  Previous to the production of raisins in California within the last twenty years, the raisin industry of the world was entirely confined to the Mediterranean district of Europe and Asia. At that period, however, The Latins generally spoke of Uvae Apiariae or Uvae Muscae, our present Muscatels or dried grapes generally. This carries us back fully nineteen centuries. But we may well believe, even in want of records, that the drying of grapes was practiced centuries before. MODERN RAISIN DISTRICTS.Leaving remote antiquity, it was only in the Mediterranean basin, and in comparatively modern times, that the drying of grapes developed to an important industry, and in more recent times yet that grapes were exported to Northern Europe. While thus the industry is old, it was not until the eleventh century, at the time of the Crusades, that it became important. The returning knights brought with them taste for and acquaintance with the products of the East. Northern Europe became the consumers of raisins, regarding them as the greatest luxuries, only to be afforded by the rich. It has been reserved for our time to make the raisin a necessity even in humbler homes. The perfection to which the raisin industry has attained is of modern origin not yet half a century old. The raisin districts of the world are not large, and while for centuries every effort was made to extend the planting of raisin grapes and their curing into raisins, few of these efforts have been crowned with success. While raisin grapes may grow and be turned into raisins in almost every part of the Mediterranean basin, experience has demonstrated that it has only proved a paying business in comparatively few localities. The reasons of this are not fully apparent; but they are evidently dependent both upon climatic conditions and upon the capability of the natives to learn and profit by the experiences of others, and upon their enterprise in venturing upon a new industry. On the other hand, it is not likely that, even with extensive experiments and with the aid of large capital, the growing and curing of the raisin grapes could be very extensively extended. The question there as well as here is not one alone of agricultural consideration, but a financial problem dependent upon the labor supply, the facilities for shipping, climatic conditions during the curing THE MALAGA DISTRICT.Extent and Age of the District.—Malaga has been known to export raisins since 1295 A. D., but must have been a raisin-producing district centuries before. The raisin cult, then, is no doubt of Phoenician origin, and has been practiced in the same locality for two thousand years or more. Under the Romans the raisin industry was continued, but appears to have deteriorated and later on to have been abandoned altogether, as the local tradition credits the Moors with having re-introduced the raisin grape into Velez Malaga. The raisin district of Malaga extends along the southern coast of Spain for a distance of sixty or seventy miles. The district is subdivided into several other districts. Thus, the subdistrict of Malaga proper occupies a plain eighteen miles long by nine miles wide, in the northeast corner of which is situated the town of Malaga. The best part of the whole district is, however, found at Velez Malaga, situated northeast of Malaga proper. It was here the raisin grape was first planted by the Romans or Phoenicians, and it was here also the devastating phylloxera first made its appearance. The raisin vineyards extend here not over a vega or plain, but occupy the fertile country along the coast or the litoral towards Malaga proper. Beyond Velez Malaga to Algaroba, the Muscatel grape is of inferior quality, and is greatly superseded by the red Muscats, principally exported to France. Another district is Marbella, on the coast, and in the interior we find Ronda and AlbuÑol. Of the principal towns in these districts, the population of Malaga is 120,000, that of Velez Malaga 24,000, of Marbella 7,700, and of Ronda 19,000. Climate.—The climate of Malaga is the very mildest. Frost is almost unknown, and is never heavy. The average temperature of Malaga during the winter months of November to January is 56 degrees Fahrenheit, while that of Pau in France is 41, and that of Nice 47. Malaga is well sheltered on the north and east by mountains, but is open to the south. It is the most equitable climate of Europe, although the winds are sometimes trying. The summer is very tempered. The air is, however, moist, and fog, while rare, is not entirely absent. Rain sometimes falls during the growing season of the grapes, and quite frequently during the drying season. But the fog is warm and not specially injurious to the grapes, the latter often growing within reach of the spray on the seashore. Soil.—The soil of the Malaga vineyards varies considerably, the best being a reddish clayey loam with much sand and gravel. But we have also other varieties of soil, such as the white ash, gray alluvial soils, and the very sandy loam on the hills. Location of the Vineyards.—In former years, the vineyards were principally located on the hillsides, only occasionally extending to the level plains. Of late, however, the hillside vineyards have The vineyards are generally small, none being over eighty acres in extent. Most contain, perhaps, from three to four acres each; while from twenty to forty acres is considered a good-sized vineyard. Varieties of Grapes.—The principal variety used is the Gordo Blanco or Muscatel. It is identical with the grape known by us under that name, and which was imported to us from Malaga. But several types are found, although none superior to the Gordo Blanco. Characteristics of the Raisins.—The Malaga raisins were, until lately, the finest raisins in the world, and for the present have only the California raisins to compete with. They are characterized by great sweetness, deep bluish color, great size and by good keeping qualities. The best raisins are those called Dehesas, being produced on the valley lands of the districts. Yield of Grapes.—The yield of Malaga vineyards varies of course. The best yield eight or nine tons of grapes to the acre,—just like those of California. But there is a great difference between new and old vineyards. In many vineyards where formerly the yield was nine tons, the soil has been so exhausted by continuous croppings that to-day, even with manuring, two or three tons of grapes must be considered a high yield. Distances of the Vines.—The older vineyards had their vines set seven feet by seven feet, but of late the vines are planted generally eight feet by four feet, thus much closer than by us in California. Pruning.—The pruning of the vineyard is performed very much as in California. Formerly the soil had to be removed from the vines before they could be pruned; now this is not necessary except while the vines are very young. The various branches are pruned back to a few inches, with two eyes each, while the heads are elevated only a few inches above the ground. Manuring and Fertilizing.—The Malaga vineyardist fully understands the value of manuring his vineyards, and uses for this purpose not only all fertilizers available at home, but also imports directly from distant countries. The most valued fertilizers are the Mexican and Chilean guanos or phosphates. The Mexican phosphate costs in Malaga sixty-five dollars per ton; still it is used by all the principal vineyardists, who know the value of fertilizers. In fact, concentrated fertilizers are a necessity to the Malaga vineyards; without them they could not be cropped. Even the most virgin soil is exhausted in ten years’ time by constant croppings of raisin grapes; no paying crops could be expected if fertilizers were not used yearly. This fertilizing When home manures are used, it is placed in holes dug round the roots of the vines, which, after exposure to the air for several months, are again filled up at the advent of spring, generally in March, before the vines start to bud. Drying-floors, or Sequeros.—The raisins, when picked, are dried on so-called sequeros, or drying-floors, characteristic of the Malaga district. These floors are of different sizes and lengths in different vineyards, but everywhere constructed on the same general principles. Where an incline or a hill is found, the floor may simply be built on the slope, with no artificial elevation; but, where the ground is level, the structure of the sequero is different. The floor must always face the south, and the back is raised to give the floor the proper slope. The sequero thus consists of four walls, the front one of which is only a foot high, and the back wall from six to eight feet high. The side walls slope between these, generally with an angle of forty-five degrees. In length, these floors vary from forty to fifty feet, according to the different ideas of the vineyardists. The whole interior is filled with black gravel, and is tamped hard. These sequeros are divided in beds, fourteen feet or so wide, by tiles that are sunk, thus forming walks of several feet in width, and which also serve for leading off the rainwater. Around every little bed of this kind are small upright tiles to prevent the rainwater entering from the walks. Finally, in the center of the bed, is a long row of upright tiles, high enough to support either boards, mats, or more generally canvas, in order that they may shed the rain into the tile walks. The value of such floors is evident. Being covered with canvas, etc., every night, the heat is preserved, and every morning, when the sun rises, the grapes are yet warm. The drying on such beds has never, in fact, been interrupted. The drying-floors are also useful in case of too hot weather, when the grapes can be properly sheltered with canvas and prevented from being cooked; when finally dried, the covering, again, will serve to keep the moisture from too quickly evaporating. Drying and Curing.