use, and however much or little there may be, it is only a question of time as to when it will cease to act satisfactorily.

This result is caused partly by the gradual contamination of the solution by the alcohol and ether washed from the collodionized plates that have been sensitized in it. When the bath is seriously affected in this manner, it is indicated by the difficulty experienced in getting the developer to flow evenly over the plate, and also by the strong alcoholic odor of the silver solution.

The necessity for a change of the bath may be delayed for a time by the addition of alcohol to the developer, which causes it to flow more evenly.

Another source of evil to the bath is the continual absorption from the surfaces of the plates immersed of minute portions of the salts with which the collodion is excited. After the silver solution has taken up all it can dissolve or assimilate, the surplus is held in suspension and is called free iodide, which deposits itself on the surfaces of the plates, and when in quantity causes the plate when taken from the bath to appear as if fine sand had been sprinkled over it. These small crystals prevent the action of the light on the parts they cover, and when the plate has been developed and fixed, every crystal has produced a small transparent spot or pinhole, as it is termed, and many a lovely negative has been ruined by pinholes.

This trouble may be cured by increasing the quantity of the solution and adding more silver nitrate, which, if in sufficient quantity, will dissolve the free p32 iodide. But if it may not be convenient to do this and no other solution is ready for use, then, after immersing your plate, tip the bath dish back so that the face of the plate may be inclined downwards, when the crystals will be deposited on the back of the plate and do no harm.

The silver bath is also contaminated with organic matter, taken up from the edges and backs of the many plates used, of which some portion of the albumen is likely to be exposed to the action of the solution, and also from dust, etc., falling into the bath dish, which will be taken up and held in solution by the acid in the bath, but when the acid can hold no more in solution, its presence will be indicated by a greyish white vail forming on the surface of the plate when developed; this is called fog, and may only partially obscure the image, or it may completely veil it.

The fogging of the plates in this manner may be prevented for a time by adding more nitric acid to the bath, which will dissolve the organic matter and prevent its deposition on the plate.

When the silver bath has, from long or much use, become seriously affected by any of these evils, it should be set aside and a fresh bath put in use, until an opportunity offers to thoroughly cleanse and renew the old solution, which can be done by one series of manipulations, as thus:

Into a large bottle, which will hold the solution to be treated, and somewhat more, put from a pint to a quart of water, according to the quantity of the solution; into this bottle containing the pint of water, pour in a small stream the whole of the old solution, when it will be found to have turned to a milky whiteness p33 or opalescence, which is the iodide of silver set free by reducing the strength of the solution; this must be filtered out, and the solution neutralized with bi-carbonate of soda, which should be put in, in small quantities until a deposit of carbonate of silver begins to be formed; then place the solution in an evaporating dish, and subject to heat until the bulk is reduced about one-half; test it with litmus paper, and if acid, give it more bi-carbonate of soda; add water and silver nitrate to bring to the required bulk and strength, set in the sunlight for a time or until required for use, then filter, and it will be found to be as good as new, but it may require a few drops of nitric acid.

Pure water may be always had ready for use, by keeping a large bottle full of the common water standing out-door in the sunlight, adding a grain of silver from time to time as the bottle is emptied and replenished.

The new "agate iron ware" pots are the best for use as evaporating dishes. They will not break or crack, and they are not nearly so expensive as porcelain dishes.

There are a thousand and one formulÆ for developing solutions for the wet plate, but they are all composed of protosulphate of iron or a compound thereof, acetic acid, and water, with the addition of some organic substance, such as sugar, rock candy, glycerine, etc. etc.

The development of a negative is nothing more than the deposition of metallic silver in a state of fine sub-division upon a base of the same metal, which is the image latent in the collodion film after exposure in the camera. And it is supposed that the finer the deposit p34 secured in the development the better will be the chemical effect and printing quality of the resulting negative. Therefore, the use of organic bodies in the developer is supposed to effect or induce a finer deposit. The careful observer, however, will soon discover that the success of the development depends more on the time of exposure, the temperature of the developing solution and the condition of the bath, than upon any adventitious aids, such as rock candy, etc.

A developing solution, composed alone of an aqueous solution of protosulphate of iron and acetic acid, can be made to produce the finest effects possible to the process.

DEVELOPING SOLUTION

Half fill with protosulphate of iron a wide mouth 64 oz. bottle, fill up full with water, set aside to dissolve, shaking the bottle once in awhile, so that the water may become saturated. Put a small glass funnel on a stand, so that you can place under it a 16 oz. bottle; fill the 16 oz. bottle with water and enough of the strong iron solution to make a twenty grain to the ounce solution, add one ounce of acetic acid, pour all into the filter and place the bottle beneath the funnel to receive it. This filtered solution is the developer for negatives.

Some experience is necessary to enable one to develope a negative properly and secure the best results.

Holding the plate in the left hand, take the developer bottle in the right, hold it over the plate near the left hand, let the first finger of the right hand rest against the edge of the plate, tilt the bottle so that the developer will run on the plate; at the same time move p35 the right hand toward the other end of the plate rather quickly, letting the developer run in a steady, but not copious stream; deflect the plate with the left hand at the same time, so that the solution will flow from you in such a manner that the whole surface of the plate may be covered with the liquid at nearly the same time as possible. Now set down the bottle and keep the plate in motion, so as to cause the solution to have an equal action on every part of the surface. Very soon the image will appear and brighten, until every part of the detail comes out, and when it begins to look as if fading away or becoming less distinct the development is finished.

This can be ascertained with more certainty at this time by holding the plate so as to be able to look through it toward the light, so as to examine its density, remembering that the high lights should be quite dense and the medium shadows be full of detail. One very soon learns to know the proper density.

The plate should be now very thoroughly washed, to free the surface from the iron before fixing.

Great care should be taken in this manipulation to cover the plate quickly with the solution, holding it all on the plate. As the development is made by the precipitation of the free silver on the surface of the film upon the latent image, none of the free silver should be washed from the plate by a flood of developing solution carrying it off the surface.

FIXING SOLUTION

Hyposulphite of soda is generally considered to be the most suitable fixing agent for negatives, although some prefer cyanide of potassium. p36

The hyposulphite, however, is the safest, both for the plate and for the operator. One pound of hyposulphite of soda to a gallon of water will make a solution of a suitable strength to clear a negative as rapidly as is necessary, and it should be contained in a flat dish. When from much use the fixing solution becomes muddy, it should be thrown into a suitable receptacle for liquid wastes, as it is rich in silver.

Leave the negative in the fixing solution until all the iodide of silver is dissolved from the film, and no trace of the yellowish deposit can be seen by transmitted light.

When the negative is thoroughly cleared, if it is found that it lacks density or, in other words, is not intense enough, wash it very carefully to free it from every trace of the soda solution, and then proceed to strengthen it in the following manner:

INTENSIFYING THE NEGATIVE.

Keep near at hand in a 64 oz. bottle this solution:

Protosulphate of iron	2 oz.
Citric acid	1
Water	64

and in a small bottle a ten-grain-to-the-ounce solution of silver nitrate.

When a negative is to be strengthened, from the large bottle take enough of the solution to cover the surface; to this add a half dram of the silver and flow it over the negative.

A change of color will at once take place in the film, which will become darker as the silver deposit becomes heavier; if one application is not enough to secure the required density, wash the plate and proceed again, as before. p37

Negatives may be strengthened before fixing, if it is found necessary, by flowing the surface with the weak silver solution and afterwards using the ordinary developer.

When one has become accustomed to the work, and can tell that the negative is not dense enough before fixing, it is the best plan to re-develop before fixing.

The mercurial intensifying solution for dry plates is very nice for wet plates.

Having described the positive and negative collodion process, there remains to give an account of the latest and greatest achievement in photographic progress.

---

THE BROMO ARGENTIC DRY PLATE PROCESS.

The history of dry plate photography comes within the last ten or fifteen years, and being so recent and so fully written up in current photographic literature, space in this work will not be taken for a full account of the rise and progress abroad and at home of this wonderful improvement in photography, but instead will be given some formulÆ for the preparation of Gelatino Argentic Emulsion, and the most approved methods of working it.

The shortening of the time of exposure for sittings in the studio from one-tenth to one-twentieth of the time required for the old wet plate process, at its best, has rendered the dry plate such a power in the hands of the photographer as to have caused it to be almost universally adopted in the studios of this country, and has practically displaced the wet process in the field and for all out-door photography. p38

GELATINE EMULSION.

Since the introduction of the new process into the United States, the preparation of rapid dry plates has been and remains now in the hands of certain prominent firms, who, from the skill they have acquired and the advantages they derive from all the machinery and conveniences that large capital enables them to procure, are enabled to supply fully the demand with a much better article than could be had were each consumer to manufacture for himself. In fact, if the photographer were compelled to manufacture his own dry plates there would be a very different condition of affairs at the present time.

Gelatine is a substance so susceptible to change from the action of our climate, with its varying temperature, that of a large number who have attempted to make dry plates for the trade, many have completely failed, some of them after a partial success; and others after spending thousands of dollars never could make two batches of emulsion alike; and then again the keen competition of the successful concerns has reduced the profits to not more than fair returns to a precarious business.

There are many, no doubt, who would be glad to experiment in this field, especially among amateurs, and it is for the benefit of such that certain hints and formulÆ are given in this connection to enable them to make, if successful, their own plates.

The formulÆ herewith given are selected from a large number published in the German, English and American journals, and while good dry plates may be made by either of them, yet it is doubtful if the highest success would repay the outlay. p39

A careful study of the published formulÆ and the current literature on the subject of Gelatino-Bromide Emulsion will disclose the general principles on which they are based.

A certain amount of bromide of ammonium or potassium (preferably ammonium, on account of its greater uniformity and purity) and nitrate of silver are dissolved separately, and mixed together in a thin solution of gelatine, at a moderately warm temperature. Great sensitiveness is obtained by a long exposure to the same warm temperature, or by the addition of a small amount of ammonia, and raising the heat to the boiling-point for from a half to a full hour; when it is cooled more gelatine is added and the whole allowed to congeal or set, when it is reduced to shreds, and washed in cold water to remove the excess of the preponderate salt.

The sensitiveness of the emulsion is said to depend upon the fineness of sub-division of the grain of the bromide of silver in the presence of the gelatine. This extreme fineness is secured by long emulsification, or by the use of ammonia and a boiling heat.

The strength and tenacity of the emulsion depend on the quality of the gelatine, and its freedom from deterioration during the process of emulsification and the subsequent washing. A soft gelatine is suitable for the process of emulsification; afterwards a hard quality is used to give body and resistance.

The presence of free bromide or of free nitrate of silver in the finished emulsion would be fatal to its usefulness; therefore, as both of those salts are easily soluble in water, they must be got rid of by washing; consequently, before washing, the mass of jelly should p40 be induced by the use of a refrigerator to set firm and hard, so that it may be broken up into shreds for washing, and the smaller the shreds the less washing they will require.

Of the following formulÆ the first two are copied from English photographic year books, and are believed to be reliable; the others are by Dr. Eder, the greatest German authority on gelatine emulsion, and they are comparatively simple.

GELATINE EMULSION. A.

PAGET PRIZE.

NO. 1.

Hydrochloric acid	1 drachm
Distilled water	12½ oz.

NO. 2.

Distilled water	3 oz.
Bromide Ammonium	210 grains
Gelatine	50

Twenty minims of No. 1 solution are introduced into the whole of No. 2, and the Gelatine is left to swell.

In another glass vessel 330 grains of nitrate of silver are dissolved in 3 ounces of distilled water; a small quantity, about two fluid drachms, of the latter is poured into a test tube and diluted with an equal bulk of distilled water.

The solution of the bromo-gelatine is then rendered complete by immersing the bottle in hot water, and the dilute silver nitrate is added all at once.

The bottle is then shaken and the remainder of the strong silver solution added in quantities of half an ounce at a time, shaking the bottle as before after each addition. p41

The emulsion is then boiled for fifty-five (55) minutes, and when cooled down to 90 degrees F., one ounce of gelatine, which has been previously swelled and dissolved in water so as to measure four ounces, is added and put away in a cold place to set.

