Gustavus A. Eisen

—An examination of the various vineyards in any or in all the different raisin districts will not help us much in deciding upon how far apart the vines should be set, as most vineyards have been planted by men of no previous experience in the raisin business, and when that experience was at last acquired the vineyards were already established and could not easily be changed. In planting, we are too apt to do as other people do without first inquiring from them if their experience has not taught them anything else, and if they would not do otherwise if they had to commence over again. For years the standard distances between raisin-vines have been eight by eight feet. Of late years this distance was considered too small, as our soil was supposed to be so rich, that all that was required, in order to get large crops, was to give the vines plenty of room. Many vineyards have been set nine by nine, nine by ten, ten by ten, or even ten by twelve and twelve by sixteen feet. The effect has, however, been different from that which was expected. Instead of producing larger crops, those vines which were given more room produced only more wood and more leaves. They followed that law of nature, which causes any animal or vegetable to grow luxuriantly when overfed, and which, on the contrary, causes seed and fruit to form when the vegetable system is restricted to certain proportions, which, of course, we can only determine by actual experience. By giving the vines less space, some inconvenience will be experienced in working the soil, and in drying the crop between the rows. On that account some vineyards have been planted with the vines closer one way than the other, thus giving plenty of room in which to work the soil, while on the other hand sufficiently confining the vines in order to cause them to bear well. I therefore now recommend that the vines be set four and a half by eleven, five by ten and a half, or five by eleven feet. The first would probably be my choice. I claim for this system many advantages, and beg intending growers to carefully consider the following points:

It gives us more vines to the acre, which means more grapes to the acre, as long as the land is of the best quality, and no raisin grapes should ever be planted on inferior soil, or at least the soil should be sufficiently rich to supply plant food to the greater number of vines.

It makes the working of the soil cheaper, and fully one-third more of the work can be done by two-horse plows. The single-horse work can be confined to plowing a furrow on each side of the vines, and to running a cultivator crosswise. As the number of rows in this system is less, it also follows that less single-team work is needed.

The vines protect themselves from the hot sun and hot winds which cause sunscald. The short distances should be in the direction of the hot wind, if any there be, or in the direction of east and west if there are no hot winds in the district. The spaces between the rows will thus catch the morning sun, which is of importance when we dry on trays between the vines.

Less roads will be needed in the vineyard, as the larger distance is sufficient to enable any teams to pass between every row of vines, and distribute trays, boxes, etc., without interfering with the vines. The saving thereby of labor in carrying the boxes and trays is quite an item in vineyards where the vines are planted say eight by eight feet or closer.

Land Scrapers.

The trimmings of the vines can be burned in the vineyard between the rows, and will thus help to fertilize the soil. Besides, the expense of hauling the trimmings away will be saved.

The Marking Out of a Vineyard.

—As any practical horticulturist knows how to stake out an orchard or vineyard, a minute description is not here needed. I will only indicate the most important points. Cut a large number of small pegs, one inch or so square and a foot or so long. Next get two lines of twisted wire, each say 150 feet long. Mark off on one wire every five feet by inserting a small, bright copper wire in the twist, and wind it around the iron wire three or four times, enough to show the place. On the other wire mark off similarly every ten or eleven feet, always supposing these are the distances decided upon. Now stretch one of the wires along one end of the future vineyard and call this line the base line No. 1. Set a peg close to every copper ringlet, on the side of the wire away from the vineyard. When done, stretch the other wire, No. 2, at a right angle with the former, and set pegs similarly. Remove wire No. 1 from base line No. 1 and stretch it at the end of wire No. 2, parallel to the base line. Call this base line No. 2. Set pegs as before every eight feet. It is now evident that, by stretching successively the wire No. 2 between the pegs set on the two base lines, and by setting cuttings or rooted vines close to the copper ringlets on the wire line, perfectly straight and even rows can be had in every direction.

Too much stress cannot be laid on this work. Remember that the vineyard is to last for a lifetime or more, and that any careless work will ever be an eyesore and a drawback. Unsightly vineyards, carelessly staked out, are never worth as much as those carefully planted, where every row is straight, and where plowing, cultivating and other farming and vineyard work can be performed without meeting any obstacles in the way of crooked rows, or of vines standing out of line. Only too frequently vineyard rows are plowed out, and the cuttings are “slapped” in anyway in order to get the work quickly done. In after years, when the proprietor’s taste and experience has improved, he finds that his reputation as a careless or ignorant grower cannot be changed; for the vineyard is there to last, and to tell the tale of early ignorance or neglect.

1-a, b, c, d.—Vineyard Tools used in the Currant Vineyards of Zante.

Relative Value of Cuttings and Rooted Vines.

—Cuttings and rooted vines have their advocates, but the majority of vineyardists are now in favor of planting rooted vines, and I would myself choose the latter every time. As, however, rooted vines and cuttings are both likely to be used as long as vines are planted, a few words in regard to their respective merits may be of general interest. In planting cuttings, we are never sure that they will all grow. Cuttings if cared for generally do well, but sometimes, even with good care, they fail, and the loss and annoyance is then always great, and even in very careful planting seldom over ninety per cent live, while often twenty-five per cent die. The reason is often careless planting, when the season is favorable, but in unfavorable seasons the failure must be attributed to other causes. Those cuttings which grow, generally grow well and often make as good vines as those raised from previously rooted ones.

The replanting of the cuttings that failed to live is both expensive and troublesome. Every vineyardist knows how difficult it is to succeed in making cuttings, or even vines, grow on places in the vineyard where other ones have failed to grow before. Some attribute this difficulty to some poison in the soil, but I believe the cause will be found in the greater difficulty to attend to a few young vines in among the older ones. The older vines will naturally use up the moisture in the soil, and the cuttings, with their young and tender roots, will have but little chance in the general struggle for life. But even if we suppose that the replanted vines will do equally well, it will be found that the replanting of the cuttings is actually more expensive than the first planting. The reason why this is so lies in the greater work in getting the soil in first-class condition after the first planting failed. In the first planting, the soil has been put in order with the help of horses and plows, while, when we replant, the very spots where the vines are to be located cannot be reached by other means than by a pick or shovel, as, no matter how well the old vineyard is plowed, there will always be a hard spot around every vine, or around the place where the vine should be, and where it failed to grow. If only a few cuttings have taken root, it is better to plow up the whole vineyard and reset, and in so doing endeavor to do better work. I know of vineyards where the owners have not succeeded in replanting during ten years, every year spending money and labor with little success. There will always be a few cuttings that fail to live.

The causes of the uncertainty of cuttings are our inability to foresee the outcome of the season’s climatic conditions. More or less rain has a direct influence on our success. Thus in very rainy seasons the cuttings should be small or rather short, so as to be as much as possible in the upper, dryer and warmer soil. In dry seasons, again, the cuttings should be long, so as to be in the moist ground, but as we can never foresee what the season will be, we had better have a recourse to rooted vines, which, if in good condition, will be comparatively independent of weather and wind.

The Making of Cuttings.

—The making of cuttings is not a difficult process, but nevertheless it should be carefully done in order to insure final success. After the vines have been trimmed and the trimmings have been placed in small piles along the rows of the vineyard, the cuttings should be made as quickly as possible on the spot, the laborers moving from pile to pile as they finish up. The shears should be sharp and kept sharp, both to insure good cuttings and to hasten the work. A poor shear is worse than a poor farmhand, and it pays to keep the best kind of every tool that is used in vineyard work. The size of the cutting must be decided upon according to the conditions of the soil. If the land is very wet and is likely to remain so, an eight-inch, or even a six-inch, cutting, will do, and will grow better than a long one. Long cuttings will reach down into the wet soil and decay at the lower end before they take root. In dry and warm soils the cuttings may be from twelve to eighteen inches long, or even longer if it is desirable to bend them in a circular way in the holes in which they are to be planted, or if the soil is very warm and dry, when it is of importance that the cutting should reach the deeper moisture. A twelve or fourteen inch cutting is probably an average size cutting, and one that will answer most conditions, in case they are not previously known.