—When the grapes are picked, the best vineyardists separate the bunches immediately in three different grades. Each grade is placed by itself on the gravelly drying-ground, and remains there to dry. When half dried, they are taken bunch by bunch by a workman, who picks out bad or overdried berries and rubbish, and in putting the bunch back turns it over. In ten days the grapes are generally dried, provided the weather has been favorable. Every night the canvas covering is slid down over the sequero, and the grapes protected from dew and cold, or rain. The drying is sometimes greatly hastened by the Terral or hot winds blowing from the plains of La Mancha, a wind very similar in its effect to the desert wind of Riverside and Santa Ana, in California. Packing.—The raisins in Malaga are packed by the large growers themselves, and every such grower packs almost to a man. The generally accepted idea that a few packers living in Malaga pack all the raisins The various raisin brands packed in Malaga are different according to the different markets that are to be supplied. Thus for England we have: Finest Dehesa, three crown; finest Dehesa, two crown; finest Dehesa, one crown; Dehesa; Choice layers; London layers, three crown; London layers, two crown; London layers, one crown. For France again we have: 1 Imperiaux; 1 Royaux; Couches; Surchoix; Choix; Ordinaire; Surcouches, etc. The loose raisins or Brena and the seedless or Escombro generally go to the continent or even to the United States. The old terms Garoon or Sun are now never used. For American markets we have: Imperial Dehesa; Royal finest Dehesa; finest Dehesa; fine Dehesa; Dehesa; London layers, three crown; London layers, two crown; London loose, one, two and three crown. Boxes are generally made from fir imported from Portugal, at fifteen cents each. Of late years, however, they are also received from Canada, and cost only seven cents each. Labor.—The labor in Malaga is the most expensive in Spain, the best laborer being paid forty cents per day, while in Denia the labor is obtained for fifteen cents only; but it must be remembered that the packing of the Malaga raisins is a much more particular work than the packing of the dipped Denias. The price paid for Malaga raisins at the packing-house is at an average of seven cents per pound for the best, or from one to two cents more than what is paid in California. The lower grades bring from two and a half cents upwards. VALENCIA AND DENIA.Extent of the Districts.—The Valencia raisins, or, as they are called, the Lexias or Spanish dipped raisins, are produced in the province of Valencia, situated on the east coast of Spain. The district contains three sub-districts, the southern one, the Alicante district, extending from Villa Joyosa in the north to Elche in the south. The raisins of the Alicante district are inferior to those produced in the other districts, both as regards quality and quantity. The most northerly district is the Valencia district proper, extending from Cullera in the south to Castellon in the north. North of the latter place the Muscat grape does not come to perfection, and even within this district comparatively few raisins are now produced as compared with a few years ago. But the bulk of all the raisins produced in the province are exported from Valencia city, and hence these raisins are known as Valencias, while in reality they come principally from Denia. The bulk of the Valencia raisins come from the central district, or the Denia sub-district, comprising the land between Villa Joyosa in the south and Cullera in the north, or about thirty miles on each side of the town of Denia. Towards the interior the raisin district extends Among other industries of the Denia district are the cultivation of onions, the manufacture of cotton goods, its sardine fisheries, etc., all giving work to the vineyard workers during a time of the year when there is nothing or but little to do in the vineyards and packing-houses. The raisins of Denia are not all of the same quality, but vary according to the locality where grown. The whole district is dotted with small villages, all producing raisins. The principal ones of these are, besides Denia proper, Jabea, Jaraco, Jerrea, Oliva, Pedreguer, Jalon, Gandia, Ondara, Vergel, etc. Of these, Denia proper produced in 1876 over 2,500 tons of raisins, Jabea 1,700 tons, Oliva 1,600 tons, Pedreguer 1,000 tons, Retoria 900 tons, Jalon 850 tons, Ondara and Benisa 800 tons each. But, besides these, there are some twenty odd more villages or smaller raisin centers, which produce from 200 to 700 tons each, or an aggregate of 20,000 tons of raisins. Soils and Appearance of the Districts.—The soils of the province of Valencia, where the vineyards are situated, are of various kinds, such as cretaceous and calcareous soils, containing admixtures of clay, sand and gravel. The color is often red, changing to gray where irrigation has been practiced, but much of the soil is of an ashy white color, similar to that of bottom lands generally. In many of the lower situated plains, the soils are blackish or dark gray, especially so where stable or other manures have been used for years. Many vineyards are situated on the hillsides or on the rolling lands, where the gravelly soils produce raisins of smaller size and in less quantity, but sweeter and finer flavored. But the largest bulk of the vineyards are on comparatively level land, which can be and which is irrigated. The raisins produced on these low grounds in the moist and Climate.—The climate of Denia and its surroundings is rather cold and windy; damaging spring frosts, as well as early fall rains, frequently interfere with the setting of the grapes and with the harvesting of the crop; it has even happened several times that the entire crop has been seriously injured by one of these, or by both causes combined. Farther north, or in the Valencia district proper, the climate is milder, and frost is rare. Oranges are here at home, while the culture of raisin grapes becomes less every year. North of Castellon the climatic conditions are such that no raisin culture is possible. As compared with the climate of Malaga, that of Denia is much less favorable to the raisin grape. The production of sun-dried and undipped raisins in Denia is not possible, and, although it has been attempted several times, it has seldom succeeded. The rainfall of Denia averages twelve inches per year. The rainiest months are those of November, February and April, but the heaviest rainfall at one time occurs quite frequently in the first week of September, while light showers are not uncommon in August, at that time doing much damage to the grapes or the just exposed raisins. Irrigation.—Not only is irrigation necessary to grow the vines successfully and to produce an abundance of grapes, but the irrigation in the province of Valencia is necessary to the health and longevity of the vines. Nowhere else in Spain is the water so abundant, and no saving of the water is necessary in the majority of the districts. Through an abundance of water, the soil on the lowlands has now filled up to such an extent, that in the best vineyards the surface water is only from five to eight feet from the surface of the ground. Those vines which could not be irrigated have gradually become diseased, and the hillside vineyards are being rapidly abandoned and devoted to something else. Upon the abundance and constancy of the water depends the prosperity of the whole province, and there is hardly a more prosperous country in Spain. To show the close connection between irrigation and raisin production in Spain, it will no doubt interest many to know something of the irrigation system and the irrigation districts of the province of Valencia, than which no more important ones are found in Spain. The district of Alicante is supplied with water from the river Monegre, and the Elche district from the river Minalapo. In the northern part of the province is the Murviado irrigation district, taking its water from the river Palencia. The Jucar irrigation district, situated immediately south of the huerta of Valencia, takes its water from the The Valencia irrigation district consists of 26,350 acres of land close to the town of Valencia, and is watered by the river Guadalaviar, or, as it is generally called, the Turia. The water is distributed through eight canals, each carrying from 35 to 120 cubic feet of water per second, the combined low-water discharge of all the canals being from 250 to 350 cubic feet of water per second. Of the importance of irrigation in this district, we can judge when we learn that the above 26,350 acres contain 72,000 inhabitants and sixty-two villages, or an average of 1,774 people per square mile, not including the city of Valencia itself, with a population of 120,000 people. It is also remarkable that this enormous population on a territory not as large as the arable land surrounding any one of our principal inland towns in California, is not alone due to the irrigation and care of the land, but to the minute subdivision of the land, which makes this culture and irrigation possible. It is a practical illustration of the value of the colony system as inaugurated in California, showing what we can expect of our inland plains when they become fully irrigated and the land properly subdivided. Quality of the Raisins.