When set, squeeze through coarse canvas into cold water one half gallon and ¼ lb. salt; let it remain for five minutes, then wash thoroughly.

The addition of two ounces of alcohol and enough water to make up to twenty ounces completes the process.

In the preparation of this or any gelatine emulsion the work may be carried on in daylight as far as the mixing of the bromide and silver, which must be done in a dark room by the aid of a lamp or gas light shaded by orange or ruby glass. Sufficient of this non-actinic light may be admitted to enable the work of washing the emulsion, and afterwards the coating of the plates, to be carried on with ease and comfort, as the emulsion when wet is only half as sensitive as when dry.

GELATINE EMULSION. B.

JARMAN.

Picked white Gum Arabic	75 grains
Bromide Ammonium	200
Gelatine	150
Water	10 oz.
Nitrate of silver	300 grains
Water	7½ oz.

Dissolve in two jars in a vessel of water heated to 140 degrees F., stir each solution well with a separate rod or strip of glass, and when equally heated to 140 p42 degrees the silver may be poured in a gentle stream into the gelatine gum solution by the aid of a safe light.

When all has been mixed and thoroughly stirred, cover the top of the dish and allow the temperature to be at 140 degrees for eight hours, occasionally stirring the emulsion during that time, which should be done in the dark.

At the end of that time there should be weighed out, of Nelson's soft gelatine 250 grains, and of French hard gelatine 150 grains.

This 400 grains of gelatine must now be added to the emulsion, and occasionally stirred until all of it is thoroughly dissolved and incorporated with the emulsion, which will take about a quarter of an hour; it is then poured out in a clean 12×10 deep porcelain dish to set, and should be allowed to set for forty-eight hours, when it may be wrung through a piece of coarse canvas and allowed to fall into a solution of

Common salt	½ lb.
Water	1 gallon

Let it remain in this for five minutes, then strain through a horse hair sieve and wash it well for an hour and a half. Allow the shreddy emulsion to drain well in the sieve for about a quarter of an hour; at the end of that time place it in a clean stone-ware jar to melt, with the addition of four drachms of saturated solution of nitrate of potash upon melting, which may be done by setting the jar into a dish of water at a temperature of about 120 degrees F.

It will be found on measurement to be nearly 25 ounces of emulsion; as soon as it is ready for filtering four ounces of methylated spirit may be mixed with it, p43 to which have been added four drachms of an alcoholic solution of tannic acid, made by mixing ten grains of tannic acid with one ounce of alcohol; this is to prevent frilling.

The rapidity of the plates will be about eight times that of a wet collodion plate, which for all ordinary purposes will be as rapid as could be desired.

Dr. Eder, the distinguished German scientist (who is a great authority on gelatine emulsions, and has published a book on this subject), gives the two following formulÆ:

GELATINE EMULSION. C.

EDER.

Bromide potassium	4	grams, equal to	61 grains.
Gelatine	7½ to 8	grams, equal to	115 grains.
Water	50	c. c., equal to	1 ounce.
Nitrate of silver	5	grams, equal to	77 grains.
Water	50	c. c., equal to	1 ounce.

Dissolve the silver in water and precipitate it with ammonia. Continue the addition a few drops at a time, until the brown oxide of silver re-dissolves and the liquid looks as bright as pure water; the strength of the ammonia is immaterial.

The nitrate of silver may be warmed to 93 degrees F., and poured into the bromized gelatine a little at a time, continually stirring with a glass rod. Rinse the silver bottle with 10 c. c. about 1½ drachms of water and add it to the emulsion, place the bottle containing the emulsion in a basin or saucepan of water heated to 90 degrees F., leave it therein from 15 to 30 minutes without further heat; after 30 minutes the emulsion is ready to be congealed previous to washing.

This emulsion never fogs, but it is imperative that p44 in no part of the progress the temperature should exceed 100 degrees F., and it is a safe rule not to go beyond 90 degrees F. It is recommended to use French gelatine.

GELATINE EMULSION. D.

EDER.

Bromide of potassium	61 grains.
Gelatine	115
Water	1 oz. (plus)

The bromide of potassium must be pure and not alkaline, ditto the gelatine.

The bromized gelatine must be melted at 140 to 160 degrees, and then add 77 grains of silver nitrate in one ounce (plus) of water. The silver may be warmed to the same temperature as the gelatine, but this is immaterial. Rinse the silver bottle with three drachms of water and add it to the emulsion. The bottle with the emulsion is now put in a saucepan partly filled with hot water, covered to exclude all light, and the water in the saucepan set boiling, which should be continued for 25 to 30 minutes, then both water and emulsion cooled down to 90 degrees F., then add 340 minims of ammonia, stirring it thoroughly through the emulsion, which should be left for from 30 to 40 minutes at a heat of 90 degrees F., then it is ready to set and wash.

Dr. Eder says this last is quicker and better for portraits.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS USED IN MAKING AND WASHING EMULSIONS.

THE DARK CHAMBER.

Any form of room that has running water in it, if there is a window, the better, unless the work is done p45 at night. If in the daytime, shade the window with heavy red orange paper; if gas is used, shade the flame with a ruby globe or chimney, and cut a piece of tin to fit in the pipe below the burner to cut off rays of light falling through bottom opening of globe or chimney.

If there is no gas purchase a dry plate lantern.

Emulsion in the jelly and when wet on the plates is only half as sensitive as when dry, so that it is not necessary to distress one's self working in the dark.

When the silver and bromide are brought together and mixed, it should be done in this dark room. The solutions are poured into a glazed earthenware bottle, which can be tightly corked. When it is required that the emulsion should be heated, put the bottle into a tin pail, fill the pail with hot water and put on the cover and heat in any convenient manner; when it is necessary to examine the emulsion, remove the pail and contents to the dark room.

A thermometer for testing heat in liquids should be used to regulate the temperature.

A deep porcelain tray is the best dish for holding the emulsion, while it sets previous to washing. To prevent the emulsion from adhering to the tray it may be waxed carefully, but leave no surplus; when the emulsion has set as firmly as it will, it may be cut up into very small squares for washing, but probably the best way is to squeeze it through the meshes of very coarse canvas, such as ladies use for embroidering on with wool. The shreds may be permitted to fall into a fine horsehair sieve placed in a pan of very cold water and allowed to soak for a time, when the sieve may be raised, and the water will in a short time drain away p46 from the shreds. This may be repeated until the water, when tested with silver solution, gives no precipitate of bromide.

After the emulsion is washed it must be melted and filtered before it can be used to coat plates. These manipulations must be performed in the dark room. For melting the emulsion use a small oil stove placed in a tin box, the open side placed to the wall; set the dish containing the emulsion on the tin box over the heat; or, a more perfect arrangement is to take a tin or sheet iron bake-pan, make a hole through the bottom near one end, and into the hole fix and solder a tin funnel, into which you can put a glass funnel that will hold a pint or more; set this pan on the tin box containing the oil or gas stove, the end of the pan containing the funnel projecting over the tin box towards you; fill the pan with hot water, which the heat of the stove beneath will keep hot; into it set the dish containing the emulsion to be heated or melted; when that has taken place pour into the funnel to filter, through loose absorbent cotton or a thin piece of chamois skin or flannel, as you prefer; the funnel will be kept warm by the hot water in the pan surrounding it.

Filter into a pitcher with a lip suitable for pouring from, or a small earthenware teapot would be better. You would be using the emulsion from the bottom, and thus avoid air bubbles; when all is filtered set the pitcher or pot into the hot water to keep of an even temperature.

TO PREPARE THE GLASS.

Soak the glass in strong lye or potash for a time, then wash carefully and put into acid, then wash p47 again and albumenize with the white of one egg to six ounces of water without ammonia. The plates should be slightly warm when being coated.

COATING THE PLATES.

Hold the plate in the left hand, as you would for coating with collodion, flow with emulsion as you would with collodion, letting the surplus flow off the right hand lower corner, but do not let more than the gross surplus run off; retain enough to make a rather thick film; now move the plate so as to facilitate an even distribution of the film, then set the plate on the leveled cooling table.

THE COOLING TABLE.

This table should be a large slab of marble or slate with a perfectly plain and level surface; before using it should be cooled by placing ice or a refrigerating solution on it. The coated plates are laid on this level table, where the cold soon chills the emulsion, causing it to set, when they may be set up in racks and placed in the drying room or box, where in the course of a few hours, if the conditions are favorable, they will dry and are then ready for use.

THE DRYING ROOM.

The drying room, or box, as the case may be, must be kept cool, and if any current of air is induced it should be cool and constant, so that the drying may proceed with perfect regularity until the process is complete. Should the drying by any means be checked a line will be formed on the plate, showing where the drying stopped for the time.

Plates may be dried by a current of warm air, but p48 they are much more likely to frill during development; and a very little heat will melt the coating.

If the plates are dried by an induced current of air, the process may be hastened by placing dishes, filled with chloride of calcium, in the air passage to the drying box or room. The chloride will absorb all the moisture from the air passing over it, and the dry air will take up the moisture from the plates.

When the chloride of calcium becomes too damp for further use, place the dishes containing it in an oven and drive off the moisture by heat, when the dry calcium may be again used. By employing such means the plates may be dried in a few hours.

After the plates have become dry, they should be packed in good light-tight boxes and kept in a dry room until wanted for use.

DEVELOPING ROOM FOR DRY PLATES.

Dry plates, ranging in rapidity from one-tenth to one-twentieth the time necessary for a wet collodion plate, are now commonly used in the studios of this country. Of course, plates of such extreme sensitiveness require great care in handling, and absolute freedom from any umpremeditated exposure to white light is necessary to their successful use.

It is therefore necessary that the dark room should be remodelled to suit the requirements necessary to the successful handling of such extremely rapid plates, and in this connection it is proposed to describe the necessary changes and alterations.

Any ordinary dark room may with little expense be fitted for dry plate work. First see that every chink or crevice which might admit white light is stopped or p49 filled up, then fit the door or doors so that they will shut tight and remain closed.

For convenience of access to the room while work is proceeding, and for greater safety, it is well to erect a small porch or ante-room at each door, the entrance to which should be at right angles with the dark room door. The door to this porch and the dark room door should be fitted with springs to keep them closed. With this arrangement one can have access to the dark room at any time by closing one door before opening the other.

If the dark room is lighted by a window, it should be glazed with dark red orange glass, and if the exposure is toward the sun, it should be shaded with a green or ruby colored shade on a spring roller. If the sun never shines in the window, the shade is not necessary.

If the room is lighted by artificial light, the best way is to cut an opening in the wall or partition at the most convenient place, make a frame to fit or cover this opening, that will raise or slide, glaze it with red orange glass. On a shelf outside the opening place your gas-burner or lamp, with a large reflector behind, so as to reflect all the light through the glass into the room. If gas is used on the outside an argand burner will be the best, with a common white glass chimney for ordinary work, but for the most sensitive plates a light green or thin ruby chimney will be absolutely safe.

If a kerosene lamp is used, the common white chimney with full flame will be safe; and being outside, the room will not be heated by its flame, nor rendered offensive by its smoke and odor.

In front of the window or of the artificial light, p50 erect a shelf or place a small table with a level top, which will support the developing dishes and bottles of developing solution, and on which the work of development may be carried on.

If the room is so situated that neither window nor gas may be used in the manner suggested, then procure Carbutt's Developing Lantern, which is a most convenient lantern, not only for developing, but for other purposes. See figure.

The dark room should be supplied with running water, and the more generous the supply, the better, as a dry plate requires much washing, and a large stream will do the work much quicker than a small one.

In many instances, however, where running water may not be had, the washing box may be used with advantage. If running water is used, be careful not to use too much pressure; by attaching a rubber hose to the faucet and passing it over a nail or hook above, the pressure may be reduced so that a full but gentle stream falls upon the plate.

Safe closets should be provided to contain all sizes of plates; or the new p51 made by Anthony & Co., may be used instead, both for unexposed and for exposed plates awaiting development.

The dark room should be supplied with the necessary apparatus, such as developing trays, which are of japanned tin, of glass or india rubber; see cuts,

or the patented article, the

p52

and also the dishes to contain the fixing solutions, which may be trays or upright, like silver-bath dishes.

is a capital dish to contain the hypo and clearing solutions and is not expensive, and can be had of all sizes. All these dishes should be kept scrupulously clean when not in use.