A nurseryman, or any one who can give his cuttings as much attention as they require, can use even the very tips of the vines and make them grow. But for general planting, especially direct in the field, seldom more than one or two cuttings can be made from a branch. The cutting should be cut immediately below an eye or joint. Such cuttings grow better, are easier to plant and are less apt to dry out. The more eyes a cutting contains the better is the cutting, as the roots mostly form at the joints. Many make the cuttings with a heel of old wood, but I do not believe such cuttings are in any way preferable to those made of only one season’s wood. The old wood does not grow any better than young wood, generally not so well, and, besides, such cuttings with heels are more difficult to plant and handle. When the cuttings are made, they should at first be placed in small piles, with the top ends all the same way, and as soon as possible afterwards tied up in bundles, with at least two strings to every bundle. For tying, any string will do, but split basket-willow twigs are probably the strongest and least apt to root. Still any stout twine will answer the purpose. From one hundred to two hundred cuttings may conveniently be put in each bundle, according to the size of the cuttings.

The Care of Cuttings.

—After the cuttings are made and bundled, they should be labeled with wooden labels and immediately taken to some place where they can be heeled in. The lead-pencil is the best for writing the names. The best place in which to heel in the cuttings is on the north side of some large building, under an open shed or under some large trees. In fact, any place which is partially shaded and cool will do. If the bundles are to be used soon or shipped, they might be placed on the wet ground, and only covered with sacks or with straw, but, if they are to remain any longer time, they must be placed in the ground and carefully covered. A trench should be dug half the depth of the cutting, but slightly wider. The bundles are placed in the trench upright, and after the trench is full the soil from the new trench, parallel with the first one, is thrown on and around the bundles so as to keep them moist. It is best not to keep the cuttings too moist, and on no account should they be wet, as they will then begin to root rapidly, and when they are again removed these roots will break or dry up to the great injury of the cutting. If unavoidably the planting is delayed longer than expected, the bundles of cuttings may be taken out and placed in dry air for a day or for a few hours, and then replaced in the soil. This may be done several times without any injury accruing to the cuttings, the only effect of the drying being to retard their rooting and sprouting, but it should of course not be done after they have once begun to callus or root. To place cuttings in water for any length of time is nearly always injurious, and especially so if the water is bad or contains manure. Manure water always kills cuttings readily. If the cuttings have sprouted, or begun to make roots, or form callus, a careful vineyardist will take his bundles to the field submerged in a barrel or bucket of water, or at least wrapped in wet sacks or blankets. If again the cuttings are dry and a fresh cut does not show a flow of sap, they may be freshened by soaking in fresh water over night. Even very poor and dry cuttings are easily revived this way, but a continuous immersion for several days will injure the cuttings and cause them to rot. It is also of importance that the water should be clear and cold, or at least not warm. Instead of immersing the cuttings in water, they may be set down in cool and moist soil for three or four days before being planted. The soaking in water is the simplest, quickest and most effective for slightly dried cuttings.

Planting Cuttings.

—Planting cuttings in the vineyard can be done in several different ways. They may be planted with a spade, with a flat planting bar, or with the “sheep’s-foot.” Each one of these tools will answer the purpose if properly used, but their selection must depend upon the quality of the soil, and upon the nature of the land generally. In all planting of cuttings, the following points must be observed as of importance in insuring success. The cuttings must be set in moist and cool soil. The lower end of the cuttings must lodge in solid ground, and there must be no air space at the bottom. Only one eye should be left above the surface of the soil. The soil must be tamped well around the cutting from the bottom to the top. All inferior cuttings should be thrown away, and every cutting should be examined before it is planted.

For a description of the tools used in planting, I beg to refer to the end of this chapter. I will now further consider the above points. Many failures are made by not planting in moist soil. If irrigation is needed, irrigate before planting, then plow and harrow, and then plant. When moist cuttings are planted in dry and warm soil, the latter will extract all the moisture from the cuttings, and the latter will fail to grow. I have seen parties first plow deep furrows through the vineyard, so as to air and dry the ground before planting the cuttings. This is not necessary and even harmful. Moist and warm ground is essential to the starting and growth of cuttings. The lower end of the cutting should be lodged in solid ground, or the cutting will fail to grow. This point is of the utmost importance, and should be carefully observed. If, when the cutting is pushed down in the soil, a small air chamber form at the lower end, the butt end of the cutting will mold, and the latter will be poisoned and die. Nine-tenths of all the failures in planting are caused by neglect in this respect. Care is especially needed when the sheep’s-foot is used. Only one eye should be left above ground, which is enough for all purposes. Any more eyes will exhaust the cutting before it is rooted, and the additional length of the cutting will expose it to the danger of being broken or otherwise injured. The soil must be tamped hard all along the cutting so as to cause the latter to attract the necessary moisture. Loosely set cuttings very often fail, especially in dry seasons. All inferior cuttings, especially those frosted or otherwise injured, should be thrown out before being brought to the field. A cutting costs so little that it pays to use only the strongest and best, when a much better stand will be the result. Frosted cuttings can be detected by their darker color. Fresh and healthy cuttings should have a green and fresh cambium or inner bark, and a fresh cut should show fresh sap oozing out.

When the sheep’s-foot is used in planting, the butt end of the cutting is inserted in the forked end of this tool, and this explains why it is necessary to have as little wood as possible below the last eye of the cutting. By pushing the sheep’s-foot down in the soil, the cutting is pushed simultaneously down to the proper length; a twist is then given the sheep’s-foot so as to get it loose from the cutting, and the former is then pulled up. It may in some instances be necessary to push down the cutting with the left hand, while the sheep’s-foot is being pulled back, as care must be taken that in pulling back the sheep’s-foot the cutting is not lifted. Even the smallest lift will cause the lower end of the cutting to hang in an air chamber, and this will, as I have stated, cause the cutting to mold and die. When planted, a few sharp taps with the foot will sufficiently fix the cutting. When the flat bar is used, a hole is first made by the bar, the cutting is then inserted, and the hole filled up by again inserting the bar near the cutting, and by pressing it forward towards the latter. Neither of these tools can be used in dry or stony soils, but in moist and loamy soil, which has been previously well prepared, they are most excellent, as doing the work both quickly and well. The sheep’s-foot is unexcelled for speed in loose soil, while the flat bar is of advantage where the soil is a little harder. The flat spade is used when rocky and stony or even gravelly soil interferes with the using of the former tools. Every farmer will know how to use the spade, and no further explanation is required here.

Some plant the cuttings slantingly in the soil, in order to bring them as near the surface as possible. This is well enough and proper in very wet soils, where the lower strata are too cool, but in this warm country the perpendicular planting is easier and better. By twisting and bending the cutting in the dug hole a longer cutting can be used, but I have seldom found any advantage of very long cuttings, and few soils are suited to raisin grapes when such methods are needed to produce strong and rapidly growing vines.

Care of Young Cuttings.

—In places where irrigation is needed and used, many irrigate the cuttings immediately after they are planted, so as to settle the soil. This, however, is only needed where the ground is very dry or very sandy. It is much the better way to irrigate before planting and to plant on the loose soil after it has been replowed and properly prepared. Such soil keeps the moisture for a long time, and even in dry climates will require no irrigation for months after the planting. The principal care, after the cuttings have been planted, but before they are fairly started, is to keep the ground loose and to prevent it from baking on the surface. The best way to accomplish this is to run a revolving randel harrow over the land regardless of the cuttings. This kind of harrow consists of a row of vertical, slightly concave steel discs, which revolve when the harrow is pulled over the land. No regard need be paid to the rows of cuttings, provided they do not stand too high above the surface, or have begun to swell. Not one cutting in a hundred is injured, and those that are cut off are sure to sprout from below. After every shower of rain, the land should be harrowed or pulverized in this way. If the soil is baked and hard around the cuttings, the latter will be slow to start, but a loosening of the soil will have the desired effect almost immediately. The amount of irrigation needed for young plantations can only be decided upon on the ground. The cuttings should be kept growing, and young leaves should always be seen at the tips of the branches. Long before these young leaves cease growing, a copious supply of water should be added to keep the soil from becoming too dry.