—It has already been stated that the grapes grown in Denia are the Muscat of Alexandria, which were introduced there by the Moors. Farther south, in the Alicante district, other varieties are more common, but play no important part in the raisin production of the district. The Valencia raisins are inferior to those of Malaga, the want of heat requiring them to be dipped in lye before drying. This, again, gives these raisins a peculiar reddish, semi-transparent color, which unfits them for table raisins. The Valencia raisins are principally used for cooking; even the best grades of Valencias are inferior to the inferior grades of Malaga raisins. During the last season (1889) large quantities of Denia grapes were cured on the Malaga style, and with great success. Large quantities of such sun-dried Denias were sent in bulk to Malaga, and there repacked for export to the United States, the Malaga crop having so diminished that the usual demand could not be supplied. Years in which such sun-drying is possible in Denia are rare. Planting and Care.—The Muscat cuttings are planted generally in February. The best cuttings are considered to be those taken from vines at least six years old. The cuttings are set at various distances according to the richness of the soil. The richer the soil the less room is given the vines. Thus the vines are set either five by eleven feet or five by twelve feet, or, in other words, they are set in rows eleven or twelve feet apart, with the vines five feet apart in the row. The depth of the cutting is regulated by the moisture of the surface soil, but averages eighteen inches. The vines begin to bud in the middle of March, and are from the start subject to great care and constant cultivation. The first operation after the cutting is planted is to cut off the top bud as soon as the vine starts to grow, leaving the two shoots only from the two lower buds. No more shoots are allowed to grow the first year. Next winter the smaller of these two branches Dipping and Scalding.—The dipping process is one of the greatest importance, and gives the peculiar characteristics to the Valencia or Denia raisins. As a similar process will sometime or other be more generally used in California, a more detailed description may prove interesting to California growers. We can probably not do better than to imitate them, although in mechanical appliances we will readily improve upon their methods. The dipping is always done at the drying ground or secadero. The larger part of the dipping apparatus, or the kettles, are placed under the ground so as to save heat and fuel. A trench eight or nine feet in length is dug to the depth of three or four feet. At one end is built a chimney protruding three or four feet above the level of the ground. In the other end of the trench is built a brick wall with an opening for feeding the fire. Some trenches are lined inside with bricks, making them more permanent and solid. On the top of this flue, and on a level with the ground, are built the kettles or boilers, containing not less than twenty gallons each. The boiler nearest the fire entrance is destined to contain a solution of lye or ashes, the one next to the chimney being for boiling water only. The lye is made from the ashes of burnt vine cuttings, together with lime and sometimes some salt, by men who have acquired the art from years of experience, and who know by the appearance of the scalded grapes whether the solution is too strong or too weak. If too weak, the skins of the grapes will be insufficiently cut, which will delay the drying of the grapes, and cause them to rot if the weather is damp and foggy. If, again, the lye solution is too strong, the skin will be destroyed and the berries seriously injured. The grapes to be dipped should be perfectly ripe. If dipped before, they will become inferior both as to color and taste. The perfect ripeness is a most important point. The grapes are picked in baskets of about ten pounds each, and carried to the scalder. The man nearest him on the right fills a perforated ladle with about twenty pounds of the grapes. The ladle is made either of wire netting or of The dipping first in scalding water is of the greatest importance, both in washing off the dust of the grapes and in preparing them to receive the alkali wash with more effect. Since the hot-water process was introduced, the Valencia raisins have materially improved in quality. The grapes are never rinsed in cold water after being dipped, and it is more than likely that the lye prevents molding, as, according to A. B. Butler, dipped raisins are sometimes exposed to the rain for three weeks without being totally ruined. In California, our dipped and washed raisins spoil quickly if exposed to rain. The object of dipping is, of course, to slightly crack the skins so as to allow the water to readily evaporate. Dipped raisins dry sometimes in five days, while undipped raisins would require as many weeks. Efforts to produce sun-dried raisins without dipping them have repeatedly been made in Denia; but they are invariably spoiled by the rain, and lately two firms were ruined in their attempts to dispense with the dipping process. Drying and Curing.—After the grapes have been properly dipped, the drying proceeds very quickly. The grapes are immediately spread on cane trays or caÑezos, about six feet long by three or four feet wide. These cane trays are made of the common Italian reed or Arundo donax, which grows everywhere, even in California, and is here incorrectly known as bamboo. The trays are made either of split or of entire canes tied strongly together. These trays are placed flat on the ground, only leaving enough space around each one to allow the workmen free access to the tray on all sides. After having been exposed to the sun for three days, the grapes are turned, in order to dry evenly on both sides. On the fifth day, the raisins are turned again, and, if the weather has been favorable, many of the raisins are then ready to pack. A day or two after this, all the raisins are ready, and are collected and housed. If, again, the weather has been unfavorable, the drying is very much delayed. At the approach of rain, the mats or trays are taken up and piled on the top of each other, under sheds previously made. Every drying ground has stationary appliances for this purpose. These simply consist of poles stuck in the ground, and extending five or six feet above the same. Other cross-rafters or scantlings are nailed between the poles, thus forming rows of roofless sheds eight or nine feet wide, of greater or shorter length. Painted canvas, or simply mats or empty reed trays, are used as covers, under which the raisin trays are piled. Under and between each tray are placed five little cubes of wood, for the purpose of lifting the tray and preventing it from pressing too heavily on the grapes underneath. Packing and Disposing of the Crop.—When at last the raisins are dried, they are either stored by the producer, or, as is more generally the case, are taken to the merchant or packer who has supplied the grower’s wants during the year in anticipation of the coming crop. There are thus a number of special packers in Denia, who own large and splendid packing-houses in which the crop is yearly handled. The grower never packs himself, the enhanced value of the raisins not being sufficient to warrant the trouble. One of the best and by far the largest packing-houses in Denia is owned by J. D. Arquimbau. A more perfectly equipped establishment is not found anywhere else. Views from Col. Wm. Forsyth’s Raisin Vineyard, Near Fresno: Residence, Lake, Raisin Dryer, Packing House. All of the packing is done by women, while the men do the carting of the raisins from the vineyards to the packing-houses. During the balance of the year, when there is no more work in the packing-houses, these very men occupy themselves with the sardine fishery, while their wives then dress the sardines and pack them in oil. They have thus work all the year round,—an absolute necessity in a country where the wages are so small, and where the poor man has no chance to save up a capital. The wages paid for packing in Denia is only fifteen cents per day; while in Malaga the same work commands from forty to sixty cents per day. In some of the warehouses in Denia, from two to three hundred women are employed, as well as a number of men. The boxes now used are halves of twenty-eight pounds, or quarters of fourteen pounds each. The large or whole boxes of fifty-six pounds each are no longer in use. The raisins are all packed “off-stalk,” or, as we say, “loose.” Bunch or stem raisins, or “on-stalk” raisins, are seldom seen. This great improvement in packing is of recent origin, and is due entirely to the influence of English merchants. Some thirty years ago, the raisin industry of Valencia had so deteriorated, that it threatened to entirely cease. The cause of the deterioration was principally the habit of the buyers to pay for crops, not according to the quality of the raisins, but according to the quantity. The small farmer with a few hundred pounds of raisins carefully cured was paid less, or at least not any more, than the man who had hundreds of tons carelessly cured. As a consequence, it was to no one’s interest to take any particular pains in curing. The raisins deteriorated; no care was paid to packing; anything, almost, stalks, dirt and bruised berries were dumped in boxes together; brands, trade-marks and labels were unknown. The whole business was apparently going to ruin. The orders from England became less and less every year. Those from America almost ceased. The “equality price” or “average price,” which has been so much in vogue in California, actually ruined the Valencia raisin industry. We ought to take a lesson from them, and change this system in time, or we will be in the same bad fix as they were. The improvement in Valencia raisins was entirely due to the energetic efforts of English gentlemen. Mr. George Graham, agent for an English firm, established himself in Valencia, investigated the raisin business, and, seeing the true cause of the ruin, set himself to work to remedy the same. He introduced better methods in growing, curing and packing; and through his efforts a better price was paid for a better grade of raisins, and it was not long before the raisin business was on an entirely different footing. Export and Production.