There should be Graduates of the 16 oz. and the 8 oz. sizes, and also a minim glass measuring up to p53 one fluid ounce, also one or more of Anthony's Combined Funnel and Filter, for filtering the various solutions.

There should be glass-stoppered bottles for containing the developing solutions, especially the pyro; also racks to hold the plates while drying; FOLDING NEGATIVE RACK. FOLDING NEGATIVE RACK. one finely adjusted scale with apothecary weights weighing to a ¼ lb.; one camel's hair-brush, 3 inches wide, for dusting the plates before p54 putting them in the holders for exposure, and also for removing sediment from the surface of the film after fixing and washing.

Thus fitted and furnished, the dark room is ready and well adapted for the most difficult dry plate work, and we will now proceed to the consideration of the

DEVELOPMENT OF DRY PLATES.

Every manufacturer of dry plates encloses in each box of plates packed for the market a formula for the development of the same.

The various manufacturers of dry plates, whose names will be found in the advertising pages in this book, each have a formula which in some respects differs from all the others, and it is but fair to the maker of the plate, that his formula should be used, unless the operator is of much experience and understands the requirements of each particular kind of plate.

Therefore, while formulÆ are given in this connection, although they are known to be of the best, yet in the hands of inexperience they may result to no better advantage than the formula appropriate to the plate used; consequently, we do not urge their use above any other, but rather that to which the operator is most accustomed.

The alkaline pyro developer is now in general use among professional photographers in this country, and there remains no doubt that it is the best developing agent for dry plates that has yet been brought into use.

This developer is composed of pyrogallic acid and p55 an alkali, either ammonia, sal soda, or carbonate of potash, which, in solution and of proper strength, forms the medium through which the pyro is applied.

To these is added bromide of potassium or ammonium, which is the restrainer, and occupies about the same position or performs the same function as acetic acid in the wet plate developer, and besides being a restrainer it greatly aids in securing intensity and printing quality; and when plates are overtimed in exposure its prompt use may result in securing a good negative.

Some plates require double the quantity of pyro that others do to produce the same quality of negative. After ascertaining the normal amount of pyro necessary to develop plates of a certain make, if it is desired to increase intensity add more pyro, if your plate is developing too intense or hard add more of the alkali.

DRY PLATE DEVELOPER, A.

No. 1.

Carbonate of Soda (Sal)	1 lb.
Carbonate of Potash	1 lb.
Yellow Prussiate of Potash	1 oz.
Bromide of Ammonium	1 oz.
Water	64 oz.

No. 2.

Pyrogallic Acid	1 oz.
Saturated Solution Sulphite Soda	15 oz.

Keep No. 2 in glass-stoppered bottle.

To develop one 8×10 plate, take of

No. 1	1 dr.
No. 2	½ dr.
Water	6 oz.

Put the exposed plate into the developing tray and p56 pour the solution upon it, making sure that all parts of the plate are covered, and no air bubbles fixed to the surface; keep the dish in motion and in a short time the image will begin to appear; if properly timed the high lights will show up promptly, and in due time all parts will appear, and when detail is seen in the shadows take the plate from the dish and examine it by transmitted light. Note the gradations of light and shade; if they appear properly balanced, the plate has been properly timed in exposure. Return the plate to the dish and let the development proceed until the image sinks well into the film and you see nothing very clearly as it lies but the blacks.

Time is necessary in this process to secure enough intensity, and this stage is the most difficult in the process, there being no means by which to judge with any degree of certainty the density of the image before you. It is better then to proceed too far than not far enough, as a slow printing negative is far better than one that is too thin and weak.[1]

When the image has sunk pretty well into the film examine it again by looking through it, and note well its appearance, so that if it is about right when fixed you may remember how it appeared if you wish to increase or diminish the intensity of your next plate.

If the plate has been overtimed it will show up quickly, almost at once; when such is the case quickly pour off the developer and flow the plate with water, washing it well, then prepare more developer with nearly double the amount of pyro and a few drops of a p57 strong solution of bromide of ammonium, which add to the 6 oz. of water and pour on the plate; then take half the usual quantity of the No. 1 solution in a graduate and pour it, a few drops at a time, into the developing tray, watching the action closely and keeping the solution in motion.

The negative at this time probably shows all the detail of the subject, but without any gradation of intensity. If the changes just described have been made promptly you will soon observe that the high lights will begin to gain in strength. Keep up the action by adding more of the alkali, drop by drop, until you can proceed no farther.

The chances are that you will secure a printable negative, but not a very good one; and if it is a portrait the best thing to do is to throw it away and make a new one.

The plate should now be very carefully washed previous to fixing.

Should the film show signs of loosening from the edges of the glass and swell so as to form folds or frills, take it from the water and immerse it in a solution of alum, which will harden the film and stop the frilling. Then wash the film again and put it in the

FIXING SOLUTION.

Hyposulphite of Soda	1 lb.
Alum	¼ lb.
Water	1 gal.

When the soda and alum are dissolved let it stand until all sediment settles to the bottom, then pour off the clear solution and use it to fix until from much use it becomes black and turbid, then make up and use a fresh solution. p58

The plate should be left in the fixing solution for fully five minutes after it appears thoroughly cleared, then take it out and wash until all traces of hypo are removed.

If the plate has not previously been in the alum solution it may now be put in the

CLEARING SOLUTION.

Alum	½ lb.
Citric Acid	2 oz.
Water	½ gal.

Keep this solution in a flat dish, and after the plate has been washed from the hypo put it in this solution for two or three minutes; if there are any remaining traces of hypo in the film it will be decomposed, the film will be hardened and freed from color; when this is accomplished wash again and set the plate up to dry.

While the alkaline pyro developer is the best and gives the finest printing quality to negatives, there are many who prefer (for other reasons) the

FERROUS OXALATE DEVELOPER.

No. 1.

Neutral oxalate of potash	1 lb.
Water	5 pints.

Acidify with oxalic acid and filter.

No. 2.

Protosulphate of iron	1 lb.
Water	2 quarts.

Filter and add 60 drops sulphuric acid.

No. 3.

Bromide of Ammonium	1 oz.
Water	10 oz.

The developer is prepared by mixing together in a p59 graduate the quantity necessary to cover the plate in the following proportions:

Oxalate solution	3 parts.
Iron solution	1 part.
Bromide solution	1/8 part.

For instance, it will take about 8 ounces to cover an 8x10 plate in a flat dish; to make this quantity take of the

Oxalate	6 oz.
Iron	2 oz.
Bromide	2 drs.

Always pour the iron into the oxalate solution, then add the bromide, and having placed the exposed plate in the dish pour the developer upon it, covering the surface of the plate as quickly as possible and removing any air bells that may stick to the surface.

Keep the solution in motion on the surface of the plate and in a short time the image will begin to appear, the high lights first, then the intermediate shades, last of all detail will be seen in the shadows. Now pour the developer off, take the plate out of the tray and look at the back of it. If the subject or image can be distinctly seen it may be considered finished and only needs to be washed and fixed.

If the plate has been over-exposed, which will be indicated by the image appearing quickly, wash off the developer with water, add more bromide to the solution and immerse the plate again.

If, on the contrary, the plate has not had enough time, it will be indicated by developing very slowly and with a very thin and weak image; when such is the case add more of the iron solution, however, not more than to make the proportion of the iron nearly p60 one-fourth of the whole solution. More than this proportion will cause a yellow precipitate, which will settle on the surface of the film and destroy it. If by this course you succeed in securing sufficient detail in the shadows, the negative may afterwards be strengthened.

It is as well, however, when a plate is found to be undertimed (and it is possible to make another from the same subject) to throw it away; it will scarcely repay further attention.

It will be seen that a considerable margin in time of exposure can be allowed and provided for. Yet none the less it is of the utmost importance to learn to give the correct and proper exposure to secure the finest results.

This, it is true, is not always possible, and as an under-exposed plate is lost, any error in exposure would better be in too much rather than in too little time.

It is said by some that by the use of citrate of soda almost any degree of over-exposure may be remedied, but there remains the fact that for a restraining agent to be of any value its application to a negative in development must be almost instantaneous upon the earliest discovery of the over-exposure.

When a large number of plates have been exposed and the first developed indicates that all have been overtimed, then a 50 per cent. solution of citrate of soda, used with judgment, might result in saving the lot.

When over-timing makes itself visible unexpectedly and it is feared that the development will have proceeded too far before the retarder can act, a good plan is to take the plate out of the dish and flow over it a solution of citric acid, containing a little chrome alum, p61 which will immediately stop the action of the developer and give time to make other arrangements.

AMMONIA PYRO DEVELOPER.

No. 1.

Pyrogallic acid	1 oz.
Alcohol	4 oz.

No. 2.

Water	60 oz.
Bromide of ammonium	60 grs.
Strong liquor ammonia	2 drs.

To use, take of

No. 1 or pyro solution	1 dr.
No. 2 or ammonia solution	10 oz.

This will be enough to develop three or four 8×10 plates, if they are properly timed.

The above is one of the best forms of ammonia pyro developer; it gives negatives of very fine quality.

Many dry plates, on development with ammonia and pyro, show a green fog by reflected light, and a pink or red fog by transmitted light; this fog does not materially injure the printing quality of the plate, but spoils its appearance to the eye, and for that reason many establishments have given up the use of ammonia and in its place use soda or potash.

INTENSIFICATION OF DRY PLATE NEGATIVES.

From the difficulty of judging when the development has reached the right point, in consequence of the opacity of the gelatine film, many negatives are finished before they have acquired sufficient density in development. As a result of this, much attention has been given to the discovery and preparation of redeveloping or intensifying solutions, many formulÆ p62 for which have been published; among the best are the following:

INTENSIFYING SOLUTION. A.

Bichloride of Mercury	120 grains.
Dissolved in hot water	16 oz.

Add to this a strong solution of Iodide of Potassium drop by drop, until the red precipitate begins to redissolve, then add a few grains of hyposulphite of Soda, or enough to clear the liquid.

When required for use pour part of this solution into a tray of a suitable size for the plate, add an equal amount of water, then immerse the plate and keep the solution in motion. You will immediately notice a change in the color of the film; take the plate out, and if it has gained enough strength, wash it and set it up to dry; if not, give it more.

It is proper to state that this process is more effective if the plate has been dried after development.

When the plate has been thoroughly fixed and fully washed, it will intensify by this method, without change of color by transmitted light, and it will have secured a lovely printing quality rarely seen even in the most perfect negatives.

This solution may be used until it is exhausted.

ROCHE'S INTENSIFIER. B.

Water	10 oz.
Sulphate of Copper	100 grains.
Bromide of Potassium	100

When dissolved, this solution is ready for application and can be used repeatedly.

The negative, after fixing and washing, is immersed in the solution until it turns white. p63

Now remove it and wash slightly, then immerse it in old ferrous oxalate developer and allow it to remain until it becomes black entirely through the film. This method gives fine results and good printing color.

PRACTICALITIES.

Form the habit of noticing carefully the intensity of the illumination of the subject on the ground glass of the camera, so as to judge correctly the time of exposure, as much of the successful working of dry plates depends on the exposure; for although slightly under-exposed or much over-exposed plates may by suitable modification of the developer be saved and print good pictures, yet they will lack the glow and balance that are characteristic of the most perfect work.

Use a flat camel's-hair brush to remove any dust from the plate, before putting it in the shield for exposure.

Always keep your developing solution in motion on the plate.

Fix your negative very thoroughly; leave it in the hypo 5 or 6 minutes longer than it is apparently necessary.

Never use hypo after it becomes discolored or turbid and deposits a sediment.

Develop longer than you think necessary; a slow printing negative is preferable to a weak one.

Keep your dark room and its contents very clean and free from dust, and well ventilated.

RETOUCHING, OR STIPPLING THE NEGATIVE.

No photographic establishment in these days is considered to be well equipped that does not employ a skillful retoucher and provide all the apparatus and p64 conveniences for the proper performance of this very important branch of the art.

It is within the memory of many photographers when this work of retouching was done on the positive, and some establishments were compelled to employ a large force of skilled hands to work up and finish the crude productions of the camera and the printing frame.