Transporting Cuttings to Distant Parts.

—When cuttings are to be shipped any distance, they must be packed. The simplest method of packing for short distances is to fill the bottom of a sack with wet straw, and then slip the bundle of cuttings down in the sack, and a single string will then suffice to secure the sack to the bundle. Packed this way, cuttings can stand a voyage of a week or more if the weather is not too hot. If a longer voyage, of say several weeks’ duration, is necessary, the cuttings should be packed in dry-goods boxes, and, if the time of transit is not too long, no other packing is needed. If, however, a very long transit is in view, more precautions for the safe arrival of the cuttings are required. After the bundles have been pressed down in the box, moist and fresh moss is packed tightly down all along the sides of the box. Such packing will keep the cuttings fresh for over a month. For a longer time, coarse, pulverized charcoal filled in between the cuttings is a splendid packing. The charcoal must be dry, the moisture in the cuttings being enough to keep them alive for several months. Packed first in tin boxes surrounded by charcoal, and then the boxes soldered tightly, so as to allow no air to enter, is the safest method for transporting cuttings long distances. If there is a possibility to repack at certain stations on the road, wooden boxes may be used instead of tin. The waxing of the ends of the cuttings will help to keep them moist. All lumber boxes should be lined with waxed paper, and all cracks carefully nailed up, as by the drying of the boards the contents are very liable to run out. Large and heavy boxes should be surrounded by iron bands.

Rooting Cuttings.

—There are two ways of planting cuttings in the nursery in order to have them rooted for next season’s planting. One way is to plant in nursery rows four feet apart; the other is to set in beds. For such nursery, a plat of land with rich soil and with good water facilities should be selected. Water should never fail in the nursery, as cuttings always require more water than old plants set farther apart. The rows should be staked out four feet from each other. Six or eight inch cuttings should be used, according to the depth to moisture; the more moisture, the shorter need be the cuttings. With a big, flat hoe the soil along the line of the row is thrown up on one side, the cuttings are set down upright close to the perpendicular side, and the soil is again raked back with the same kind of hoe, and then tamped hard around the cuttings. The latter need not be over two or three inches apart, and from forty to fifty thousand may be set on one acre of ground. In no instance should the cutting be left more than one or two inches above the surface of the ground. The best instrument or tool for opening the soil and for covering the cuttings is the large flat-faced Italian hoe, used by Italian workmen both in Europe and in this country.

If the bed system is adopted, much smaller cuttings may be used, although it is not necessary to have them smaller than six inches. The beds may be two feet wide and four feet apart, in this respect resembling nursery rows, and treated just as such. The cuttings are set in the beds two or three inches apart each way. We must remember that such cuttings require much more water than cuttings planted in four-foot rows, as the quantity soon exhausts the moisture in the soil. The beds may also be square, each one surrounded by a little bank or levee of soil in order to hold the water. In these beds, which should be slightly below the general surface of the ground, the cuttings are set very close,—two or three inches apart,—until the whole bed is filled up. These beds are never cultivated in any other way than by pulling the weeds out by hand. They must be frequently irrigated by flooding, except when the soil is immensely wet or moist.

Vines may also be propagated from a single eye, or from cuttings containing a single eye. Such cuttings may be set perpendicularly in beds or in rows, or they may be placed horizontally in boxes with pure sand, and entirely covered over. The single eyes soon sprout and make nice little plants, with a well-developed system of roots.

All these cuttings planted in beds, if properly watered during the summer, will make excellent vines to be set in vineyard form next season. Being set so close, they require much moisture and irrigation, the many new roots soon exhausting the moisture in the soil. It is better, however, to have the cuttings set as closely as possible, so as not to get too strong vines. An overgrown vine is more expensive to plant and more difficult to handle than one of medium growth. Besides, the latter has a greater number of fibrous roots, which, if in good condition, will give a quick start and rapid growth to the new vine.

Care of Rooted Vines.

—The same precautions are to be observed with rooted vines as with cuttings, only more care is required to shield the roots from the sun and wind. Wet blankets or sacks should always be used when the roots are taken to the field, and, if the vines show the least sign of being dry, they should be soaked for several hours in pure water, and in this respect treated just like cuttings.

Planting Rooted Vines.

—Planting rooted vines is not attended with many difficulties. The most important points to observe are these. The vines must be freshly dug. If not, or if the least dry, soak in water over night. Cut away all dead or dry rootlets. Prune the top of the vine down to two or three buds, and leave only one spur. Have the vines covered while carried out in the field, and plant only in moist ground. The young and tender roots are easily dried if set in warm and dry soil, and they will afterwards decay and injure the vine. A carefully planted vineyard, where rooted vines alone have been used, and where every precaution has been taken to insure success, should have about ninety-seven per cent of the vines growing. To make every one grow would only be possible in a very small plantation. In the large raisin centers, all this planting may be contracted for. The cost of planting cuttings is generally calculated at one-half cent per cutting, and for rooted vines at one cent per vine. Frequently parties contract to supply cuttings and to plant the land for from eighteen to twenty dollars per acre or less. It is generally better to pay the higher price and get the work done properly.

Proper Time for Planting.

—The time for planting cuttings depends greatly upon the season, the quality of the soil and the moisture. In wet seasons the dry land should be planted first, and cuttings might be started there as soon as the first frost allows us to make them with advantage. The moister the soil the later should the planting be begun, and on the contrary the drier the soil and the warmer, the sooner should the cuttings as well as the rooted vines be planted in the fall. December and January are the best months to plant, although with care cuttings as well as rooted vines may be set as late as in April or even in May. As a rule, early planting is better, as it gives the cuttings chance to root well before the hot weather causes the shoots to start. In very rainy seasons, or in wet places, cuttings should be planted later than rooted vines. Moisture in undue degree will cause cuttings to rot, while its influence on the roots of the vines is not as great. Rooted vines stand both moisture and drought better than cuttings do. On sandy, dry soil and in dry seasons I would wish my cuttings planted as early in December as possible; while, on wet places, I would delay planting until after the frost is over in February. The same rule applies to rooted vines, but we must remember that roots begin to send out rootlets almost as soon as they are dug, and that early planting will preserve these for the early use of the vine, while, in late planting, almost every one of these new roots will be destroyed in planting and must be produced over again. We might also say that both cuttings and rooted vines should be set as soon as the soil is in proper condition in the fall. Do not wait for anything after the soil is dry enough to permit planting. Early planted vines will have a good start.

Cost of Cuttings and Rooted Vines.

—The price of Muscat or raisin-grape cuttings generally varies from two dollars and fifty cents to five dollars per thousand, and have been sold as low as one dollar per thousand cuttings. Rooted vines again vary from ten to twenty dollars per thousand, according to the demand and supply. The cost of planting is, of course, different in different localities. In Fresno the ruling prices for vineyard planting with cuttings is one-half cent per cutting. The men board and lodge themselves for this sum. For rooted vines the price is from sixty cents to one dollar per hundred vines. The ground must be in a perfect condition, but the success of the work is never guaranteed, as so much depends upon after treatment. While the actual cost of planting the grapes is insignificant, it will be found that the many different expenses of a large vineyard of say 160 acres will be quite considerable, and few of our larger raisin vineyards in irrigated districts have cost less than fifty dollars per acre during the first year. This includes labor, buildings, tools, etc., but not the first cost of land. With experience and constant supervision, this cost may be reduced somewhat, and under very favorable circumstances from twenty to forty dollars even per acre may cover the cost of planting and maintenance during the first season. But estimates in this direction are not reliable, as one man will spend twice as much as another under similar circumstances.

PLOWING AND CULTIVATION.

Winter Plowing.