—Although the raisin industry had long existed in the province of Valencia, it was only in late years that it assumed an importance. They were already known as Duracinae by the Romans. Re-introduced or improved by the Arabs or Moors, it soon became a prominent industry, and the export of raisins to England was already of some consequence in the time of William and Mary. In the year 1638, Lewis Roberts, in his merchant map of commerce, informs us that Denia raisins cost eighteen rials or three shillings per hundred weight. In 1664, Gandia raisins were quite famous, and were known as Pasas. At the end of the last century, the raisins from Denia and Liria reached forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons, distributed as follows: Spain, six thousand; France, six thousand; England, twenty-eight thousand,—equal to one million, four hundred and thirty thousand boxes, forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons. In 1862, the raisin export from Valencia had dwindled down to seven thousand tons. In 1876, it had again risen to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1883 to forty thousand tons. Of these, nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes were exported to the United States, one million, three hundred and eighty-five thousand were sent to England, and four hundred and thirty-six thousand found their way to other parts of Europe and Spain. In 1888, the yield was two million, three hundred and sixteen thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each, equal to thirty-two thousand, four hundred and twenty-four tons. If packed in twenty-pound boxes, this crop would have equaled three million, two hundred and forty thousand, four hundred boxes, or four times as much as California produced at the same time. The crop of 1889 is calculated to have reached two million, eight hundred thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each. When we remember that this class of raisins is as yet hardly produced in California, and that the nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes or more imported could and should be supplied by us, it would seem that our fears of overproduction will not immediately be realized. The tendency of the raisin market is now to supplant these Valencia dipped raisins with California undipped or sun-dried raisins, the California Sultanas being considered superior for the same purpose that Valencias were formerly used. CORINTH AND CURRANTS.Historical and Geographical Notes.—The principal and only raisins of any great commercial importance which are produced by Greece are the currants. We have already spoken of their name, and its As to the native home of the currants, opinions have considerably differed. Some have supposed Zante or Naxos to have been the original home of this grape; while others, with better reasons, have held that their original home was Corinth. Beaujour, who was French consul in Greece in 1790, says: “The fruit is not indigenous to Morea. No writer before the sixteenth century mentions it, and the result of my inquiries is that the currant came from Naxos into the Morea about 1580. It is true no such plant now exists in Naxos, but it has similarly disappeared from the territory of Corinth, though it is very certain it was cultivated there in former days, when the Venetians held the country.” This account does not agree with the statements of Comte Grasset St. Sauveur, consul to the Ionian Islands from France in 1781. He states, in his History of the Ionian Islands, that “the first plants were imported from Corinth to Zante about two centuries ago” (or about 1580). There are no exact records of the time or of the introducer; but the date is fixed by the regulations of the Senate of Venice relating to custom duties. It is likely this introduction took place not much before 1553, and was caused by the hostility of the Turks, who then held Morea, to the merchant vessels of the other nations of Europe, who in fact forbade them any entrance to the Gulf of Corinth, the principal export place for the currants. Thus John Locke, who in 1553 describes Zante, speaks of other products of the island, but not of currants. Hakluyt states that, in 1586, the chief commodities of the island were “oyle and currants.” The latter, then, must have been introduced some time in the middle of the sixteenth century. Lithgow, a Scotch traveler who in 1609 visited the islands and published an account of the same in 1633, informs us that, besides oyle and wine, Zante produced one hundred and sixty thousand chickens of currants, each chicken of gold being equal to nine shillings of English money. And he adds that the custom duties on those currants amounted to twenty-two thousand piasters (one piaster is equivalent to six shillings), a sum of money which those Islanders could not have afforded (they having been, not above sixty years ago, but a base, beggarly people, and in an obscure place) if it were not that in England there are some who cannot digest bread, etc., without these currants. This seems to imply that, since the introduction of the currant culture in the Island of Zante about the year 1550, the Zanteans had suddenly become comparatively wealthy. So suddenly had this important industry spread, that in 1610, according to Sandys, the chief export of both Zante and Cephalonia was currants. In 1612, Coryat says that “Zante is famous for its wine, oile and currants.” Fynes Moryson, in his “Itinerary” published in 1617, states that “the English merchant vessels exported currants from Zante and Cephalonia, and from Petrasso in the Gulfe of Corinth.” Tavernier says, in 1678, that, “Corinth exports great quantities of currants. Patras does the same, which is all the trade from those two places.” In 1682, Wheler states that “the ports of Patros, Nathaligo and Missolonghi, all three together having enough to lade only one good ship every year.” Randolph, in 1689, mentions that currants were first planted on the plains of Corinth, and that the plain about Vostizza produced corn, currants and wine. Of Zante, he says that it produced two thousand tons of currants. Thus it will seem as if, through the fostering care of the Venetians, the currant trade was transplanted from the mainland of Morea to the Islands of Zante and Cephalonia, there to become of almost national importance. Until the Turks were expelled from Morea, the latter never made any serious efforts to recover the lost trade. First in later times the culture of currants has again spread on the mainland, especially on the northern shore of the Gulf of Corinth, and to-day the combined production of the Morean vineyards is largely in excess of that of the Ionian Islands. In our times the currants are exported either from the mainland of Greece, the Morea, the ancient Peloponnesus, or from the Grecian Islands,—Cephalonia and Zante. In Morea, the principal ports for the exportation of the currants are Patras and Vostizza, although other ports export a few. Even the Islands of Ithaca and Santa Maura contribute a few. Efforts have been made to extend the culture of the currant vine, and introduce it to other islands, but not with any great degree of success. This is entirely attributed to climatic conditions. Characteristics and Quality.—The currants are small, seedless raisins produced from the currant grape, which again is characterized by small clusters, which, when perfect, are very compact like the heads of Indian corn or maize. The skin of the berries is thin, the pulp very Soil and Irrigation.