After the introduction of the carte de visite portrait, and later the Imperial card, and the consequent reduction in price, the expense of this work became such a burthen to photographers that they were compelled to perfect their mechanical operations to the utmost extent, and by every means to endeavor to avoid it.

It occurred then to some one of the retouching artists to do this work upon the negative once for all, and from this beginning the art of retouching the negative has reached its present high position.

Retouching, like stippling or hatching in miniature, is a work of art, skill in which is gained only by assiduous practice controlled by good taste, and it is the special work of the artist and not of the photographer.

While then it is not considered wise for the photographer to be his own retoucher any more than it is for every man to be his own lawyer or doctor, yet every photographer should know enough about the art and practice of retouching to appreciate good work and to detect the bad. And for that reason he should make a study of it both from the artistic and the mechanical points of view.

By such a course of study he will learn to produce that quality of negative that will require the least amount of improvement at the hands of the retoucher. p65

The work of retouching requires certain appliances to facilitate it, and its own special room or atelier. A small well-ventilated room having a window with a northern exposure is the best adapted for this work. This room should be supplied with the necessary conveniences, such as the retouching stand or frame, which in its earlier form is as represented in Fig 1, but which, after a time, became much improved upon; one form of improvement is shown in Fig. 2, but neither of these forms became universally used, as many artists fashioned their stands or frames to suit their individual p66 taste or the requirements of their room or light. The march of improvement, however, is never delayed by such a condition of affairs, and was not in this case.

It became necessary on the part of those interested in the manufacture of such apparatus to produce something that should meet all requirements, and this has indeed been accomplished by the production of the desk represented in Fig 3, which is called the Novel Retouching Desk and is suitable for any size of negative under 25×30; it has a false top which can be pulled down to darken the space in front of the ground glass cut out.

The bed on which the negative is laid can be set at any inclination to suit the convenience of the artist.

By means of the slide-rest the negative may be moved up or down to any desired position.

It is handsomely made in hard wood, and would be quite an ornament to any retoucher's room. p67

Next in importance would be a varnishing table, a small table or bench supplied with a gas or oil stove. See Figs. 4 and 5.

Also Anthony's retouching varnish and varnish pot. See Fig 6, page 68.

A tin pot as shown in cut, with a filter and funnel in top; rubber stopper in spout.

The retoucher's room should also be supplied with

• Faber's Siberian leads, full set,
• Eagle lead pencils,
• Metallic leads,
• Camel's hair pencil brushes,
• Camel's hair blender,
• Guenther Wagner's retouch colors,
• India ink,
• Water colors, blue, white and red,
• A coarse sharpening stone,
• Fine emery paper.

p68

The principal work of retouching, the stippling of the face, neck and shoulders when bare, and the hands, is done with Graphite or metallic leads, and directly upon the varnished or film surface.

The gelatine emulsion film is strong enough to take the pencil without varnish, and many prefer to retouch and even to print them before varnishing; but it is pretty generally conceded that gelatine negatives will receive the pencil better when varnished. p69

Before varnishing a gelatine plate, heat it as much as it will bear, so as to drive off all moisture from the film, then let it cool to the proper temperature before applying the varnish.

If the varnish used is too smooth or hard to take the pencil, a better tooth may be given it by the application delicately, to the parts to be retouched only, of a solution of rosin in turpentine, which should be allowed to stand and dry an hour or so before the retouching is done.

The work of retouching is very trying to the eyes; great pains should therefore be taken to ascertain the most favorable conditions of light and distance under which to work.

A negative should be kept at one angle and stationary while being retouched.

There should be as little lead used on a negative as is consistent with good work; make every touch tell to some purpose.

Note carefully the way the subject is lighted, and let the effect of the stippling be in that direction; you will thus be less likely to change the character or likeness of the face.

The lights and shadows should be caused to blend imperceptibly; this will give a harmonious effect.

Let the grain or stipple be seen in all parts suitable in fineness to the size of the head.

The refinements of negative retouching cannot be taught in books, although much has been written concerning the same.

Try to light your subject and develop your negative so as to get the utmost roundness or relief; then be careful not to destroy this modeling, but improve p70 it by retouching, only doing so much work as to give a soft, clean-looking complexion.

Patient perseverance, close observation and trying again, will bring a certain degree of success, and while only the few can become first-class retouchers all may learn to improve their work by this great help to photography.

SILVER PRINTING.

It was long ago said that silver printing was doomed, that in a few more years it would be among the things that were.

Other processes have been introduced, have had their little day and have passed off, some of them of much merit, and, it was supposed, possessed of every element of permanency, but they were found wanting in some very important respect, and so not being able to hold their ground they passed into the limbo of neglected things.

Silver printing, however, still maintains the field against all comers, and does so by its intrinsic merits alone. No other process has equalled it in ease of production and in beauty of finish, and it is doubtful if any process has results of greater permanence, taking the best products of the process as samples.

The one defect of the process is the possibility of its products fading, but we must not judge of a process by its poorest examples, but rather by its best; if such should be the decision, there are at this day thousands of silver prints that are co-existent with the process and remain as perfect as it is possible for anything on paper to be after such a lapse of time.

A process that is so simple and easy that it can be p71 acquired in a few hours, is predestined to careless working, slovenly manipulation, and to endless scamping at the hands of careless workers. What wonder then if prints fade which were only half made.

Suffice it that the process, intelligently and conscientiously worked, would never suffer from such an imputation.

THE PRINTING ROOM.

All professional photographers practice the silver printing process with more or less of success, as they bestow care and intelligence in the working and are zealous for the reputation of their work.

The proper handling of a negative by the printer requires as much study and skill on his part as does the posing and lighting of the subject in the studio; and the printing room should be as replete with every convenience for forwarding and improving the operations therein conducted, as any other department of the establishment.

This room is generally situated at the top of the house, and wherever situated, should be so arranged that the east, south and west sides may be opened to the sun, that his direct rays may be utilized from the earliest to the latest working hours. Part of the room should be partitioned off in such a manner, and illuminated in such a moderate degree, that the sensitized paper may not suffer from excess of light while the frames are being filled and the changes made.

The printing room outfit consists of the various sizes of printing frames, cardboard, tissue paper and cotton-wool for vignetting, and knives, long-blade scissors, and glass forms for cutting the paper to various sizes, p72 light tight drawers to hold the prepared paper, shelves, and racks for the negatives.

• Mucilage or paste and brushes.
• Flat brushes for removing dust from negatives.
• India ink and Opaque, with pencil brushes and lead pencils for spotting negatives.

THE SILVERING ROOM.

The silvering room may be also used for other manipulations in the process, such as fuming the paper and washing the prints, and should be furnished with all the conveniences for such work, which consist of

• Nitrate of Silver.
• Albumenized and plain paper.
• A flat dish to hold the silver solution, of the size of the largest paper to be floated.
• A fuming box.
• A bottle of concentrated Ammonia.
• A gas or oil stove for drying the paper.
• A dozen or more of Lockwood's patent photo clips. Bi-Carbonate of Soda.
• An Argento meter.
• A 16 oz. Graduate.
• A clock.
• One agate evaporating dish, and 2 or 3 wide-mouth glass bottles, that will hold the full quantity of silver solution in use.

THE SILVER SOLUTION FOR PAPER.

A plain silver solution, of a strength of 30 grains of nitrate of silver to the ounce of water in hot weather, increasing to 60 grains in the coldest, with enough bi-carbonate of soda added from time to time to keep a small sediment of carbonate of silver in the bottom of p73 the bottle or dish, is all that can be desired as a silvering solution for albumen paper. It only needs to be kept up to the proper strength by the addition of silver nitrate and water, when required; and when it shows signs of discoloration a little more soda and an hour's sunlight will keep it in good order the year round.

TO SILVER THE PAPER.

Albumen paper is sensitized by being floated for a time on the surface of this silver solution, albumen side down. For this purpose it is necessary that the solution should be held in a flat dish, like a tray, with sides from 1½ to 2 inches high, and of a size suitable to the size of the sheet of paper to be floated; if a full sheet, then the dish should be 19×24, and may be of porcelain, agate ware, hard rubber, or any other kind that will resist the corrosive action of the silver solution.

Pour the silver solution into the dish; there should be enough to give a depth of at least half an inch. If there is any scum or dust on the surface after the air bubbles have subsided, take a long strip of tissue paper and draw the edge over the surface of the solution, which will remove the scum or any floating dust or air bells that may remain.

Place your paper on a bench or table, albumen up, and with a large tuft of cotton rub the surface, using a light friction over the whole; then turn the sheet of paper over and take between the thumb and first finger of each hand opposite corners diagonally across the paper, holding the corners up and near together; let the sag of the paper sink one end first, until it touches the solution, which can be plainly seen; then let the hands fall until the other end has reached the p74 surface of the silver; then lower the corners gradually, until the paper lies flat on the solution, care being taken that none of the silver solution runs over the edge of the paper to the back.

The corners of the paper may now be gently raised to see if any air bubbles have attached themselves to the surface of the paper; if so, remove them and let the paper fall again to the solution. It will now be seen that the edges of the sides of the paper will begin to curl back, as if repelled from the solution. This may be permitted to a certain extent, but not so far as that the wet surface shall curl over against the back of the sheet. After a short time this action ceases and the rolled edges unroll and fall again upon the solution, which, when they have reached and lie flat, may be taken as an indication that the paper is sufficiently silvered, when it should be removed. With a small pointed stick raise the left corner farthest from you from the solution, take it between the thumb and first finger of the left hand and raise it very slowly, until the right hand far corner is off the solution. Take that corner between the right hand thumb and finger and continue to raise the paper, still very slowly, until it is clear of the solution; then hang it up to dry in a moderately dark place, or better still, place it face down, on a sheet of clean blotting paper, put another sheet over it and on that the next sheet that is silvered, and so on alternate sheets, until you have floated as many sheets as may be needed.

When this is done turn the papers over, bringing the sheet first silvered to the top, which on removing the blotting paper will be found surface dry at least, and may now be completely dried by artificial heat, or by p75 hanging it up two sheets together, back to back, on lines with spring clips, until they dry spontaneously, when they are ready to be fumed.

FUMING THE PAPER.

The fuming box is usually a light-tight box with two compartments; the upper part has a door and should be sufficiently large to hold the amount of paper necessary for a full day's work, without crowding the sheets together or preventing a free circulation of the fumes between their surfaces.

The paper is taken from the lines, each two sheets back to back, the corners fastened with clips and set up on end in this compartment or hung on lines, as the case may be. When all the paper is in, shut and fasten the door and into the bottom compartment (which is usually a shallow drawer, and separated from the upper only by a lattice work of wood) place a saucer containing an ounce or two of strong liquor of ammonia, push the drawer in, thus closing the compartment, and leave for fifteen or twenty minutes, or until you are ready to use the paper.

When you remove the paper from the fuming box do not expose it to strong light until you have it in the printing frames, nor after that, until you have toned and fixed it. Take the spent ammonia from the box and pour it into a bottle; it is useful for other purposes. Many printers cut the paper to size before printing, others simply tear each sheet into halves, quarters, eighths or twelfths, and print them thus, trimming them afterwards, some before toning, others after they are finished and before wetting them for mounting. The most economical method is to trim before printing; p76 all the trimmings should be carefully saved for the silver they contain.

TONING THE PRINTS.

A toning solution is composed of chloride of gold in water with enough carbonate of soda to make it slightly alkaline, and a pinch of common salt. The action of toning is merely the deposition upon the metallic silver in the print of a certain minute quantity of metallic gold from the solution, which deposit causes the change of color that may be seen while the toning is taking place.

The normal toning solution is varied endlessly by the addition of acetates, chlorides and nitrates of various metals and salts and of borax and chalk and such, the object being to produce unusual tones, such as sepia, blue, blue-grey, brown and black, but the richest and most agreeable tones may be produced as well by the simplest means.

THE TONING SOLUTION.

• Water 1 quart.