—The plowing and cultivation of a vineyard comprise different operations, both in the spring, winter and summer. Winter plowing should begin as soon as the vines are pruned, and should be finished before the buds begin to swell in the spring. The plowing should begin with a large plow and two horses, and the soil should be thrown from the vines towards the center of the land between them. As such a large plow cannot go too near the vines without breaking branches and injuring the buds, a smaller single-horse plow is used to follow after the double team, and to finish up by plowing a furrow nearest to the vines. The depth of this plowing should, if possible, be from six to eight inches in the center of the row, and from four to six inches nearest to the vines.

Vineyard Double Plow.

Plowing Devices.

—To enable the single plow to run as closely to the vines as possible without injury to the vines, several devices are used. The block device consists of inserting a block of wood two inches wide between the center of the clevis and the plow-beam. This throws the singletree out to one side and enables the horse to walk at a distance from the vine, while the plow follows as close to the latter as possible. In combination with this block, the singletrees should be so constructed as not to catch the branches of the vines. This is best accomplished by attaching to the outside end of the singletree a flat, doubled leather strap, to which is fixed a common, large snap, in which latter the traces of the harness are fixed. Such a singletree will glide by the branches without giving them a chance to catch anywhere. Similar singletrees, or even doubletrees, should be used wherever vineyard work is to be done, and they have the double advantage of being cheap, practical and easily made by any farmhand handy with tools.

Cultivation.

—The cultivation should always follow the plowing immediately, so as to prevent the soil from baking, and so as to tear up the roots of the weeds which have been partially dislodged. The first cultivation, which should always be in the same direction as the plowing, should be followed by cross-cultivation. The latter brings the soil back towards the vines, filling up the hollow formed by the throwing of the soil from the vines.

Raisin Vineyard Diamond-tooth Cultivator.

Back-furrowing.

—Later on, when the weeds have to some extent decayed, a double-shovel plow is by some growers used for turning a part of the soil back towards the vines. One round of this plow on each side of the vines is all that is required, as the repeated cultivation that should be carried on in a vineyard will generally suffice to bring the balance of the soil back from the center of the land towards the vines.

Cross-plowing.

—Cross-plowing is not absolutely needed, and in many places not even possible, as where the vines are planted closer one way than the other. But wherever plowing can be done both ways, the land will be benefited by being plowed one way one year and the other way the next year, so that in course of time all the soil will be regularly broken up. When there is plenty of time and enough labor, cross-plowing the same season will greatly benefit the vines.

Weed-cutters.

—These are used to great advantage after the first plowing, and any cultivator may be rigged with one of them, or they may be made as separate tools. The cutter-bar is simply a flat bar, which is bent in the shape of a very wide U, and is fastened to the beams of the cultivator just behind the last shovels or blades. The horizontal part of this cutter-knife should be on the same level as the center of the cultivator blades, and stand as horizontal as possible, in order to be subjected to the least amount of friction. The effect of such cultivator cutters are that no growing weeds are left behind wherever they pass.

Cutter-sled.

—I have used with great advantage a combination of this cutter-knife and a sled, upon which the driver could stand and ride, and its use saved time, besides doing the required work well. Such a cutter-sled is, however, only useful in already well plowed and cultivated soil, and for summer work it is just the thing and can then not be surpassed by any other weed-cutting tool which I have ever seen used.

Raisin Vineyard Weed-cutter.

Various other tools are used, and different ones at that in each separate district. Each grower has his particular way to cultivate and plow, and not two vineyardists do the work alike. Each one has his favorite tools and instruments, which he often changes from year to year or replaces by new inventions of local mechanics or inventors. A description of these tools and the various methods of plowing, cultivating and bringing the land in proper condition would make a book of itself and would be merely a history of each individual vineyard in the land. An enumeration of them will be found later on.

The cultivation of the vineyard should be continued as long as it can be done without causing injury to the new growth of the vines. The exact number of times the vines should be cultivated is impossible to decide upon beforehand, as almost every vineyard requires a different method of working. It is safe to say that during the summer no weeds should be allowed to grow in the vineyard, and, as long as any of them are left, the soil should, if possible, be cultivated. Every weed acts like a chimney for the moisture in the soil, which it sucks out to the detriment of the vine, while weeds which grow in among the branches of the vines will also seriously interfere with the picking of the grapes.

Riverside: City, Orchards and Vineyards.

Hoeing.

—Only little manual cultivation is needed. In the spring, after the first plowing and before the buds have started or have grown long enough to interfere with the work, the vines should be hoed. The object of hoeing is to loosen the soil nearest the vines, and to destroy all the weeds which cannot be turned under by the plow, and especially those which grow close to the vines. The best tool for this purpose is the common, heavy hoe with a long handle. A very useful hoe can be made of old shovels which are so worn and broken that they cannot be longer used for digging. The blade of the shovel is fixed to a new handle at a right angle, similar to a hoe handle, while the blade itself is left as it is. Such hoes are very useful in cutting heavy weeds, and work with great facility. Forked hoes are used by many vineyardmen, especially for stirring the hardened crust around the vine, but I believe the common, heavy hoe a more useful instrument, and if used in time will make the forked hoe unnecessary.

Time for Cultivation.

—Too early plowing or cultivation before the weeds have started is not always desirable, as it prevents the weeds from growing. Such weeds, if turned under, will yearly enrich the land, and in course of time form a heavy and humus-rich top soil, which will serve to keep the moisture in the soil below. I therefore advocate plowing as late as possible. The exact time must be decided for every particular season and for every separate locality, and no general rule can be given. Wet lands should be plowed earlier than dry lands; it is the latter which especially require the green weeds to be turned under, and which will be the most benefited by the accumulation of humus. Our vineyardists disregard this fact too much, and are generally too apt to plow their dryest lands first.

GRAFTING THE MUSCAT ON OTHER STOCKS.

Time for Grafting Raisin-vines.

—The best time for grafting grapevines, as well as for grafting anything else, is when the stock on which we graft has its sap in circulation, and when the scions or cuttings which we are to insert in the stock are yet dormant. This time occurs from the middle of January, when the sap first rises in the old vine, and continues to March or even April, February and March being generally the months best suited to the work. Grafting may also be done in the fall of the year after the grape crop has been gathered, while some growers have best succeeded still earlier, and advocate the month of August as being the most favorable time for this process. The sap at that time ceases flowing, and there is no danger of its being clogged. Grapevines can be grafted at almost any time of the year at which the weather is not too warm, as this will cause the cuttings to bud out before they have joined the stock. If grafting on resistant stocks is desired, the stocks, if small, must first be dug, and the grafting can then be performed in the workshop any time between December and March, the early winter months being preferable.

Points to be Observed in Grafting.

—The main object in grafting is to properly join the scions and the stock. The point of junction should be the cambium layer, or what is commonly called the inner bark. If a cutting of a vine is cut off smoothly and placed in the ground, the callus soon begins to form at the lower end. This callus, which is seen to exude from the green layer between the hard wood and the bark, is fed by the sap in the cutting descending through the cambium layer and forming new cells at its free end. If this callus joins a similar callus of the cambium or green layer of the stock, the two calluses unite and form together a new vine, in which the top consists of the new scion and the root of the old vine. The junction of the two is the place where the cambium surface of the scion met the cambium of the stock. In the scions, the cambium lies very close to the exterior layer of the cutting, the bark here being very thin, while in the old stock the cambium is situated many times deeper in, the outer layer or the bark being very thick. It is not necessary that the cambium layers of the two should meet or join all along the cut surface, and a few points of contact and junction is sufficient, although it is better to have as large a junction surface as possible. If the two cambium layers do not meet, the scion will not grow, or, as it is called, take. The scions must be dormant when being grafted, and, if their buds have begun to swell, they will probably not take, or at least success is less certain. In order to keep them dormant they should be cut early in winter, and then be buried in cool and only slightly moist earth, either in a cellar or on the north side of a house, where the sun and heat will not strike them and cause them to start their buds. If the callus should form, or even root, the callus and roots may be cut away without great injury to the cuttings. If the cuttings are dry, they should be soaked for a few hours in tepid water, and afterwards buried in moist sand. This treatment is often useful for imported cuttings which have been injured in transit. They often recover vigor wonderfully fast, and should never be given up for lost as long as there is any green-colored cambium left, in which the sap may again be brought into circulation.