—The soil best suited to the currant grape is a calcareous marl, which must be of good depth, loose, and easily worked. Such marls are also prized for their great power of retaining moisture. But vineyards are planted in Cephalonia, Zante and Ithaca in the most different soils and situations. They are found in gray marls, in red clay, on the plains and among the hills, in fact, in the most widely different situations. The soil of Zante contains a small percentage of sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is by many considered indispensable for the successful and profitable culture of the currant vine. The currant vine thrives especially in low and rich land which can be irrigated, and irrigation is quite essential to the perfect development of the grapes. Many vineyards, however, are not irrigated, the irrigation, of course, only being practicable on the plains. This irrigation is practiced from October to the end of December, often while the natural rainfall supplies the artificial watering. The lands are generally small freeholdings, owned by the peasants. The most valuable currant vineyards are situated on the rich and level valley lands. Preparation of the Land for Irrigation.—The preparation of the land for a currant vineyard is expensive, as the land is hardly ever level enough to admit of the vines being immediately planted. The surface is therefore first leveled and divided up in smaller cheeks or flats, each one surrounded by a bank. The whole is covered with a network of ditches, which are necessary for the perfect irrigation of the soil. Where there is water enough, the vineyards are irrigated in November and December, and are then flooded as often as practicable, the water sometimes standing on the ground for weeks in succession. In perfectly arranged vineyards, the irrigation is so managed that the water flows from one check to another, and is first shut off at the advent of the New Year, when the pruning and cultivation begins. By this plentiful irrigation, the ground becomes thoroughly soaked, and remains saturated until the next season, when rain again sets in and fills the irrigation canals. No summer irrigation is used in old vineyards, and in young vineyards only in case of great necessity. Distances of the Currant Vines.—The vines are set at various distances, in some places four feet each way, in others again six by ten, giving a various number of from 740 to 2,622 to the acre. In some places, the old practice of planting the vines in groups of four still exists. Each group consists of four vines one and a half feet apart, and each group distant six feet from each other either way. Of late, however, the vines are planted farther apart, probably because the soil is becoming exhausted, a favorite way being to have the vines closer one way than the other. Care of Cuttings, Planting and Grafting.—Great importance is attached to procuring cuttings from a distance, or in getting new strains. Cuttings from the nearest vineyard are never used, as they Pruning the Vines.—The pruning is done in the fall, just as soon as the leaves have fallen, and is performed in two parts. In December, the vines are cleaned of all small, weakly or dead branches, and at that time only the large and strong branches are left. In February, the regular cutting back commences, two or three eyes being left on every spur. There are as many different ideas of pruning the vines in Greece as there are in California, each one having his favorite methods and theories as to what is proper and what is not. Some vineyardists prefer to delay the second pruning until after the vines have started to bud out, and, when the young shoots are two weeks old, the old wood is so cut that the bleeding of the vine will not run down on the bud. Bleeding is at any time considered injurious. The principal pruning is therefore conducted in February, as being the time most suitable to the currant grape and conducive to the best crops. Mr. Manoti, a very intelligent Zanteote currant grower, told Dr. Davy (Ionian Islands, page 343) that he had at one time experimented with pruning the currant vine at different times of the year. Those pruned in December yielded very few grapes, which were large; those pruned in April gave plenty, but very small berries. Again, those pruned in February were in every way the best. Mr. Manoti added that if he had told one of his neighbors of his experiments they would have laughed at him, and said, “Whoever thinks of pruning the uva passa (or currant) in December or April.” This shows how much the growers are opposed to experimenting and improving upon the methods which have been handed down to them from their forefathers. As we have shown, the currant vines are all very closely pruned, very much in the same way as our Muscats. Seldom more than three spurs are allowed to remain, each one with two or three eyes. Summer pruning or topping the branches is never practiced on the currant vines, but generally on the wine grapes. On the contrary the currant branches are carefully guarded, and in order that they may not break are tied to stakes from four to five feet high. Care of the Vineyard.—After irrigation is over, the vineyards are dug over. The soil is dug up around the vines and placed on top of the ground in small heaps, which process is considered beneficial both to the roots of the vines and to the soil. In April, this soil is all put back, and the ground leveled. Each vine is staked. By the middle of April, the vines are in leaf. By the middle of July, the first fruit is ripe, and by the middle of August the harvest has everywhere begun. The stakes for the vines are imported at a cost of $15 or $16 per thousand, and constitute the most expensive item in the construction of a currant vineyard. The mildew or oidium, which some fifty years ago spread all over the world, destroyed many of the vineyards before the sulphuring was discovered as a sure remedy. Sulphuring the vines is now regularly practiced in all the vineyards; but there is a popular belief that the raisins are no longer of the same fine and pure flavor as they used to be before the advent of the oidium and the sulphur. Ringing the Branches.—A process much used in the currant vineyards is the ringing of the branches. At the time of blossoming, some of the main branches are cut in such a way that a small ring of bark is separated from the branch near its base. The sap which ascends in the interior of the branch, but which returns by the bark, is thus prevented from returning, and must remain in the branch. The effect is that a large number of clusters are formed with berries both larger and sweeter than those not thus treated. But the practice is not without its drawbacks. In the dry lands of Cephalonia, where it was first introduced, it was soon discovered that the ringed vines began to fail after two or three years, and the method had to be modified or abandoned. In Morea, where the soil is moister and richer, the ringing did not prove as dangerous, and is yet practiced, though great care is taken that the same branch is never girdled or ringed in two successive years. Only the strongest vines are able to resist the exhausting effects of the process; the weaker ones should never be forced to overproduce. The exhalations of fig-trees and pomegranate bushes are considered most beneficial to the currant grape, and the former are found everywhere among the plantations, especially along roads and ditches. Drying and Curing.—The drying and curing of the currant grapes are done on drying grounds. These are simply leveled places covered with fresh cow dung, or cow dung first mixed with water into a paste. When this paste is dried, it presents a smooth surface, firm but elastic, and entirely free from smell. This kind of drying ground is considered the best kind. Inferior drying grounds are simply made of the cleared soil. The currants dried on the latter are always full of sand and dirt to an alarming extent, and bring an inferior price in the market. The bunches are turned several times until dry, when they are raked over with a wooden rake or broom, by which process the stalks are separated from the berries. The berries are now gathered, and the better qualities are winnowed in machines like our fanning-mills. The next step is to sweat the currants, which is simply done by piling them in air-tight rooms. The currants are here put in large piles, which by sweating and pressure become so hard Cost of Currant Vineyards in Greece.—In the Grecian Islands and Morea, the best vineyard land varies between $80 and $125 per acre for unimproved land. To prepare the land for the vineyard and irrigation, it will cost, in extreme cases, from $20 to $50 more. The first year’s cultivation and care of the young vines is, of course, different according to locality, but the average is seldom less than $50 per acre. The value of already planted property or a vineyard in good bearing is seldom less than $320 per acre, and often as high as $650 per acre,—four stremmas. Strange enough, in calculating the cost of a vineyard in Greece, no one ever takes into consideration the price of the plantation or the capital invested. The interest on the same is never considered by the natives. In this respect they resemble our own farmers, who, in calculating the expenses of their farms, never take into consideration the labor of themselves and family. Of course, it is almost impossible to obtain exact calculations of profit. The following will serve as a sample: An acre of vineyard planted to currants yields 3,200 pounds. The price obtained for the same is two cents per pound, or $64. The labor for the year on one acre is estimated at $45, leaving a yearly profit of $19 per acre. In reality, however, this is not a true statement, as it does not consider the interest on the capital. If the same should be added, it is evident that there would be but little or no profit in the growing of currants. The industry simply enables the peasant who pursues the work to live and support his family, and possibly to pay his taxes. Only the very best land and the best vineyards can pay enough to enable its owner to save up a capital, generally a difficult thing in Greece for any one but a merchant or government officer. As a rule, the cost of producing one hundred pounds of currant raisins is not less than $1.35. Whatever the merchant pays above this to the producer will be for the benefit of the producer. But, as a rule, this way of buying direct is not in use. The merchant sells on commission, and what this means we who have had experience in the raisin business in this State all know. We will see how a calculation of an acre of currants will look, when all the expenses are taken into consideration:
In this instance the poor currant raiser has had no other profit than the five per cent interest on his capital invested; he has, in other words, come out even. But figures, sometimes, are apt to lie. The profit, no doubt, is small to the producer, but it must still be some. Consumption and Production.—The importation of currants to England was, at the end of the last century, about 3,600 tons. In 1832 this had risen to 7,135 tons, in 1864 to 37,151 tons, and in 1876 to 48,595 tons. As regards the production of currants in Greece, the average yield from 1816 to 1826 was, for Cephalonia, 2,000 tons, for Zante 3,000 tons, and for Morea 4,000 tons or over. From that time on the exportations from Zante and Cephalonia increased, while the export of Morea decreased. Thus, in 1833, Zante and Cephalonia exported about 11,000 tons, and Morea only 2,000 tons, this principally on account of the Greek revolution. In 1840, the three places exported 14,206 tons, which again in 1849 had risen to 30,850 tons, in 1858 to 32,950 tons, in 1868 to 55,283 tons, and in 1876 to 86,104 tons. This large crop was exported as follows: England, 60,263 tons; Germany, 1,475 tons; Holland, 4,847 tons; Trieste, 3,241 tons; America, 11,225 tons; Belgium, 4,105 tons; Various, 948 tons. Since that time the production of currants has increased greatly in Greece, especially on the mainland, and now it reaches yearly from 126,000 to 130,000 tons. During the last four years the production has been about as follows (according to L. C. Crowe in the California Fruit-grower): 1884, 130,000 tons; 1885, 114,000 tons; 1886, 126,000 tons; 1887, 127,000 tons. In 1886 this crop was produced in the following places:
Of this crop the United States imported as follows (the freight to New York in 1886 ranging from 17s. 6d. to 20s. per ton, gross): 1883, 13,895 tons; 1884, 10,175 tons; 1885, 8,283 tons; 1886, 8,755 tons. In the United States, the consumption of currants has increased largely during the last twenty-five years. In 1874, we imported 14,141,797 pounds of currants; but in 1888 the importations had increased to 30,636,424 pounds, valued at $1,176,532. The duty is now one cent per pound in this country; while in England it is seven shillings per hundred pounds. The currants exported to the United States are known as Provincial currants or American staple, and are not considered the best quality; they are grown principally in Trifylla and Pylia and are shipped from the ports Zante and Patras. Some come also from Vostizza, Catacolo, Kalamata, Nauplia and Cephalonia. The Kalamata currants are inferior and are mostly exported to France for brandy and wine making. The choicest currants are those grown in Zante, and there known as “Cascalina.” They go mostly to England, while the other products of the islands go to Belgium, Holland and Northern Germany. Currants in California.—California has so far not cut any figure as a currant-producing country, not because the currants will not grow here, but because no one has ever seriously engaged in their culture. Currant grapevines are scattered all over the State; but, to our knowledge, no plantations are larger than an acre or two. In Fresno, a few acres of currants are found in the Mirabelle Vineyard east of town, and a few hundred vines are also grown on the Raisina Vineyard in the Central Colony. Outside of these we know of only scattered vines. These currants are all of the white variety, which is considered inferior to the black currant of Zante and the mainland of Greece. When dried, they produce a most beautiful semi-transparent raisin, entirely seedless, with a very thin skin and of very fine flavor. The yield, however, has from some cause or other not been equal to expectations, and, the price of currants being lower than that of other raisins, the former has not been considered as profitable as the Muscatels. Until we import the true black currant from Zante and find the most suitable locality to grow them, it is not likely that currant culture will make much headway in this country. We have, however, no doubt that, with our various climates, many places will be found in California where the currant will yield enough to pay, provided our raisinmen will be satisfied with a reasonable profit. SMYRNA RAISINS.Districts in Smyrna: Their Extent and Climate.—The port of Smyrna, so famous for its dried figs, is hardly less renowned for the immense quantity of raisins and dried grapes of different kinds which are shipped from there to all parts of the world. While Smyrna figs are better known than Smyrna raisins, the latter are by far the most important industry. Thus from 1880 to 1881 the raisin crop exported from Smyrna was valued at $4,602,388; while the value of the fig crop did not exceed $1,646,998, or about three million dollars less than the former. Since that time the raisin trade has yet further increased, The Chesme district is situated to the west on the peninsula near Smyrna, its principal port for exportation of the crop being the town of Chesme. The Chesme raisins are considered inferior to those of the other districts. Three-fourths of the raisins from the district are exported to Hamburg, Bremen, Stettin, Amsterdam, and to Trieste in Austria. The latter town is the main distributing point for most of the raisins grown in the eastern Mediterranean raisin districts. The Carabourna or Karabournou district produces the best raisins,—both of the Sultanas, the red and the black. The district is situated to the east and north on the same peninsula as Chesme. The district is rough and hilly, but the whole is cultivated to vines. The Carabourna “ElemÊs” go about one-half to Russia, the balance to England and Trieste. The Vourla district consists of a fertile plain lying on the isthmus between the Bay of Smyrna and Scala Nova or Ephesus. The export place is the port of Vourla, one of the finest harbors on the coast of Asia Minor, and often the meeting place for fleets of the Western nations of Europe during their remonstrances in Turkish waters. The Yerly district immediately surrounds the town of Smyrna, and extends from Nymphio in the east to Tourbali in the south and Sivri-Hissar in the west, thus bordering the Vourla district. Yerly Sultanas are the earliest in the market, sometimes being ready in the first weeks of August. Small quantities of raisins also come from Tyra, Bairdir, Aidin and other places in the fig districts in the interior. The Island of Samos, off the coast of Asia Minor, produces raisins of several kinds, such as Sultanas, black raisins, principally for distilling abroad, and Muscatel raisins, the latter reaching three thousand tons in favorable seasons. The Island of Cos or Stanchio is also famous for its Sultana raisins, said to be the finest of any produced in Turkey. The climate of the Smyrna raisin districts is very mild, allowing farm labor to be performed the year round. The temperature seldom falls below the freezing point, while from the middle of May to the middle of September it ranges from 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. During the summer, the Imbat or seabreeze tempers the heat and makes the climate pleasant to live in. The grapes begin to ripen about July first, the Sultana grapes being the earliest. The rainfall is abundant during the rainy months of the year, September Table showing the monthly rainfall in the city of Smyrna, in inches and hundredths of inches, during the nineteen years ending with 1882. Compiled by W. E. Stevens, Consul at Smyrna.