Into this put half as many grains of pure chloride of gold as you have sheets of paper to tone; after adding the gold make the solution alkaline by adding enough of a strong solution of a carbonate or bicarbonate of soda to turn red litmus paper just blue; then add a pinch of salt, and the toning solution is ready for use. When half your prints are toned, or the toning proceeds too slowly, add more gold, allowing not over 1 grain of gold for each sheet of paper. When all the prints are toned, put the toning solution into a bottle to keep for the next time, when it will probably work better than at first; p77 use it until it becomes badly discolored, then put it into a large bottle to save the waste gold.

The toning must be done in a flat dish that is as large as the largest print that requires to be toned.

Your toning solution being ready, the prints are now to be prepared for toning by being deprived of all excess of silver and free chloride not acted on by the light; in order to do this, put them one by one in a large dish full of water, in this dish keep them in motion for some little time, then prepare another dish containing the same amount of water slightly acidified with acetic acid, and remove the prints into this one by one as before, keeping them in motion; they will at once commence to turn red, and when they are so they may be taken out, the waters of these two washings must be saved for the silver contained therein.

The prints require two more waters after the acid, when they are ready for toning.

Immerse half a dozen or more of the prints, one at a time, in the toning solution and watch the change of color.

They may at first become a little redder from the action of the salt in the solution, but they will soon change to a brown and then to a bluish or grey brown. And when the faces have become as clear and white as to suit as finished pictures, remove them to fresh water and proceed with another batch until all are done.

FIXING THE PRINTS.

Hyposulphite of soda, about 1 lb. to a gallon of water, constitutes the fixing solution; its function is to dissolve all the chloride of silver that may remain in the prints after their previous washing and toning. p78

The prints should be immersed one at a time, and kept in motion so that the solution may have an equal action. When there are a large number of prints the dish containing the fixing solution should be correspondingly large, so that the prints may not be massed together but kept separate and free for the more perfect action of the fixing solution; they should be kept in motion until the fixing is completed, which will be in about 15 or 20 minutes. Some printers ascertain that the action is complete by holding the print up and examining it by transmitted light; if it looks mottled and uneven it is not fixed, but if you can see the fibre of the paper and all is clear, then remove the prints from the hypo into a dish containing brine or common salt and water, one by one as before, and keep them in motion in this brine until all are well saturated with it; then let fresh water run into the dish, which will gradually change the brine to clear water.

The prints are put into the brine, and this gradually changed to clear water to prevent blisters or a separation of the albumen from the paper in the form of blisters. The water may be allowed to run into the dish, the prints being kept in motion, and in the course of an hour they will be sufficiently washed; they may then be taken out and placed between the sheets of blotting paper to remain until next morning, when they can be overlooked, the blemished prints thrown out, and the perfect may be mounted.

The fixing solution should not be used a second time, but should be thrown into a large barrel with the washings, that at some future time the silver may be recovered; when the barrel becomes full, a small amount of saturated solution of protosulphite of iron p79 may be thrown in, the water stirred well, and when the sediment has settled to the bottom the clear liquid may be drawn off and the barrel is ready to receive the next washings of hypo.

MOUNTING THE PRINTS.

The selected prints are again placed in water and permitted to remain until they become saturated; in the meantime some starch paste should be prepared. The prints are then removed from the water and placed on a sheet of glass, face down; when all are thus placed, squeeze out all the water and they are ready to mount. Now with a wide bristle brush spread the paste evenly on the back of the print, carefully removing any lumps or dust or fibre of any kind, then insert under the edge of the print the point of a knife-blade, raise it until you can take it in the fingers, then place it pasted side down on the face of your mount, adjust it evenly and lay it on the table; now cover it with a piece of clean white paper, and with the palm of the hand rub it down until all parts are in contact and all air is expelled from between the print and mount. As the prints are mounted they should be placed in rows on clean white or blotting paper, one layer over the other; on the top place a clean sheet of paper and over that a board of the proper size with a weight on it to press the mounted picture flat; in the course of an hour they will be dry enough to spot.

SPOTTING THE PRINTS.

With a fine pencil brush and Indian ink, go over the prints and carefully touch up all the white spots and other blemishes that may be found on the surface, so that they harmonize in color with the surrounding p80 parts. When this is done the pictures may be lubricated for burnishing.

LUBRICATING THE PRINTS.

Make a pad of Canton flannel, get a piece of white castile soap, rub the pad on the soap until it is well covered, then with this soaped pad rub the surface of each print separately, carefully covering every part of the surface; keep the pad well soaped by rubbing it on the soap after every 2 or 3 prints. While this is being done the burnisher may be heated; when the tool is hot enough to hiss when touched by a wet finger, proceed to burnish. Do not use much pressure; too great pressure will degrade the whites of the picture.

When they are all burnished go over them again with a moderately soft lead pencil, touching up and blending any streaks or spots that may be found; if any streaks or dirty lines are discovered in the direction of the draw of the burnisher, they may be removed by light friction with a piece of Canton flannel moistened with alcohol. This completes the photograph.

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDIO.

Mr. Ernest Lacan, a prominent artist of Paris, France, about ten years ago, wrote for the Philadelphia Photographer an account of some of the prominent studios of that great city, from which I take a description of the studio and establishment of the celebrated Reutlinger.

This establishment comprises the fifth and sixth stories of a fine house on the Boulevard Montmartre.

A handsome and wide stairway leads to the studio. The first thing that strikes you on entering the ante-chamber, p81 which is transformed into an office, is the lowness of the ceiling and the want of light. On the right is a room, larger and better lighted, for the sale of choice specimens of his work. On the left are the exhibition and waiting rooms, which are of medium size and whose principal ornaments are the framed pictures, which cover the walls. A small door leads to the skylight, of which the diagram at the head of this article is a correct view as taken from a photograph.

The view is taken from the door at which you enter. This gallery is formed of two mansards, which have been united by removing the partition; is 39 feet p82 long by 13 in breadth; its height to the top of the upper sash is about 16 feet; the light comes from the north. It is by means of an ingenious combination of white and blue shades, that the artist succeeds in obtaining the charming effects so much admired in his productions. At the end of the gallery is a small room for ladies. The door which is seen on the left leads to the laboratory, which is divided into three small apartments. The first is used for cleaning plates, the second for their preparation, and the third for developing negatives.

This is a diagram of the studio of the famous p83 Loescher & Petsch, of Berlin, who became so well known, some years ago, through the style of picture called "Berlin Heads," which were among the first samples of fine photographs from retouched negatives brought to this country, and which certainly created a sensation.

The shades are arranged so as to show how some of the most charming effects of illumination are produced. The room is filled with diffused light, with a ray of direct light falling so as to produce a clear high light on the prominences of the head of the sitter.

The next diagram is one of the Biglow studios. Mr. Biglow is the author of a book on lighting and posing, which had a large sale, and is a valuable book for positionists.

These three views represent forms of skylight and side-light with north exposure, by which all the finest effects possible are obtained, but other forms of exposure are capable of being utilized with fine success.

The studio of Sarony, of New York, is lighted with a top light similar to the top light of the Biglow studio, and without any side light at all.

A prominent artist of Brooklyn produces very fine p84 work under an east light, or rather a light a little south of east, which to the ordinary photographer would be considered a very difficult light to work. Good effects can be produced, however, under any form of light by the use of shades, screens and reflectors, so that no photographer need regret a favorable location, because unable to have a northern exposure for his light.

The studio should be furnished with every requisite for the production of the finest work, such as

• Lenses and Camera boxes,
• Camera stands,
• Pneumatic shutters for the lenses,
• Scenic grounds; interior and exterior accessories, such as balustrades, rocks, grass-mats, flowers, tables, chairs, draperies, rugs, etc.; head-rests, screens, reflectors, and all such articles as can be advantageously introduced in a picture to improve and embellish.

All these things are of importance, but should be used with taste and judgment. The photograph should never be a picture of a piece of furniture, with a figure thrown in, but rather the accessories should be used only to improve the figure and make it more prominent by increasing the perspective, when possible or allowable.

CAMERA LENSES.

THE OPTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHY.

A solar beam of light is a bundle of rays; a ray being the smallest portion of light which can emanate from a luminous body.

Each of these rays possesses distinctive characters, both as regards their chemical functions and colors.

Sir Isaac Newton proved that the white light emitted p85 by the sun is not so simple as it appears, but is composed of vivid colors, as shown by his beautiful experiment, the Analysis of Light, which is exemplified by the use of a glass prism. (See fig. 1.)

The ray of light A, E, being admitted into a darkened room through a hole A, in the shutter, would fall upon the wall at E. As soon as the prism, B, C, is placed in the path of the sunbeam so as to allow it to fall on one of its angles B, the ray will be refracted, or bent out of its course so as to pass through the prism (as in the line D) and not in the same line, A, E, that it would have done had the prism not been interposed.

Another effect also takes place; the ray of white light is decomposed into its component colors, and if you stand at a short distance from the prism, you will see that these colors are spread out in a triangular form, the base of which is on the wall and the apex at the angle C of the prism. Remove the prism and it is seen that the splendid display of colors upon the wall has disappeared, and a round spot of white light, E, is seen below the place occupied by the spectrum.

The colored image on the wall is called the prismatic or solar spectrum, which, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is composed of seven different colors. The color at the lowest portion of the image is red and the one at the other end is violet, the intermediate parts being occupied by five other colors, and the whole arranged p86 according to the table below, the proportion of each color having been measured by Fraunhofer with the greatest care, with the results placed opposite to each, corresponding with the 360 degrees of a circle, the red ray being the least and the violet the most refracted of this chromatic image.

TOP

Violet	109
Indigo	47
Blue	48
Green	46
Yellow	27
Orange	27
Red	56
	360

The sunbeam, the ray of white light, contains powers within it of which the earlier philosophers had but a faint idea, besides its accompanying heat. There is a principle associated intimately with it, which has the power of decomposing and of determining the decomposition of chemical compounds.

This principle is "Actinism" and is as perfectly distinct in the nature of its properties from light, as light is from the principle of heat, with which it is also closely connected.

Actinism may then be considered as the fundamental principle, on which photography is based, and its power is exerted in forming the image on the sensitized plate in the Camera, as well as subsequently in forming or causing the impression on the sensitized paper exposed to the light beneath the negative.

In this connection we have only to consider the p87 application of this Actinism through the medium of a combination of lenses to form an image on a sensitized plate in the Camera.

It has been shown that when light passes through a prism of glass its colors are separated; this separation is caused by the unequal refrangibility of the different colored rays, the violet being the most and the red the least refrangible of the seven rays.

A ray of light passing through a vacuum progresses in a perfectly straight line, but all matter, however attenuated it may be, has the property of refracting or bending the ray of light.

The refractive power of some substances is immense, while that of others is very trifling. The mode of the refraction depends on the comparative density or rarity of the respective media. If the medium which the rays enter be denser, they move through it in a direction nearer to the perpendicular drawn to its surface; on the contrary, when light passes out of a denser into a rarer medium, it moves in a direction farther from the perpendicular. This refraction is greater or less, that is the rays are more or less bent or turned from their straight course, as the second medium through which they pass is more or less dense than the first.

We next study the utilization of this power of refraction in the manufacture of lenses to overcome the unequal refrangibility of the colored rays of light.

A lens for use in photography is made of glass as pure and as colorless as can be procured, and is ground into such a form as to collect or disperse the rays of light which pass through it. Lenses are of different shapes, and thence receive different names. p88

The figures 1 to 6 represent sections of the variously shaped lenses which are combined for use in photography.

The design in forming lenses is to procure a medium through which the rays of light from any object may pass and converge to a corresponding point beyond; the manner in which the rays proceed through the lens, and then centre in a focal point, will depend on the form of the lens, its capacity for refraction and the distance of the object.

The double convex lens may be viewed as a portion cut out of the side of a sphere. Here, as in all cases of convexity, the focus of the parallel rays passing through the lens is at the centre of the sphere. (See fig. 3.)

A plano-convex has only half of the refractive power of the double convex; the parallel rays, falling on the convex side of the lens, would converge at the distance of the whole diameter of the sphere. Thus the focal point at which the rays of light converge is always regulated by the degree of curvature of the lens. Thus the double convex lens has the greatest power of converging the rays of light; the plano-convex has only half the power of the former. Both these lenses have also the power p89 of magnifying the image of an object seen through them in the same proportion.