Various Methods of Grafting.

—The general way to graft is to graft on old stocks. Vines of one variety are thus changed into the variety we wish to grow, and from which the scions are taken. The first step is to dig away the soil from the vines down to the first roots, which should be done by a separate gang of men. Next the stocks are sawed off horizontally at the first roots, or say from four to six inches below the surface of the soil. This should also be done by separate hands so as to insure rapidity and skill in the work. Some grafters saw off the stocks somewhat slanting, so as to cause them to shed the sap which always exudes from the stump. Next in order comes the splitting of the wood of the stock and the insertion of the grafts. This requires care and skill, and should not be done by careless hands.

The splitting of the stock is done in several different ways, and to accomplish it we can either use a knife and a wooden mallet or a hand-saw. If the former is used, the knife must be sharp and thick, so as to stand the blows of the mallet. Some growers even use a sharp chisel. If a saw is the tool used,—and I prefer it every time,—the edges of the old wood should afterwards be pared off smoothly with a sharp knife, so as to leave no rough marks of the teeth of the saw. The stock is split straight across, as in the cleft graft, and one scion is then inserted at each end of the cleft on opposite sides of the stock; or the stock is split on one side only, care being taken that the cleft does not extend across the stump, and in this cleft a scion is carefully fitted as before; or a wedge-shaped piece may be sawed out or cut out of the stock, and of the size that can be fitted by a scion. It makes but little difference what method is used, as with ordinary care and skill the scions will take quite readily. Even if they should entirely fail, the same stocks may be grafted over next fall or next year, as they keep their vitality almost unimpaired for years after they are cut. It is only necessary to saw them off until fresh wood is reached.

The next work is to insert the scions. They should never be longer than sufficient to have one eye above the surface of the soil, two or three eyes to the scion being generally enough. The cuttings are first cut in sufficient lengths in the field, or on the spot, and there pared to fit the cleft in the stock. If prepared in the house, they are apt to dry out and become ruined. By keeping them in water they may be kept fresh, but this greatly injures their quality. The best way is to bring the cuttings out to the vineyard wrapped up in wet sacks, and to cut and pare them on the spot where they are to be grafted. With a sharp knife the two opposite sides of the scions are pared off tapering, but not necessarily to a fine point. The scion is then fitted in the cleft, a small wooden wedge being useful for holding the latter open while the scion is fitted. If the stock closes tightly upon the graft, no tying is required, but, if the grip of the stock is not sufficient, tying is needed. Cotton cloth, manilla rope or anything that will hold the two together will answer the purpose. The stocks and scions will both dry slightly, and the tying should therefore be secure and tight.

A piece of bark of the vine is next placed over the cleft, so as to prevent any soil from falling in the cleft, and very careful grafters use a paste made of a mixture of two parts of adobe or clay and one part of cowdung, for covering both the cleft and the sides of the grafts outside of the tying. A stout stake is driven in the ground close to the graft, and the two tied together in order that the graft may not give or be disturbed in the least. The hole is next filled with soil, which should be packed tightly and heaped above the scion, thus forming a small mound above the ground all around the graft. The soil should not be disturbed until the new shoots are well above the ground and have begun to harden their wood, at which time the security of the graft is fully assured. One or more of the grafts may be left growing for the first year, and later on all except one graft are cut off so as to give the vine only one trunk.

In grafting on resistant stocks, the latter generally being smaller then old stocks, a different graft may be used, such as the whip graft. This graft should be above or at least near the top of the ground in order to prevent the scion from taking root, the latter’s roots not being resistant to the phylloxera. Such grafts should be carefully covered with the clay mixture, and soil should be heaped up over their tops. To prevent the scions from drying out, their tops may also be covered with grafting wax.

Stocks and Their Influence.

—The old stock has a decided influence on the scion and the new vine. Which stock is the best on which to graft the Muscat has not yet been determined, but we may presume that any strong and healthy growing variety will answer our purpose. During the first year, and also during the second year, in many instances the new vine assumes a character half way between that of an old-stock variety and that of the variety of the scions. Thus I have seen Muscats grafted on Sultanas and Zinfandels which were almost identical with these varieties. If I had not positively known that they were the tops produced from Muscat scions, I would never have believed them to be anything else than suckers from the old stocks. The leaves, berries and branches of these Muscats were the first year exactly like Sultanas. The berries of those grafted on black grapes were, however, in this instance, not black but white, but I have heard of other instances in which they were partially colored. Some vines, again, showed characteristics of both varieties, the leaves generally being similar to the old stock, while the grapes showed the characteristics of the Muscats. This bastardity, however, wears off in a year or two, and finally the vine assumes the full characteristics of the scion variety. When this takes place it is evident that the sap of the scion or the top of the vine has either changed the root, or through its quantity overpowered the effects of the root-sap.

Muscats grafted on Malagas, Feher Szagos, Sultanas and Zinfandels all do well in time, and in many instances bear even better than Muscats on their own roots. Our experience in grafting the Muscat is, however, limited, and we do not know with any certainty which roots are the most favorable or the most unfavorable on which to graft the Muscat grape. I have seen grafted Muscats on wine stocks which did not do well as regards bearing, while the growth of the vines was rather vigorous. These varieties mentioned above are, however, suitable stocks for Muscat grafts. I learn from Mr. R. C. Kells of Yuba City that the late Dr. S. R. Chandler of the same locality cleared the third year seventy-five dollars per acre from Muscats grafted on Mission vines. This must be considered as very successful, especially as I have heard of other instances where similar grafts did not bear sufficiently the third year to pay for the labor of caring for the vineyard work that year.

VARIOUS SUMMER WORK.

Sulphuring.

—Sulphuring the vines is now considered a most necessary operation, and without doing it well and in time no good crops can be relied upon. It is true that good crops of grapes are sometimes had without sulphuring, but this is only due to chance; the absence of mildew, and immunity from disease of unsulphured vines are rare, even in otherwise most perfectly kept vineyards.

The sulphuring consists in thoroughly dusting the growing vines, leaves, branches, flower buds and berries with powdered sulphur. The first sulphuring must be done when the grapevines leaf out in the spring, and, when the young shoots are about six inches long, it is about time to commence. Many growers sulphur only once, some go over their vines two times, but our most successful growers,—those who get the best and largest fruit crop of grapes and bunches,—sulphur in unfavorable seasons three or four times. The second sulphuring is done just before the blossoms open, and may even, provided the weather remains cool and windy, be done in the open blossoms with great benefit to the setting berries. Miss M. F. Austin of Fresno was the first to successfully sulphur in the open blossom, the result being very large crops. But not all have been as successful as she, and one of our most experienced vineyardists and raisin-growers, T. C. White, prefers to sulphur just before the blossom opens, as, in case of very warm weather when the sulphur is thrown on the blossom, the latter is apt to blast. We are therefore on the safe side if we sulphur just before the buds have opened, and after the grapes have set. But on cold, windy days when one of the cold electric northwest winds are sweeping down the valleys, sulphuring must be done whether the blossom is open or not, as it is just at this time the sulphur is required the most, in order to counteract the formation of the first stage of the powdery mildew. The vapor of the sulphur destroys the germs of the mildew, and thus prevents the latter from causing the grapes to fall off. After the grapes have fully set, no further sulphuring is required except in the case of heavy rains or in continued cloudy weather, when there is always danger that the mildew will reappear. If heavy rains should occur during the summer, a renewed sulphuring is always necessary or at least advisable, but in ordinary seasons no sulphuring is needed after the berries have set well, as the germs of the mildew are then sufficiently injured to not develop later in the season.