As will be seen, most of the vineyards are situated within the reach of the seabreezes, some even being almost on the edge of the waters of the Mediterranean. The best vineyards are those which are situated inland from seven to twenty miles from the coast. The vineyard districts are all rough and hilly, except those in the Vourla district, which are on comparatively level ground. While some vineyards stretch from the seashore, others reach an elevation of four hundred feet or over. The soil varies with the districts. The best soil for the Sultanas is considered to be hippurite limestone soil, common in some districts. This white, marly soil is in places mixed with a yellow-ocher-colored loam, with sand and gravel. The abundance of the rainfall makes irrigation unnecessary, and no vines are grown with irrigation. Care of the Vines.—While no general irrigation is needed, the young vines are watered by hand in years of exceptionally light rainfall. The vines are generally grown from rooted cuttings, which have been planted in trenches the year before. Previous to the planting of a vineyard, the soil is dug to the depth of three or four feet. If this can be done the year before planting, it is considered better, as resulting in a quicker and stronger growth of the vines. In older vineyards, the vines are set in rows six or seven feet apart, and with three or four feet between the rows. The vines are not grown to standards, but from branching stalks from one to two and a half feet The pruning is done in the winter, when the vines are comparatively dormant. The superfluous branches are then cut away, and the remaining ones are cut to two or three eyes each. The cultivation was, until lately, performed in the simplest way with pick and spade. The first digging is done in January, at which time also the ground is manured. This is done by digging pits and trenches in the vineyard, which are filled with goat and camel dung. These trenches remain open for a month or more, and are after that time filled in. The first digging in the soil is done in November, the second one in January and February, when, in leveling the ground, it is at the same time dug over again one foot or more. The third or last digging is performed in March, when simply the weeds are spaded under. Of late years, vineyardists from other Mediterranean districts have settled in Smyrna and brought with them better methods. Greek farmers have especially done much to improve the old ways of cultivation used by the slovenly or ignorant natives. In May, the young shoots are pinched back after the grapes have set well and began to develop. The pinching of the ends produces a second crop, which, besides being later, also consists of smaller grapes than the first. All sterile and inferior shoots are then cut off, and this is repeated during the summer in order that the vines may not be weakened unnecessarily. The vines come into bearing in the third year, begin to pay expenses in the fourth year, and leave a profit in the fifth year after being set out. In the seventh and eighth years the vines are considered in full bearing. The Sultana grapes begin to ripen in July. The vintage begins towards the end of July, and lasts until the middle of August. Other varieties of grapes are later, lasting from the middle of August to the end of September, their vintage seldom lasting as late as the first week of October. The first raisins are ready about August 1st, and the last Sultanas are all in by September 1st, the other varieties of raisins coming in later. Dipping, Drying and Curing.—The curing of the grapes into raisins requires great care, and nowhere is any more skill shown than in Smyrna. Its raisins are the most beautiful of any, their splendid appearance and transparency being due to the process employed. The drying is done on drying-floors, which sometimes consist of the bare ground only, at other times of elevated beds of earth a foot or so high. When the soil is not naturally hard and suitable for drying-floors, it is first prepared by cutting off the weeds, and is then watered and packed until a smooth and hard surface is produced. This hard bed is sometimes left bare, and at other times covered with matting. In other places the grapes are dried on canvas, or on trays made of the Italian reed, or of grasses. These trays are raised on props three or four inches above the ground, and are loose so that they may be put on top of each other to exclude the sun, rain or fog, according to locality and season. Great stress is laid upon having the The Sultanas of the better grades are now sold off-stalk or loose. The finest brands are the Chesme elemÊ, or Chesme select. ElemÊ means choice or select, and is used both for raisins and figs. The yield of an acre of Sultana vines varies in different vineyards, according to the quality of the soil. A good yield is considered about seven tons of fresh grapes, or about two and a third tons of raisins. The price of the Smyrna Sultanas fluctuates considerably; but it may be said that the best grades are always from twenty-five to thirty per cent higher than the dipped raisins of Valencia. Thus, in 1843, dipped Valencias brought six and a quarter cents, while the Smyrna Sultanas brought ten cents. In 1844, the Valencias were quoted at ten cents, while the Sultanas brought twenty cents per pound. Of late years, the Smyrna Sultanas have fluctuated between four and a half and twelve and a half cents per pound. Production and Export.—The production of Smyrna raisins and dried grapes has enormously increased during the last few years. In 1844, the average crop was only from six to eight thousand tons. In 1868, this had increased to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1871 we find the export from Smyrna to be forty-eight thousand tons. In 1881, this had grown to seventy-five thousand tons (according to the consular report of Consul-General G. H. Heap of Constantinople). Of the districts already mentioned, Chesme and Vourla produce about three Cost of Vineyards in Smyrna.—The cost of vineyards in the Smyrna district varies just as it does elsewhere. Bearing vineyards change hands at from three hundred to four hundred and fifty dollars per acre. The yearly labor on an acre of vines, including pruning, cultivation and drying, amounts to fifty dollars an acre or more. The average yield per acre averages from about eighty-five to ninety dollars, leaving a profit of from thirty to forty dollars, equal to from about eight to ten per cent on the capital invested. I believe, however, that these figures may be modified, and that the profit on an acre of average vineyard often reaches from fifty to sixty dollars. The fact that an acre of vineyard sells for four hundred and fifty dollars indicates that it must not only give a fair but a good interest on that sum. The raisins from one acre of a Smyrna vineyard are sold for $88. The interest on the par value of an acre ($450) for one year at five per cent is $22.50. The other expenses during the year amount to $50, leaving, as net profit, $6.50. The above is a low estimate copied from English statements. Other Varieties of Raisins.—Besides Sultanas, Smyrna produces an enormous quantity of raisins of other kinds. The demand for these has been and is constantly increasing, the most being shipped to manufacturers of wines, distilled liquors of all kinds, jellies, jams, etc. These varieties are known as Large Black and Large Red. These varieties are grown in all the Smyrna districts, and in quantity far exceed the Sultanas. The following will give an idea of how this trade has increased of late. Red and Black Smyrna raisins in tons: 1868, 12,795; 1876, 15,500; 1881, 40,000; 1883, 45,000; 1888, 60,000. The price varies from three to four cents per pound in the local market. Judging from the constantly increased export of these kinds of raisins, it is not likely that the production of the same is likely to soon be overdone. ITALY AND ITALIAN RAISINS.Lipari and Belvidere.—Of the Mediterranean countries, Italy produces the smallest quantity of raisins. We cannot imagine this to be on account of unsuitable soil and climate, but more on account of the tardiness of its people to take kindly to new industries and improve upon their older methods. In former years the raisins from Southern Italy were much exported to Northern Europe; to-day the trade is insignificant. In the sixteenth century, the raisins from Lipari and Belvidere were of considerable repute, but were, however, considered inferior to the Spanish raisins. The Island of Lipari, to-day principally known on account of its volcanoes, produces yet so-called Lipari currants of larger size than those from Morea. They are of much inferior quality, being hard and dry and of oblong shape. Pantellaria.—The Island of Pantellaria, between Sicily and Africa, also produces raisins of somewhat better quality, which, if better packed, would favorably compare with the Lexias of Valencia and Denia. The Pantellarias, or Belvideres, as they are known in the market, are principally consumed in Northern Italy and Southern France. They are sweet and good raisins, which, if carefully and intelligently handled, would rapidly improve in quality. Calabria.—Since the destruction of the Calabrian raisins through the mildew, the raisin production of this peninsula has largely increased. In 1876, it had reached eight thousand tons, but must now probably be double that amount. The Calabrian raisins produced on the mainland of Italy are of good quality, and are principally exported to France. CHILE AND HUASCO RAISINS.Characteristics.—The Chile or Huasco raisin is one of the finest raisins in the world, and in the opinion of the author superior to both Spanish and California raisins. They excel in sweetness and aroma as well as flavor; their skin is thin, and the seeds are small. The color is entirely different from sun-dried California or Spanish raisins, being yellowish amber with a fine and thin bluish bloom, indicating that they have been dried in the shade or in partial shade without dipping in lye or other solutions. Location.—The number of acres devoted to raisin culture in Chile is not known. The grapes for this purpose are grown almost exclusively in the valley of the Huasco, back of the port of Huasco in the province of Atacama. There appear to be two distinct valleys of the same name, one situated only twenty minutes’ ride from the port of Huasco on the Pacific Ocean, the other farther inland about sixty miles from the coast. In the former place, the culture of the raisin grape is very limited, the whole valley and town only containing four hundred people, of which not all are occupied with the raisin industry. The interior valley is more extensive, and the largest quantity of the Huasco raisins come from this place. The port of Huasco is situated in latitude twenty-seven degrees, thirty minutes south, longitude seventy-one degrees, sixteen minutes west. Muscatel or Gordo Blanco Raisin Grape, Second Crop. Two-thirds Natural Size. Varieties.