The double concave and the plano-concave have the power of dispersing the rays of light and of diminishing the image of an object seen through them in the same proportion.

The meniscus lens has but a very slightly dispersive power, and the concavo-convex merely separates the parallel rays to the thickness of the lens and sends them on parallel as they entered.

All these lenses, having something of the prism in their shape, have the power to a greater or lesser extent of decomposing the light that passes through them. This is called chromatic aberration, because the colored rays do not all converge to the same focus; thus the image seen through them is surrounded by a fringe or border of color.

Single lenses lack the power of producing a straight image of a straight object; the image will have the curve of the lens through which the light passes to form it; a double convex lens will give a greater curve than a plano-convex. This is called spherical aberration.

The main object to be considered in the manufacture of a lens for photographic purposes is to produce one with the least spherical and chromatic aberration.

Spherical aberration is overcome to a great extent by the use (in connection with the double convex) of a meniscus lens.

Chromatic aberration is overcome by the use of two glasses of unequal density in forming one lens; thus p90 the front lens of the portrait combination is composed of a double convex of crown glass and plano-concave or meniscus of flint glass, which two glasses are sealed together with Canada balsam.

The forms of lenses which are corrected for chromatic and spherical aberration will be seen in Fig. 5.

These lenses are termed achromatic, and, although each is formed of two kinds of glass, they are sealed together so as to be practically one lens.

Every manufacturer of portrait or view lenses, uses the six forms shown in the diagram (Fig. 2), in some manner peculiar to himself, but of the six, four will be found in every combination in general use, varied in radii, construction and dimension, according to the use for which they are intended.

Formerly the photographer's choice of lenses was restricted to two combinations, the double combination for portraits and the single for views. There have of late years been invented a great variety of lenses, among which and in the order of invention, probably are Petzval's Orthoscopic, Harrison's Globe, Ross's Doublet, Darlot's Wide Angle and Rectilinear Hemispherical, Steinheil's Aplanatic, Voightlander's Euryscope, p91 and greatest of all, Dallmeyer's Patent Portrait, Wide Angle and Rapid Rectilinear Lenses.

The combinations of lenses are three, the single, double and triple; the latter is now no longer in use, or if so, its use is greatly restricted. The single combinations have greater focal length than the double, and consequently at the same diameters larger pictures are obtainable, and they are principally used for landscape or view work.

The double combinations, so called from having a second pair of lenses behind the first, which have the effect of shortening the focus about one-half, whereby the action of the light is accelerated, and both the spherical and chromatic aberrations more perfectly corrected, which result in an image more delicate in definition and more rotund in form, thus peculiarly qualifying them as portrait lenses.

In the selection of lenses for studio or view work, the intending purchaser, if desirous and pecuniarily able to avail himself of the best, will naturally inquire what make of lenses is the most widely known and used, and it will not take much time to procure a satisfactory answer to the question.

It has been conceded now for some years, both in Europe and in America, that the lenses manufactured by J. H. Dallmeyer, of London, England, are superior to all others, not only for their fitness for the work for which they are specially constructed, but for their adaptability to work beyond anything claimed for them by the maker, and also for a certain undefinable and Æsthetic quality inherent in the negative made by these lenses.

The fact that there is not in the wide world a photographic p92 establishment of any note that does not possess one or more of these lenses is strong evidence of their superiority. In the quality of the glass used, in the perfection of finish and adjustment, in softness, crispness and depth, in rapidity, illumination and every quality that recommends a lens, the Dallmeyer lenses are unrivalled.

The portrait combination now in general use, was first constructed from calculations made by Professor Petzval, of Vienna. Its optical components are, a front crown lens of unequal convex curves to which is cemented a double flint lens of unequal concave curves. The back combination is a crown lens of unequal convex curves and a concavo-convex flint lens at a little space from it. (See Fig. 6.)

For more than a quarter of a century this form of lens had been used without material change in its construction, until Mr. Thos. Ross, by a modification of the curves, succeeded in flattening the field and increased its rapidity by shortening the focus, but left it with the peculiar shallowness of focal depth, especially in the larger sizes, which has been the torment of photographers to this time.

Mr. Dallmeyer was the first to improve upon the p93 original portrait combination, and in his new Patent Portrait Lens he has most ingeniously obtained a diffusion of focus at the will of the operator. By a quarter or half turn of the cell of the back combination the focus is diffused, giving an agreeable softness in place of the shallow plane of excessive and wiry definition so familiar to the photographer.

The diagram, Fig. 7, shows a section of Mr. Dallmeyer's New Portrait Lens. There are two actinic combinations, of which the front resembles the Petzval lens; the back combination differs as regards the ratio of radii of the lenses used, the crown being a deep meniscus and the flint a deep concavo-convex, with their adjacent surfaces dissimilar; their positions also are reversed, the concavo-convex of flint occupies the external position, instead of as in the Petzval, and this lens being mounted in a cell capable of being unscrewed supplies the means of regulating the spherical aberration of the system at will. The lower portion of the diagram p94 exhibits a plan of the mount of the back flint glass lens; this cell admits of being unscrewed, one or more parts of revolutions of the screw indicated by an index and divisions; with this back lens screwed home this combination has all the good qualities of the old form of portrait lens, but with a flatter field and wider illumination.

There are three distinct classes of portrait lenses. The first are lenses of large diameter and aperture compared with their short focal length. In this class the greatest rapidity is obtained at the sacrifice of flatness of field. Of this class are the B and C lenses of Dallmeyer.

The second class are lenses of equal diameter and aperture with those just described; but with about double their focal length, and therefore less rapid, but with more field and wider illumination; of this class are the A series.

In the third class are long focus lenses, which, at three inches diameter have fifteen inches focal length; with the result of a larger and flatter field; they are, however, necessarily slow, but well calculated for out-door views, groups and copying. Of this class are the D series, which, since the introduction of the rapid dry plate, have become available for ordinary portrait work in the studio.

Fig. 8 represents the Dallmeyer Wide Angle Rectilinear Lens. It consists of two cemented combinations, p95 each composed of a deep meniscus crown and a deep concavo-convex flint glass lens; between the two, dividing the space in the proportion of their respective diameters, is placed a revolving diaphragm, the largest aperture of which is^f₁₅; the position of the stop being nearer the back combination avoids the central spot or flare.

This lens embraces an angle of 90 to 100 degrees; it is quite free from distortion, and particularly adaptable for taking views in confined situations, such as interiors, views in narrow streets, &c. Being a double combination its work is more finished and round than that by the single lens.

Probably the two greatest rivals to the Dallmeyer Wide Angle Lens are the Actinic Doublet of Ross (Fig. 9), and the Steinheil Aplanatic (Fig. 10). The Ross Doublet consists of a crossed crown lens, cemented to its correcting flint lens, which is a crossed concave, the whole forming a deep meniscus the focus of which is equal to the back combination or about double that of the equivalent focus of the complete instrument, the posterior meniscus combination consists of a meniscus crown lens cemented to a concavo-convex flint lens. The two combinations are mounted rigidly with a rotating disk of p96 diaphragms or stops placed midway between the lenses.

The Steinheil consists of a front and back corrected combination of precisely the same shape, mounted rigidly and having a rotating disk of apertures placed midway between the lenses.

These are three distinct types of view lenses of wide angle, and a comparison of the diagrams will show the wide difference in the construction of the two latter from the Dallmeyer; and while they stand unrivaled for the perfection and beauty of their work, which is about equal, the Dallmeyer obtains a great advantage over the others in the thinness of its lenses, which enables it to work with greater rapidity, and indeed it has been used with great success with the drop-shutter for photographing moving objects and other similar out-door work.

While the possession of a wide angle lens is indispensable in the varied selection of out-door subjects, yet for many purposes it has been found they are unsuitable; and to meet this want Mr. Dallmeyer has constructed a modification of the wide angle, which he calls Rapid rectilinear. Its construction is shown in Fig. 11. The lenses of the front and back combination have the same general form as those of the wide angle, but they are of smaller diameter, being constructed for angles of 60 to 70 degrees only. It is four times as rapid, and is in fact an aplanatic and symmetrical lens, and may be regarded p97 as the most perfect lens extant. As it admits of the use of a larger aperture it is well adapted for interiors, where there is space for its use, and for almost every purpose of out-door photography, requiring short exposure and no greater angle.

The use of this lens has been greatly extended since the introduction of the rapid dry plate, which admits of its employment as a portrait lens in the studio, and in fact it has become a very popular instrument for portrait work, especially for the larger and life sizes, so that there is a strong probability that before many years the Rapid rectilinear and the D series of lenses of Dallmeyer will be the most useful and the most profitable lenses for portrait work in the studio that have ever been constructed, unless the near future shall give us something not now thought possible in optics.

Dallmeyer lenses are sold only by E. & H. T. Anthony & Co., who are the agents in this country, and as these lenses are quite expensive, and are indeed beyond the means of many, the Messrs. Anthony keep other and cheaper lenses, which are good of their kind, both for portrait and for out-door work, among which are the E A lenses for portraits, and the Platyscope and other lenses for views, etc.

To those desiring advice on the choice of a lens, this much may be said. If it is intended to procure a Dallmeyer, it is only necessary to know the limit in size of the work to be done. If in portraiture, you select a lens that will cover the size of plate you intend to use. If in landscape, or architectural work, or copying, consult the catalogue and order the lens that meets the requirements of the case. There is said to p98 be no difference in these lenses; that is, all lenses of the same series and size are exactly alike, the glass is of the same density, ground to the same curve, and polished to the same degree of fineness, so that each one is as good and no better than any of the others of the same kind and size. It is the same with the view lenses; one may order with confidence, and not be disappointed by receiving an inferior lens, while expecting the best in the world.

It is not so, however, with any other make of lenses; at least I have never heard such a claim made on the part of any other maker, hence for the selection of a lens by any other maker, some thought and experiment are justifiable and even necessary. Under such circumstances, the following method of testing a lens will be found useful.

When of several lenses of the same size it is desired to select the best, attach one to a camera box and focus it on some long object placed parallel with the axis of the lens; adjust the focus so that the part of the object nearest the lens shall be in focus, but near that point where it would begin to lose sharp definition. Mark the position of the carriage on the rail, then turn the focus forward so that the same point will be as near the other extremity of sharp definition, then mark the position of the carriage on the rail and note the distance between the two marks, which will indicate the depth of sharp focus. Now stretch a line across the room and focus the instrument on the centre of the line, and note to what distance on each side of the centre sharp definition extends; this will indicate the flatness of the field. Try all the lenses in the same manner, and secure the one that has the greatest p99 depth of focus and the greatest extent of sharp definition on the horizontal line.

Expensive lenses should be treated with much carefulness. They should be kept free from dust and dampness, and should never be cleaned or rubbed with cloth or the handkerchief; nothing but fine chamois should be used to clean a lens, the fine polish of which (one important factor in its usefulness and value) is so easily injured by abrading its surface with anything of a fibrous or gritty nature.

The lens should always be covered when the day's work is done and while the studio is being cleaned up, to exclude dust, etc., from the glasses.

Examine the lens every morning to see if the glasses are at all dimmed by damp or dust, and if so, use the chamois. You must not expect good work from lenses whose surfaces are in any way dimmed.

Study your lens with care, and learn all its good and weak points, and so enable yourself to take every advantage of instrument, light and pose in making a sitting.

CAMERA BOXES.

The camera box and lens in the hands of the competent photographer are what the brush and colors may be in the hands of the portrait painter. They are the means whereby he produces his portrait and stamps his individuality upon his work. Therefore, when we look back and consider the rude implements the pioneers in our art had to work with, we are often surprised that the work they produced was so really respectable in point of finish and excellence as it was.

Starting from a cigar box and a burning glass, not 50 years ago, the progress made, as represented by p100 the instruments in use at this day, would seem to be fully equal to the advance from Fox Talbot's paper negative to that made on the Gelatine Dry plate.

As late as 25 years ago the box in general use consisted of two sections of square wooden tube, one sliding inside the other, in telescopic style; to the front of the smaller section was attached the lens, and the focusing glass fitted into a groove in the rear of the larger section. The lens afforded the means of adjusting the focus in its rack and pinion movement, and the ground glass had to be removed from its groove before the plate holder could be put in place.