Sufficient sulphuring is always noticeable in the vineyard by its smell, and, when this smell is strong and pronounced, no further sulphuring is required. The sulphur is applied to the vines either by the “dredger” (or dust-can) or by a pair of sulphur bellows. The dredger is used when the vines are small, while the bellows are necessary to spread the sulphur evenly when the vines have reached a certain size. Many growers use, during the first sulphuring, small burlap bags filled with sulphur. The meshes of the burlaps are large enough to allow the sulphur to go through. The sulphur should be finely pulverized to be effective, and the sublimated French sulphur is by many considered the best. The cost of sulphuring varies according to the size of the vines, but is generally about three dollars per acre. Young vines under three years of age require little sulphuring, while older vines require a great deal. About ten tons of sulphur will be enough for 160 acres.

Tying Over.

—The tying over of the branches is another vineyard operation much used in the interior raisin districts, generally in the end of June or the middle of July. It consists in so bending and tying the long, straggling branches of the vine that they will shade the grapes hanging in the center. The long branch is bent, not in a direct line towards the center, as it would then expose too many of the lower grape bunches, but in a spiral direction round the vine. If there is any fear that the grapes will be exposed and sunburned, and the vines have not been properly summer pruned, the tying over is the only process by which great loss can be prevented and the grape crop saved. In tying over, no twine is used. The end of the long branch is twisted and fastened to other branches, and, when the grapes are ripe and the picking season comes, a single light pull will suffice to untie all and allow the grapes to be picked. Great care should be used in tying over, lest the lower branches become exposed and sunburned. Careless or inexperienced laborers will often accomplish a great deal of work and a great deal of harm in an incredibly short time. I have seen vineyards where more harm was done by tying over than by the sun and wind combined.

Covering the Vines.

—Instead of tying over, many vineyardists now cover the vines, and place the covers on the open center of the vine, in order that they may protect the grapes from exposure to the sun. This is done in June, several days before the hot spell is expected. The last week in June is the best time almost everywhere in California, as the vines are then open in the center, and any unusually hot weather would easily cause the grapes to sunburn. The process of covering is very simple. With a pair of shears the longest branches are clipped off and immediately placed on the open center. This is generally enough to prevent the exposed grapes in the center of the vine from being scalded. More than half a dozen branches will seldom be required, and at picking time these dry branches must first be thrown off, so as to give the picker access to the grapes. The covering of the vines is a better process than tying over, requiring less work and being more quickly performed. It is especially useful for old vines, as the grapes of young vines are principally exposed from the sides.

Thinning the Crop.

—The proper thinning of the crop should be done by pruning. If the proper amount of wood is left, no thinning out of the grapes is needed. If a few show-grapes or extra large raisins are needed for exhibiting purposes, they can be produced by a judicious cutting of the majority of the grapes from any single bunch. If the free half of the bunch is cut off, the part that is left will produce very large grapes. This operation is, however, never likely to enter as a regular vineyard operation in our vineyards, as with us labor is too scarce. The object of our raisin industry is to produce cheap medium-sized raisins of good quality, to be used by the masses of the people, instead of a smaller quantity of very large grapes, which could only be used by the rich.

Ringing the Vines.

—This consists in removing a part of the bark all around a cane. In France and Greece a special instrument is made to perform this operation quickly and carefully. A ring of bark half an inch wide is all that is required to have the desired effect. The vines are ringed when the grapes are half grown, and only a few canes are ringed on each vine. The effect of ringing is to greatly increase the crop of grapes, also to produce the grapes earlier in the season. So far this process has not been used in California to any extent. In the Grecian Islands, where currants are raised, this ringing has been practiced for years, with more or less beneficial effect. The sap in the cane that is ringed is prevented from again returning to the root, and goes to produce a larger quantity of grapes above the ring. But thereby the cane is seriously injured, and often to such an extent that it must be entirely removed the following season. Care must therefore be taken to leave enough unringed branches to serve as fruit-bearing wood the following year. If done with care and good judgment, the ringing does no great injury to the vine. For a fuller account of the process, see article on Currants.

The Vineyard Labors of the Year.

—The following synopsis of the various labors in a raisin vineyard can only be of interest to the beginner, or to any one who contemplates engaging in the raisin business. The data given are only approximate, as they must differ in different localities, or according to the changing of the seasons:

December.

—After the first frost, or when the vines are dormant, planting new vines and cuttings may begin. Pruning the old wood. Burning the prunings. Manuring the soil.

January.

—Plowing, cultivating and planting.

February.

—Cultivating and plowing.

March.

—Grafting the grapes and finishing plowing.

April.

—Hoeing the vines and cultivating. Sulphuring and suckering.

May.

—Sulphuring and summer pruning.

June.

—Hoeing. Covering or tying over the vines.

July.

—Irrigating where needed. Fixing trays and sweatboxes.

August.

—Distributing trays and sweatboxes in the vineyard. Picking the first crop. Packing should begin as soon as possible.

September.

—Picking, drying, turning the trays, reversing, taking up.

October.

—Picking the last of the second crop. Packing continues.

November.

—Hauling in, stacking and cleaning off trays and sweatboxes. Irrigating and manuring the land. New land should be prepared for planting, which should begin as soon as the first frost has killed the leaves of the vine.

PRUNING.

Winter Pruning, or Pruning Hard Wood.

—The pruning of vines comprises two different processes. The first one has for its object the shaping of the vines, the second one similarly the shortening of the branches properly so as to enable them to bear better fruit. These two points must always be kept in view, much more so of course during the first few years, before the vines have reached their bearing age. But even in after years the pruning must be so conducted, that the shape of the vine is not changed so as to interfere with the work in the field, or with the perfect development of the grapes. As regards the shape of the vine, it has been decided that in our raisin districts the Muscat requires to be pruned low, in order to properly protect the grapes from sun and wind. The head should be as low as possible, or even rest on the ground, and in no instance be more than a few inches above the same. Many of the bunches will then rest on the ground or hang a few inches above it, and experience shows us that such low bunches are the best and those which produce the finest raisins. Tall Muscat vines never produce as sweet and as large bunches or grapes as those headed low, and their grapes are apt to sunburn or be otherwise checked in their growth. During the first year, the young vine should be cut back to a single stem, it being enough to leave two or three eyes above the ground. The second season these canes should all be cut away except three, which are to form the future head of the vine. Each one of these may be cut to two eyes, thus leaving six eyes on the vine. In the majority of vines, the head should by this time have been formed, as the following year will be the first year in which the vines will bear.

When Muscat vines have grown two seasons, they should be pruned for fruit. The third season will always give some fruit, while, in many localities where the vines have been well cared for, the yield may be quite large and pay handsomely. No direction as to pruning, which will apply to every locality or to every vine, is possible. In different localities the climatic and other conditions are so variable that the methods of pruning may be modified. Where the vines grow strong and vigorous more wood should be left. In cool and sheltered places the vines should be given a greater spread to allow more sun and air to enter. In warm localities, with a broiling sun, the principal object in pruning should be to properly shelter the grapes. There is danger, or at least there are great disadvantages in pruning either too long or too short, and in leaving too many or too few spurs. In pruning too long, or leaving too many eyes, the shape of the vine is changed or even seriously injured. In leaving too many spurs, the vines may bear too many and too small grapes. To find the medium between these extremes is always the great object and study to which the grower should devote his attention. In rich and moist soils which produce strong vines, more eyes should be left, and in sandy, poor soil a few eyes may suffice to cause the vine to bear much more that it can properly mature and perfect. The year before the vines bear their first good crop, the spurs left should not exceed three or four, and each spur should not have more than two eyes, including the eye nearest the old wood, which eye is often overlooked and not counted in. The next year a few more spurs may be left, but at no time should each spur be allowed to carry more than two eyes. If more eyes are left, the lower eyes will not develop, and the only thing attained by such pruning is to increase the size of the head, and to place the leaves and the grapes farther away from the center of the vine.

At the age of six years, or when the vine is in full bearing, no more spurs should be added, as the vine has then attained a mature age, and the yield will increase independently of an increased number of spurs. How many spurs should be left it is not possible to say. The experience with most growers is generally that too few spurs are left, and that from ten to fifteen spurs are not too many on large and healthy vines. The tendency of the growers is now to leave more spurs than formerly, and to always restrict the spurs to two eyes each. This experience has been acquired simultaneously in Fresno, San Bernardino and San Diego counties. Many growers affirm the fact that the difficulty is to get spurs enough, and my own experience is that, after the vine has once attained its age of full bearing, all the strongest branches are required to furnish spurs, and that only the weak and sickly shoots should be cut away entirely. The strong flow of sap in the spring requires many outlets, so as not to unnecessarily push the cell walls and cause disorders, and in case the soil is not strong enough to sustain and perfect so many grapes, it is better to manure it heavily and make it rich enough for all purposes. I believe an average of from eight to ten spurs are required by strong and bearing vines. Only strong canes should be left at any time. Weak and immature canes should be cut off close to the trunk or to the head.

This method of pruning differs materially from that this season adopted by A. B. Butler. He leaves now only from five to eight spurs on the vines, generally the lesser number. He maintains that his object is to produce large and superior grapes, and not to have his vines overbear. The outcome of such close pruning has not yet been demonstrated, but it may be possible that this is the proper way. Mr. Butler has certainly one point in his favor, and that is that it has not yet been demonstrated that very close pruning causes the disease known as black-knot, as quite frequently the unpruned vines show this disease much more than those which are pruned close. Another point in favor of this pruning is that it has been practiced in Malaga for years without any ill effects. But, before such very close pruning can be generally recommended, our experience in this direction should be more extensive, and several years more will be necessary to come to any satisfactory conclusion in this respect. We know, however, that too many (say from twenty to twenty-five) spurs will exhaust the low-headed Muscatel vines, and in order to bring such vines back to proper bearing it has been found necessary to reduce the number of spurs at once to one-third and then gradually increase their number as the vines grow stronger. Every grower should study his own vines and adapt the number of spurs to the quality of the crop. If the crop is inferior, reduce the number; if again the crop is superior, we may try to gradually give a few more spurs in order to reach the greatest yield of first-class grapes. In pruning the spurs, the cut should be made a little above the eye or bud, and not so close to it that it will be injured and dry out.

Suckers from the roots should be removed to a limited extent, that is, now and then a sucker may be left in order to give material for forming a new head, if this should be found necessary. But as a rule the many suckers which rise from the roots should be removed in early spring with a sharp-pointed stick, and even those which rise from below the regular head should be broken off while young, or be pruned off in winter time.

Another system of pruning called the Chaintre system has been introduced, or at least spoken of during the last few years. As, however, it is not generally used, or even to my knowledge used at all, for raisin grapes, I need only here allude to it. It consists of pruning the vine to one single long stem, which is carried along the ground and, at a distance of six or eight feet from the root, fastened to a stake. This branch is pruned to shorter branches and spurs, each of the latter to one or two eyes each to furnish wood and fruit. The advantages of the Chaintre pruning are claimed to be principally two,—a greater yield of grapes and a larger outlet for the abundant sap in the spring. It is supposed that, if the vine is pruned too short, the sudden flow of sap in the spring has a great tendency to poison some of the cells and vessels of the wood, and cause the disease known as black-knot. The Chaintre system endeavors, by furnishing the vine with more cells and vessels, and thus a larger outlet for the sap, to overcome this difficulty. The Chaintre system has, however, some great inconveniences. It interferes considerably with the tillage of the soil. It increases the cost of the vineyard through the extra stakes necessary to support the vines,—inconveniences so great that I doubt whether the system will ever be seriously adopted anywhere on this coast, even if it should prove of any advantage.

The time for the pruning depends upon the season. The only safe rule is that vineyards may be pruned as soon as the vines are dormant. If pruned too soon, a new growth will start, which will be killed by the first frost. In many seasons the pruning may be done in November and December; in large vineyards it must be begun early, so as to finish before the plowing commences. Early pruning will cause the vines to start early in the spring, while late pruning will considerably delay the starting of the buds. When the spring frosts are to be feared, the pruning may be deferred for some months, or until the end of January, as it delays the budding out of the vine in the spring, sometimes as much as fourteen days. But, on the other hand, the first warm spring weather is so favorable to the development of the grapevines and the setting of the fruit, that every advantage should be taken of the same. The very best crops are generally had on early pruned vines.

Bleeding of the Vines.

—The bleeding of the vines after pruning in the spring is by many considered injurious. So far as I know, no direct experiments to prove this have been made in this country, but European experiments with wine grapevines point to no ill effects from the bleeding of the vines. The bleeding retards the budding out, and this fact has led some growers to the practice of pruning twice. In the first pruning an extra eye is left on every spur, and these eyes are again clipped off shortly before the eyes begin to swell in the spring. The bleeding of the vines thus causes the eyes to be retarded until the frost is over. I believe such practice is both unnecessary and too costly, and is not required in any of our raisin districts, and where such practice must be employed the raisin grape cannot be perfectly at home. Of late years spring frosts have become very rare in our principal raisin districts, and the practice of double pruning is no longer thought of.

Summer Pruning, or Pruning Green Wood.

—Summer pruning is a much disputed vineyard operation, which, however, at least in some localities, is of great importance. This summer, or rather spring, pruning consists of cutting back the young growing shoots from one-third to one-half just after the berries have set well. The proper time of the year is in May, but the exact time must necessarily be different in different localities and seasons. In Fresno the cutting back should not be done later than May, and never except when the vines show a vigorous growth. The principal object the summer pruner has in view is to force the secondary branches of the vine as much towards the center of the vine as possible, so as to form there a perfect canopy of shade to serve as a protection to the young and tender berries. If let alone, the branches of the vine will throw out these secondary shoots near the top of the branches, thus leaving the head of the vine unprotected from the sun. The shortening in of the branches necessarily throws the new shoots to the center of the vine. A not less important object to be sought by the summer pruning is the strengthening of the young branch. In May, when the vines are covered by the young and vigorous shoots, they are yet exceedingly brittle, and only a slight pushing is required to break the branch off just at its junction with the old wood. A heavy wind at this time sometimes does an immense damage, and the vineyard will look as though every vine had been dragged over. Half of the branches may be broken and hang partially attached to one side of the vine. A single wind may ruin two-thirds of the crop. This can only be prevented by the summer pruning of the vines. By a heavy shortening in of the branches, the latter expose so much less surface for the wind to act on, that no branches are broken, and we have failed to see the heaviest wind cause any noticeable damage in vineyards which had their vines properly shortened in. The summer pruning in no way injures the vines. The sap is checked in its flow only for a few days, and within a week the new side shoots make their appearance. But the vineyardist must be careful not to summer prune after the hot summer weather has set in, as the hot weather will burn or scald the young grapes and ruin them entirely. For the San Joaquin valley raisin districts, I cannot advise summer pruning after the first days of June; in Southern California, somewhat later. Grapevines on sandy, dry and poor soil should not be summer pruned, or only very lightly so. They have not strength to start a new growth and will remain stunted all through the season.

Many growers of Riverside, El Cajon and Fresno consider summer pruning beneficial, if not necessary, and practice it every year regularly. It is necessary to summer prune heavily or not at all. Cut back one-half of the growth, or cut back leaving one or two leaves above the bunch of grapes on every cane. If the young canes are only topped, the secondary branches will come out near the ends of the canes and bear them down, in time exposing the bunches to the sun as well as causing the second crop to grow too far from the main trunk, the summer pruning thus acting the opposite of which it was intended. In Greece the wine grapevines are summer pruned, but the currants are never so treated.

Root-pruning.