This rude apparatus was considered in its time to be a very ingenious construction, but if the shades of Morse and Draper could contemplate the objects of art that have supplanted the rude constructions they were so familiar with and knew so well how to use, they might well wish themselves back among the living for the pleasure of working with one of the latest camera boxes.

The cameras of the present time seem constructed to meet every requirement of the most exacting intelligence. They are light, yet firm and durable, they are rigid as wood and metal can make them, and yet they are fitted to focus sharply all positions of the human form. They are complicated, yet extraordinarily convenient, and they are made in forms and sizes adapted to every possible use or demand.

There are four principal varieties of camera boxes in general use, viz:

The camera for positives, which includes the multiplier. The camera for negatives, wet or dry, for portraiture. The camera for copying, and the camera for p101 viewing and out-door work; descriptive accounts of the several varieties will be given under their appropriate heads.

THE CAMERA BOX FOR POSITIVES AND THE MULTIPLIER.

These boxes are usually made for use with four or more lenses in a block, by which at one exposure as many pictures are made as there are lenses.

The size represented by Figs. 1 and 2 is usually employed for work in tents or portable houses, on fairgrounds and places of resort at the seaside and elsewhere during the summer season.

Fig. 1 shows the front, with the method of attaching the four lenses, which are of the ¼ size, and they make four pictures on a 5×7 plate.

Fig. 2 shows the back of the same box with the ground glass reversed, and the plateholder partly pushed into position; there are shown also the openings through which the various sizes of pictures are made. This box can also be used with one lens for making two cartes de visite or one cabinet on the 5×7 plate. p102 The same style may be had with the ground glass hinged to the box.

This same style of box is made also of larger sizes, to be used with one or more lenses, of which Fig. 3 represents the size for 8×10, by which with one lens can be made 4 cartes de visite or 2 cabinets on 8×10 p103 or 7×10 plates, and with 4 lenses 8 cartes de visite on the same size plate, or with 9 lenses 18 large gems are made by two exposures.

For gallery work, however, the Figs. 4 and 5 represent p104 the most useful form of multiplying camera, as by their aid everything that would be called for in a ferrotype gallery can be made.

With one lens can be made on 8×10 plate: 2 cabinets, 2 cartes de visite or 1 large picture. With 4 lenses can be made on 8×10 plate by 2 exposures: 8 cartes de visite, and on 5×7 plates by one exposure, 4 cartes de visite.

With 9¹/₉ lenses on 7×10 plate can be made with two exposures: 18 gems; with 4 exposures, 36 gems; and with 8 exposures, 72 gems; on 5×7 plate with 1 exposure, 9; 2 exposures, 18; and with 4 exposures, 36 gems.

The carriage and plate holder of these boxes move vertically and horizontally, thus giving the operator the power of making a great variety of sizes and of using any size of plate from ¼ upwards to 8×10. On the ¼ plate can be made with one exposure, 4¹/₉ gems; 8 of the next smaller size by 2 exposures; and 16 of the smallest size, by 4 exposures, thus bringing into use only 4 of the 9 lenses; the second size is made by placing the lenses horizontally, also the openings in the back of the box, the plate also is laid on its side in the holder.

These boxes are finished in a variety of styles, plain or ornamental, and are fitted with holders for negatives as well as the usual rabbeted holders for ferrotypes, and by their use all the work of a small establishment might very easily be done, as all the sizes of ferrotypes are made from 16 gems on ¼ plate to 72 of the same size on 7×10 plate, and by one lens everything, positive or negative, from ¼ to 8×10 size, are made without difficulty. p105

For the gallery making no pictures larger than 8×10, the above, figure 6, represents the camera box that is the best fitted in every respect. It is light, compact and durable, and it is most accurately adjusted for cartes de visite, cabinets, 4×4 or 8×10 pictures in every style, full length, half lengths or heads. It has the double swing back, with the tangent movement, and is fitted with the Benster holder, which is represented in the cut.

This style can be had in every variety of finish, from the plain to the most ornamented, in mahogany or ebonized wood, with brass fittings or nickel or silver-plated, as may be most desired.

For galleries where larger work is called for, figure 7 represents a box that is made in all the sizes from 11×14 to 25×30, and it is fitted with an attachment (see Fig. 8 for 8×10 to ¼ plate), thus enabling the photographer with one box to fill every order for pictures, from a card to a life-size portrait. p106

This box is fitted with the double swing back, tangent p107 movement, the telescope bed, which renders it very compact, and with the Benster holders.

p108

Figs. 10 and 11 represent varieties of cameras of a highly ornamental kind. They are made of hard wood, ebonized, and with nickel-plated fittings. Fig. 10 has the Wright's patent metallic swing, Fig. 11, the tangent movement.

The "Benster" Plate-holder (see page 109) is intended to, and will undoubtedly, supersede the Bonanza holder for wet plate work, as it is a more perfect silver saver than the Bonanza, while its easy adjustability to every size of plate places it away ahead of anything known or in use heretofore. The operator who has ever used this holder will never consent to go back to any of the old styles while he can procure the Benster. The plate rests on pure silver wire, and there is a trough with large bottle p109 beneath, into which all the silver waste readily finds its way. As the trough is raised, the upper ledge descends, so that the centre of the plate is at all times in the centre of the holder, no matter what size is used. This obviates the use of inside kits, and adapts itself at once to any size of plate, from the largest the holder will admit to one not under three inches square. This is unquestionably the best gallery plate-holder made. By a recent improvement, the horizontal bars may be instantly fastened for plates of any size, and there is also an attachment for the vertical adjustment. For dry plate studio work it is the holder par excellence.

p110

CAMERA BOXES

Copying constitutes a large portion of the business of every gallery, and a camera for that purpose is almost indispensable, as the portrait camera is entirely unfitted for a major portion of the copying work that comes.

The copying camera requires no swing back, but does require great length of bellows and bed, which has often to be supplemented by the cone when a very small picture is to be enlarged to a great size.

A special form of copying camera is adapted to enlarging and reducing negatives, and for making transparencies. This form, Fig. 14, can be so arranged as to render it possible to remove the lens from the position as seen in Fig. 14 to the front, so that the two p111 forms, Figs. 13 and 14, might be combined in one for copying and making transparencies.

THE CAMERA FOR VIEWING AND OUT-DOOR WORK.

The Success Camera, for viewing, Figs. 15 and 16,

p112

is an instrument calculated in every way to meet the requirements of professional out-door work. It is made in a form to secure the utmost rigidity and strength with the least weight. The bellows is conical, the bed is folding, the double swing back is convenient and easy of adjustment. In front, Fig. 16. FIG. 16. below the lens, is a small recess, or closet, in which extra tubes, flanges, screws, screwdriver, etc., may be safely carried; when folded, its bulk is small and occupies but little space. From the front to the outside surface of the bed, as folded, is only six inches, and the weight for 11×14 box, with ground glass and plate-holder, is only twenty-two pounds. By referring to the cut, 16, the compactness of this camera may be realized.

From the mode of construction the bed is rendered peculiarly rigid, and in their attachment and arrangement the brass guides are protected from injury. In case that, through accident, any part should get broken, it can readily be replaced without returning the camera.

The Novel View Camera is the latest response to the demand for something that shall be very light and very convenient. Its construction is the result of a series of experiments entered into with a view to obtaining an instrument in the make up p113

of which there shall be no unnecessary weight, and combining easy adjustment with great rigidity. It being absolutely necessary that a view camera shall permit the use of the plate both horizontally and vertically, all the older forms of view cameras were built square, to permit the shifting of the plate, thus adding very much to the weight of the instrument. In this instrument, however, all that is possible has been done to reduce the bulk and weight; in doing so several new p114 improvements have been adopted. The box itself is very little larger in outside measurement than the largest plate it will take, and the double holder is so perfect as to be very little if any heavier than the glass plates it is intended to contain. The greatest improvement is the revolving bellows, the front end of which is fastened in the light frame-work in such a way that when the back is detached from the bed the whole bellows revolves, instead of requiring to be unbuttoned, as heretofore, making a great saving in time. The back is held to the bed by metal plates having slotted holes, which permit the passage of round screw-heads, which slide over the slots and thus hold very firmly. The back may be detached and changed from a vertical position to a horizontal in so short a space of time as two seconds, by the watch.

These boxes are made with a double swing, the combination of the two swings making it possible to avoid all distortion of lines.

These cameras are made in all sizes from 4×5 to 18×22, and they are decidedly the camera of the period. The 3 suitable sizes are fitted with partitions, and extra fronts for stereoscopic work.

The novel dry plate holders for these cameras are stripped of every unnecessary bulk and weight; each will contain two plates, except the sizes above 8×10, which are fitted with a patent shield, each one of which has two slides working in the end and in the side of the shield, therefore the slide can be withdrawn from the side of the shield, no matter in what position the camera is placed. These shields are single for one dry plate only. All the sizes of Novel Cameras above 8×10 are made with the ground glass of the same focus p115 as for wet plate holders; if desired wet plate holders can be furnished to order.

THE KLAUBER CAMERA.

A new idea has been perfected and carried out in connection with the Novel Camera, making it a combination View and Portrait Camera with the above name. See Cuts 18 and 19. A portrait attachment has been constructed to fit the back of the larger sizes of the Novel Camera, which can be attached or detached in a few seconds, thus rendering it unnecessary that there should be two large and expensive cameras in one gallery. This is an exceedingly valuable improvement for the larger sizes in more than one particular. The 18×22 size, with ground glass and two plate holders, weighs only 50 lbs.; the measurement of this size outside is 11×22×30¼ inches only.

p116

Thus it will be seen that every variety of work in the gallery may be done with two or at the most three Cameras.

The Climax Imperial Cameras for work up to 8×10; a Klauber Camera for portrait and view work from 8×10 to any size desired, together with a Copying Camera, would make a superb outfit for any gallery.

CAMERA STANDS.

A stand or support for the camera box and lens, by means of which the box and lens can be raised or lowered or moved about the room with facility.

The stand best suited for the purpose is one that is strong, and heavy enough to be very rigid and firm, but not so heavy as to be cumbersome and difficult to move. For raising and lowering the camera, which in some cases is quite heavy, there are several appliances, such as levers, screws, weights, &c., &c., and p117 the different styles of camera stands may be designated by the name of the mechanical power which is applied for that purpose, viz:

Lever Stands, Screw Stands, Balance Stands.

THE LEVER STAND.

The Lever Stand, Fig. 20, is one of the oldest forms of camera stand, and is still used in many establishments. The method of raising the top may be seen in the cut. There are two levers, one for each end, by means of which the camera may be inclined upwards or downwards. The levers are held in place by means of springs which press a beveled edge steel plate—attached to the levers near the handles—against a serrated plate of steel, attached vertically between the handles. (See cut.)

This style of camera stand is more used for very large and heavy cameras than for the smaller kind. They are very firm and rigid, and exceedingly durable, being made of hard wood, well seasoned, and they are consequently not at all liable to get out of order; in fact, a well made stand would last a life-time, if one cared to have a camera stand last so long. The next style in order is the

SCREW STAND,

which is a very popular stand, and its most popular form is that called the Knickerbocker Stand, which is made in 4 or more sizes and has 2 styles of p118 tops; the top seen in Fig. 21 has the name of the inventor of the stand and is called the Stoddard Top; the other, No. 22, is the Acme Top. This form of stand is better adapted for light camera boxes, and is therefore preferred in small establishments and tintype galleries to the other styles, which take up more room and are not so portable.

p119

THE BALANCE STAND.

This style comprises a greater variety of forms than all the others combined, it requiring the least exertion to move the box up or down. The weight of the camera box when placed on the stand top is counterbalanced by weights which rest upon a shelf attached to cords, which pass over pulleys and downwards, to be fastened to uprights which support the top; when properly balanced it requires only a touch of the hand to raise the box or to lower it.

THE BOWDISH STAND.

The most popular form of this stand is the Bowdish. See cut 23. The description will be rendered quite intelligible by observing the weights which are in the centre, between the three legs, and the cords which pass over the pulleys to the three supports of the top. From the peculiar construction of this stand it has the most simple p120 means of adjustment; it is raised or lowered by touch, and a binding screw serves to keep it immovably in position.