—The pruning of the roots of grapevines, in order to cause them to bear, is entirely unnecessary, and is never done by experienced growers. Some growers have practiced the cutting of the surface roots of the vines so as to cause the tap roots or the main roots to go farther down, and they claim that by this method greater crops are harvested. I am satisfied this is only a theory not supported by facts. Surface roots are as necessary to plants as deep-soil roots, and serve the plants in their way, bringing atmospheric air to the circulation in the roots. If too many surface roots are formed, it is a sure indication of too much water in the top soil, as too frequent irrigation with a small stream of water will cause such roots to form. The proper remedy is to irrigate less frequently, but more at a time. The above does not refer to the pruning of the roots of grafted vines. In cases where Muscats have been grafted on resistant stocks, it is of importance that the graft should not make roots of its own, as these would soon overpower the stock and in their turn succumb to the enemies which it was the intention to avoid. When rooted vines are planted in the vineyard, their roots should be well pruned, and all dead and decaying, as well as dried-up, parts should be removed. If they are allowed to remain on the vines, they will draw moisture from the sound parts at a time when all the moisture is needed for the formation of new roots.

Suckering.

—The object of this process is to relieve the raisin-vine of superfluous wood before the latter has had time to draw on the strength of the vine and deprive it of the elements necessary to support the fruit-bearing branches. The proper time for suckering is early in the spring, when the young wood is yet tender and easily broken. With a hard and flat piece of wood, the lower suckers are dug out from below the ground, while the upper suckers may be broken by hand. A sucker must be understood to be any branch which does not produce fruit at a time when the vine is old enough to bear. In strong and moist soil and on strong vines even the lowest shoots produce grapes, and can therefore hardly be called suckers. But as a rule even they should be removed, unless we have a special object in view, such as renewing the trunk of the vine, lowering its head, or in otherwise encouraging the lower branches.

While few vineyardists take sufficient care and time to sucker their vines, there can be no doubt that the operation is of the greatest importance, in order that as large and good a crop as possible may be secured. It is not only best to remove all the non-fruit-bearing branches which spring out from the root and the trunk, but also a little later on, after the shoots have reached a foot or more, to cut any branch from the head of the vine which does not produce fruit. In many instances, however, it is necessary to renew the head of the vine, and for that purpose lower suckers may be allowed to grow. For a year or two these are pruned regularly and made to bear, and the old sickly head is then removed.

VARIOUS VINEYARD TOOLS.

General Notes.

—It is not my intention to here describe the various tools used in the vineyard so minutely that they can be made after the description, but simply to enumerate and call attention to them in order that as little repetition as necessary may be made. Every local blacksmith or mechanic invents, improves or patents vineyard tools of every description, and almost every year sees new tools introduced and older ones discarded. Still a few of these tools have become standard, and modifications of them are not always improvements.

The Sheep’s-foot.

—This is a very useful tool in planting grape cuttings. It consists of a round rod of three-eighths-inch iron and about three and one-half feet long, furnished with a cross handle at the upper end. The lower end is very slightly flattened out and split to a depth of one and one-half inches, the cleft thus formed being a little wider at the point of the bar, while the interior angle of the cleft should be rounded in order that the cutting may not be cut. The sheep’s-foot is used in very soft ground only, where it can be pushed down readily. In planting, the lower joint of the cutting is grasped by the cleft in the rod, and both are pushed down together to the required depth. A twist is then given the handle, so as to get the rod loose from the cutting. The rod is then pulled up, and a tamp with the foot sets the ground solid round the cutting. Care should be taken that the cutting is not pulled up with the rod, as it will prove fatal to the cutting.

The Planting Bar.

—This bar is used also in loose ground free from rocks. It consists of a flat bar of iron two and one-half inches wide, from three-eighths to one-half inch thick and three and one-half feet long, and is furnished at the upper end with a handle. In using this bar, it is first pushed in the ground, and a hole is made for the cutting. The cutting is then pushed down into the hole, the bar inserted alongside of it and pressed forward, in order to fill the hole and set the soil solid around the cutting.

The Dibble.

—This tool is simply a hard piece of oakwood, with a curved handle and pointed. It is a most useful instrument when the vines are being pruned. By means of it the soil is scraped off from around the trunk of the vine, to enable the pruner to cut off the suckers as close to the trunk as possible. Every pruner should be furnished with a dibble.

Planting Chains.

—These are best made of twisted wire, such as is used for clothes lines. Lines made of cotton or hemp are apt to stretch when dry, and shrink when wet. Copper wires are inserted to mark the distances at which the vines should be planted.

Spades.

—Spades are often used for planting. Long-handled spades are more useful than those with short handles.

Hoes.

—Besides the common, heavy hoes, very useful hoes can be made of old shovels which are too worn to be of account as such. New handles are set on the shovel blades at a right or sharp angle, thus transforming them into veritable hoes. With these tools much more work can be accomplished than with the common, manufactured hoe, which never cuts well. The large, flat-faced Italian hoe imported to this country from Italy is a most admirable instrument when planting cuttings in nursery rows. In fact it is then indispensable.

Plows.

—Of plows, heavy double plows for two horses are used for plowing in the center between the rows, and smaller plows for plowing closer to the vines. As these can be had everywhere, and as every grower has his own preferences, no description of them is required.

Cultivators.

—These are indispensable in the vineyard, and various models are in use. The common, diamond-shovel cultivator for both one and two horses is indispensable in every vineyard. The larger one of these may be greatly improved by affixing to the posterior shovels a cutter-bar, which should stand horizontal and on a level with the center of the posterior shovels.

Randel Disc Cultivators.

—These are useful in ground that has baked before the lately planted cuttings have begun to bud. They seldom cut or injure any of the cuttings, and the whole field may be gone over regardless of rows or cuttings.

The Ash Trough.

—The ash trough consists of a long trough on wheels, all made of galvanized iron, and furnished with numerous perforated holes. It is drawn by two or more horses through the vineyard, and the cuttings are burned in it as it goes along, and the ashes are scattered over the soil. As yet this trough is only used in a few of the largest vineyards, but when perfected will be useful everywhere, as by its aid the ashes may be saved for the vines instead of being wasted as is now so often the case.

Sulphuring Cans or Bellows.

—These are of various shapes and patterns. The cans have been superseded by the simple little burlap bag, which does the same or better work. The bellows are similar to common bellows, but are furnished with a distributing nozzle and with an air opening through which the sulphur can be poured.

The Cutter-sled.

—This is simply a sled four feet long by two and a half feet wide or more, under which has been fixed a horizontal bar of iron in the shape of a shallow U. It is used in the vineyard after the plowing and cultivation is finished, and when it is of importance to kill the few remaining weeds. The driver stands on the sled, which is pulled by one or two horses. It cuts all the weeds below the soil, and is a most effective and useful tool.

Vineyard Trucks.

—These useful trucks are California inventions, and of the greatest importance to the grower. They are now made of various sizes, but should never be over four feet wide, while three feet is even better, and their length should not exceed six feet. They are made to turn readily anywhere by having the front wheels or wheel movable, independently of the balance of the truck. By the aid of these trucks the grower can use horse labor in distributing his boxes and trays in the vineyard, even where the vines are planted so close that ordinary wagons cannot pass. The vineyard truck is now used in all Fresno vineyards, and is considered almost indispensable. The first truck ever made for this purpose was designed and invented by J. T. Goodman of Fresno.

Shears.

—These should be of the very best make of soft steel, and furnished with double springs. So far no good pruning shears are manufactured in this country, the best make coming from Switzerland, and retailed here at $3.00 per pair. It pays any grower to buy the best shears, as inferior ones not only last but a short time, but also do poor and slow work, and in the long run cost more than the best and most expensive make. With a good pair a pruner can in a day cut fifty per cent more than with a poor pair, and from ten to twenty-five per cent more than with an ordinary pair. It therefore can be readily seen how the extra price can be saved in the first day or two. Such fine shears should be handled and cared for very much like a razor. They should never be ground on a revolving stone, but only honed with oil on a fine hone. When the season is over they should be oiled, looked over and laid away. Large shears with wooden handles are not needed for Muscat vines. The best size shear is the medium size, which can be used with one hand.