Another form of this stand is the Automatic, Fig. 24, which is a later form than the Bowdish, and has several improvements not yet applied to the latter. It is entirely new in shape and principle; it is very light and simple. The various changes are made quicker and easier than with any other stand. A coil spring bears most of the weight in raising and lowering, and self-acting p121 stops hold the centre frame and bind it firmly at any height desired by the operator, no set-screw being required to make it rigid. It has also a new and superior device for tilting the top. Another form of this, very popular stand is the Gem City Stand, see Fig. 25, p122 which in some respects is even better than the Automatic; beside the weight balancing the camera box it has a crank in common with the Automatic for raising and lowering. It also has a very convenient arrangement for copying, which is an extension which moves under the top of the stand and holds an upright support for the picture to be copied; this is a very convenient arrangement for galleries where there is not enough copying done to require a special copying box.

There is another form of stand in use, in which the balancing weight is replaced by a crank and pulley; of this kind is the Handy Camera Stand.

Of this style there is another form that has advantages of its own, which would seem to render it peculiarly a useful and appropriate stand for light boxes; it is the Magic Camera Stand. p123

All these various styles of stands are made in sizes to suit cameras from 8×10 to 25×30.

Fig. 28 represents a style of stand which does not classify, but which is a useful stand in a portable gallery or tent. p124

THE PNEUMATIC SHUTTER FOR THE CAMERA.

This device for making exposures in the photographic studio has proved to be so useful and popular as to have secured almost general recognition and adoption among the photographers of America.

The possibility of making exposures in the studio, unknown to the subject, placed a very decided advantage in the hands of the operator, who, standing at any point, could watch the expression of the subject and seize the right moment to secure the impression desired; so that the pneumatic shutter seemed to be the proper complement to the lightning dry plate.

There is a great variety of these shutters exhibited and for sale, and the number continually increases.

The earliest example of this style of shutter that we know of is the Cadett, an English invention, which, in its introduction into this country, served as a stimulus to the inventive genius of Americans, and, as a consequence, we have the great variety that now may be selected from. An effort was made to apply electricity to use in working a shutter, but it did not succeed, and so the rubber tube and bulb became the accepted means for applying the force necessary to open and shut the slides or doors constituting the shutter.

An attempt has been made to apply a time regulator to the pneumatic exposer that shall keep the lens uncovered for a period of time at the will of the operator, which shall be regulated by an index pointing at a figure representing a definite period of time. By turning the index to any figure, from 1 to 20 or more, representing seconds, the shutter is held open for that time, and then closes automatically. This shutter is opened, in the first instance, by pressure upon a bulb, p125 in the same manner as any of the pneumatic devices. We may enumerate, among the various shutters, those giving the most satisfaction in use,

CADETT'S PATENT PNEUMATIC PHOTOGRAPHIC SHUTTER.

It has often been remarked by eminent photographers that the arrangement is a most useful one which enables persons to be photographed without being aware of it. The efforts in this direction necessitated the operator being close to the camera; here we have an instrument which permits him to be at any part of the studio he pleases.

Many have experienced the difficulty of taking children's portraits with the proper amount of profile; with the above device all difficulty vanishes—the operator may be by the side of the child and attract its attention to any direction, and he has the means of exposing and capping the lens with far greater rapidity than with the usual method.

Directions.—After the day's work is done the rubber tubing should be taken off the instrument; this will prevent a partial vacuum in the bellows and tube, which would otherwise ultimately occur. These instruments are now constructed for application either inside or p126 outside the camera. Its use is very simple—squeeze the ball end of the tube and the shutter opens.

This instrument no sooner made its appearance than Yankee ingenuity set to work to improve on it, or at least to produce something similar that might not infringe on the patent.

The first effort was to bring electricity into use to move a shutter inside the camera box, and a very good device was perfected and sold to numbers who were convinced of the usefulness of the idea, but were unwilling to pay the price demanded for the English instrument. This electrical apparatus, however, soon played out, and few operators had the time or knowledge necessary to keep the battery in order; and in many instances after the sittings had been made it was found, on attempting to develop the plate, that no exposure had taken place, hence these electrical shutters were soon relegated to the limbo of played-out photographic apparatus, of which every gallery of any standing has one. p127

For simplicity of construction and operation, for reliability and good results obtained with it, the "Eclipse" Shutter has gained an enviable reputation. It is safe to say that no shutter is better or more favorably known.

The "Eclipse" is made wholly of metal, and is finely finished. It attaches over hood of lens by a velvet-lined collar, and has a clamp to securely hold it in place. It is made in five standard sizes, collars for hoods of lenses being attached to a shutter of the most suitable size.

When the shutter is in a locked position ready for an exposure, the right-hand leaf of fly covers the aperture of lens. When released, the fly revolves, uncovering the aperture, which is again covered by the left-hand leaf.

When the shutter is in the position shown in cut, less illumination is given to the foreground; but by p128 adjusting the shutter in different positions any part of the view may be favored.

The hair trigger release may be operated either by hand, by a cord, or by a pneumatic device. The pneumatic apparatus costs $1.00 extra.

The speed of the shutter is perfectly controlled by moving the spring on back of shutter from notch to notch on the curved arm.

With this shutter, the latest production of the inventor of the very popular "Eclipse" shutter, exposures can be made of any desired duration. It is equal p129 to any requirement for the most rapid work, and as a time shutter, exposures can be made as quick as two pulsations can be given to air bulb (about one-tenth of a second) or of minutes' duration.

"Duplex" Shutters work perfectly, with even the very largest lenses, up to their full capacity; and several lenses can be used with the same shutter. The shutter gives a full opening; but yet, by the peculiar opening in the exposure slides, any part of the picture can be favored with more or less illumination by turning the shutter, sometimes even inverting it.

The illustration gives a front view of the shutter, one-half size of No. 2, which is suitable for an 8×10 lens, or even larger, as it has an opening at the diaphragm of 1¹/₈ inches.

Inclosed in metal casing are two pivoted slides, which move, in unison, in opposite directions, and make the exposure in one continuous movement without the slightest jar, even when worked at its greatest rapidity. The motive spring is on the back of the shutter, and is of coiled wire; a perfectly reliable spring. Its tension is regulated by moving it along a series of notches. The exposure slides are moved by a stud on the lever shown on front, which passes through the shutter and a slot in each slide, and engages with the spring on the back. On the end of the lever are two notches hidden by the secondary lever. When the lever is fully depressed, the release catches in the upper notch and locks the slides closed. A slight pressure on the air bulb or a trip to the projecting end of the release, frees the slides, and they make an instantaneous movement or exposure. If the secondary lever has been brought into play, by a turn or p130 two of a milled-head nut, the release will catch in the second or lower notch and hold the slides at a full opening, in which position they remain until a second pressure is given to the bulb, or the release is tripped by hand.

The shutters are made in standard sizes, having narrow threaded collars on each side, to which can be adapted tubes to receive lenses, which are to be transferred from regular lens tubes. Any intelligent instrument maker or machinist can adapt such tubes to lenses; the original tube is not used.

HEAD-RESTS.

It might have been thought that the rapid dry plate, by shortening the time of exposure so much, would have done away with the necessity for using head-rests; and many old photographers whose backs have often ached from handling the "Wilson," the "Spencer" and other enormously heavy head-rests, thanked their stars that a time of relief seemed to be at hand. But not so. The head-rest is just as necessary as ever, and the heavy ones are as advantageous now as before. The most important use of the head-rest is to keep the head in the position required. That the head should be immovable is necessary during the time of exposure. Many people are quite able to keep still enough for photographic purposes without a rest for the head, but very few are able to keep the head in the position desired by the operator without some assistance; hence the necessity for the use of the head-rest for even the shortest exposure. One benefit, however, has been derived from the advent of short exposures; there seems no necessity for the use of the extremely heavy varieties. p131 The lighter rests would seem to be capable of fulfilling all the requirements of a head-rest.

The Success head-rest is one variety of the lighter kinds, of which another is the Centennial. These are very useful in the studio, more particularly in posing a group, when it is necessary to have a head-rest for each one of the party; they are also sufficiently rigid for single sitters. They are in all sizes, short for children and long for adults, and if any part should be broken or get out of order duplicates can be had at trifling expense. p132

The Rigid head-rest is of a heavier kind, and is a favorite with many who prefer a medium weight. It sets firmly on its base and can be quickly and easily adjusted to either sitting or standing figures.

The Spencer head-rests are examples of the heavier kind; they are very firm and rigid, and heavy enough to suit the most exacting gymnast or athlete. There are many other varieties of the light, medium and heavy kinds, but the cuts show the best of the various weights, and a selection can be made from these without fear or hesitation.

A gallery should have half a dozen head-rests at p133 least, and while the majority should be of the lighter, there should be a sample of the medium and heavier, kinds, so that no important aid to good work should be lacking.

POSING CHAIRS.

Much attention has been bestowed upon the posing chair since 1865, when Sarony introduced into the country the posing apparatus which first brought his name permanently before the American photographers and the public.

The Sarony posing chair, table, rest, etc., has, however, passed, and remains among the things that were, and many other styles of chair since have had their brief day and are gone.

p134

Among those that still remain in use this continues to be popular, and indeed it is a very useful and elegant article of furniture for the studio; and from the ease with which it can be converted from a high back chair for standing figures, to a posing chair for sitters, it will probably continue to be, as it always has been, the most useful accessory in the photographic studio.

These chairs are so pre-eminently superior in all desirable qualities that it is only necessary that their perfection of manufacture and ingenious plan of construction be seen to be commended by every one. Made of solid walnut, secured by means of a patented iron frame, they unite unusual strength with graceful outline and richness of effect. The quality of materials used, also, has always been of the best; and the constant aim is to make them excel in each and every p135 particular. They have no uncertain joints, no clumsy and unsightly proportions, no "fixings" to become detached or render the chair useless when broken. They are better adapted to the varied requirements of a modern photographic gallery—better suited to the prevailing styles of portraiture, and more in consonance with modern studio accessories.

In short, the Bowdish chair combines the advantages and uses of all the various chairs in market, comprising—

• First.—A chair with high back, with or without arms.
• Second.—A chair with a revolving circular arm. This is an advantage over the ordinary chair with circular arm, which has only the vertical movement.
• Third.—A lounge attachment, which is invaluable for infants and children.

p136

For sitting positions, vignettes, etc., the Novel chair is the best out for low bust and vignette pictures. The back is peculiarly well adapted; it gives support without the back becoming conspicuous in the picture. This chair is a valuable piece of furniture for any gallery, and many prefer it to the old-established favorite Anthony' Position Chair, which has been for many years the useful chair of the studio. p137

ANTHONY'S SLIDING-BACK POSITION CHAIR has been found to be just the thing for many positions, p138 such as half lengths, full lengths and even sittings, and also for babies, as the back and arms are movable.

For some years past the little folks, babies and infants, have become a large part of the most profitable clientage of the photo studio, and much attention has been bestowed on the furniture and accessories suitable for them and their pictures. Among such, the QUEEN ANNE CHILD'S LOUNGE is a novelty itself, indispensable to any photographic studio; the opening between seat and back is an advantage for posing children. (Also made with hole in centre of the high back.)

These two forms of lounge are very useful and popular, having been adopted in many studios doing a large business with the little folks.

An extra cushion is now made for the Child's chair. This, placed in a semicircle under the knees, ensures the favorite pose of babyhood.

Two forms of chairs for babies are very popular with the average photographer, being neat in design and finely finished, greatly adding to the effect of a good photograph of a pretty baby. p139

The Baby Holder is not a chair, but a holder, and can be placed in any chair or on a table, It can be adjusted to any angle, to hold the baby securely in position.

These baby lounges and chairs should be raised on a platform, when in use. The platform should be from 6 to 12 inches high and on large, easy casters, so that it can be easily moved about the room. Such a platform is a great convenience for all sitters, the subject can so readily be moved without being put to the inconvenience of rising from the seat. With these chairs certain little cushions for the back and seat are very useful, and are supplied when required.

---

p140