—The grape used for raisins is a variety of the Muscat, very similar to the Muscat of Alexandria. Grapevines transplanted to California resemble this variety very much, but, according to Professor Hilgard, set their fruit better, and do not suffer so much from colure. It is said that these grapes were imported to Chile long ago by the Spanish conquerors, and it is supposed they grew the vines from seed brought from Spain, and selected the best of the seedlings. In this way the slight difference of the Huasco grape from the Muscat of Alexandria can be accounted for. Soils.—The soil in the coast valley consists of a reddish, sandy loam, which changes to a fine yellow sand, of great richness. This sand covers the hills almost everywhere in the vicinity of the Huasco river, the nature of the country being a rolling one. Climate.—The climate is notoriously dry, and rain falls only very seldom between June and September, is of short duration and very scant. In the interior valley, rain is said to be seldom known, and the climate there can be called entirely rainless. Dew is abundant in the winter, but the summers are warm and dry. Irrigation.—Near the coast no irrigation is required, but in the interior valley the grapes are irrigated three times a year, first when the buds begin to swell, second when they begin to blossom, and lastly when the fruit is well advanced. The Vineyard.—The vines are planted six feet one way by eight feet the other, and the intermediate space is often planted to alfalfa, giving three crops of hay each year. The heads are kept low, the vines are pruned heavily, and only two eyes left on each cane. Sometimes whole branches are cut away, especially if they do not bear well. The vines are grown both on hillsides and in the valleys on the bottom lands. Many of the vineyards are surrounded by elevated arbors or trellises, over which the vines are trained, to keep off the heavy spring winds which otherwise would break the branches,—windbreaks, in fact. The cultivation of the Huasco vines is of the most primitive kind. The land is poorly cultivated, and the fact that alfalfa is grown between the rows of the vines indicates that the industry is not highly developed. On the other hand, it is not impossible that the crowding together of various things on the land may help to give the grapes a certain flavor or aroma. There is said to be a great difference between the various Huasco grapes, some being very superior to others. The inferior kinds are called simply Muscats, while the better kinds are the Huascos. It is not known if these varieties come from different kinds of grapes, but it is likely that this is the case. Vines of the best variety transplanted to other localities than the Huasco valley give invariably indifferent results, and produce raisins inferior to the Huasco. Drying and Curing.—The poorer qualities are simply dried on boards or on the roofs of the houses in the sun; but the fine and most valuable raisins are dried in the shade. When ripe, the bunches are carefully picked and taken to open sheds with thatched roofs, and there hung up to dry. The raisins are turned at intervals, and when ready are packed in twenty-five-pound boxes without any great care or skill. The CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS.A GENERAL REVIEW.Early History.—While the planting of raisin grapes and the production of raisins in California dates back some thirty odd years, the raisin industry cannot be said to be as yet twenty years old. Already, in 1851, Col. Agoston Haraszthy grew Muscatel vines from seeds of Malaga raisins. On the 25th of March, 1852, he imported the Muscat of Alexandria from Malaga, and ten years later, during a visit to that place on September 27, 1861, he selected cuttings of the Gordo Blanco which afterwards were grown and propagated on his San Diego county vineyard. The same year he imported Sultana vines from Malaga, and white and red Corinth from Crimea. Col. Haraszthy was thus the first one to introduce the raisin-vines in this State. Another importation of the ovoid Muscat of Alexandria was made in 1855 by A. Delmas and planted at San JosÉ, according to a statement made by his son D. M. Delmas, Later Planting.—In 1873, in the fall, the Muscat vines were first brought to the Fresno raisin district, where twenty-five acres of Muscat of Alexandria were planted in the Eisen vineyard. A few years later, or in 1876 and 1877, T. C. White planted the Raisina Vineyard in the Central California Colony near Fresno from Gordo Blanco Muscatels The history of the development of the raisin industry in the other districts of the State runs very much the same. Riverside had entered the field in 1873, when the founder of that colony, Judge John Wesley North, planted there the first raisin-vines of the variety Muscat of Alexandria. But raisin-grape growing did not become general until 1875 and 1876, when the largest vineyards in the colony were planted. In El Cajon valley in San Diego county, the first raisin vines of the Muscat of Alexandria variety were planted in 1873 by R. G. Clark; but the raisin industry did not get a good start until some six or seven years ago, while most of the vineyards were planted from 1884 to 1886. In Orange county, raisin grapes were planted at the same time as in Riverside and El Cajon by MacPherson Bros., near Orange, now called MacPherson. The raisin industry developed rapidly, and Robert MacPherson, the largest grower and packer in the district, and at one time in the State, handled yearly over one hundred thousand boxes, while the yearly crop of the district rose to one hundred and seventy thousand boxes. In Central California, the raisin industry is gradually spreading from the original center around Fresno, the greater freedom from rain and the better facilities for irrigation being great inducements for the settlers to engage in the growing and curing of the raisin grapes. The San Joaquin valley is especially adapted to the production of raisins, the Fresno raisin district being by far the largest, and now producing almost one-half of the raisin crop of the State. In San Bernardino county and district, the raisins are also grown to great profit and with great facility, and are of equal quality with those of the interior of the State. But the raisin industry is here gradually giving way to the culture of oranges and other citrus fruits, and the increase in the raisin acreage has therefore not been so great as in the San Joaquin valley. In El Cajon, irrigation is not used, and the raisins produced there are very similar to the Malaga raisins, but through absence of irrigation the crops are smaller than in any of the other districts in the State. In Los Angeles and Orange county district, the raisin industry has suffered immensely from the ravages of the vine plague, an as yet entirely mysterious disease, and the output of raisins there has dwindled down to almost nothing. But the farmers of the district are ready to replant whenever there are any prospects that the vines will do well again. In the interior of California, north of Solano and Yolo counties, large quantities of raisin grapes have been planted during the last few years, both in the foothill valleys, out on the plains, and in the bottom lands of the Sacramento, Yuba and Feather rivers, etc. Raisins of very good quality have been produced in that part of the State for years in limited quantities, but it is yet a question to what extent that section can compete with the central and southern parts of the State. In Sutter county around Yuba City the cultivation of a seedless raisin grape is advancing rapidly, the raisins made from it being of excellent quality and finding a ready market. Acreage and Crops.—The quantity of raisin-vines planted cannot be estimated correctly; but it is certain that at least sixty-five thousand acres of Muscat vines are now set out in the State, including grapes in bearing, as well as vines lately set out. California enjoys a climate peculiarly adapted to the culture and curing of the raisin grape. The summers are warm and rainless, the winters again moderately rainy. The interior is free from injurious fogs and heavy dews, while the most southern coast is only visited by warm fogs, which are not greatly harmful to the grapes. Irrigation is practiced almost everywhere, except in El Cajon valley, and in some of the northern districts of the State, but even there it is no doubt that judicious irrigation would be beneficial and greatly increase the crop. The demand for California raisins has kept pace with the improvements in curing and packing, and has steadily increased from year to year. What the future has in store only the future can tell, but it is almost certain that first-class raisins will always be in demand, while inferior grades may from time to time bring lower prices. The ruling price of raisins in sweatboxes, as they may be had from those growers who do not pack themselves, has been from four to five cents per pound. Of late years, the tendency is developing to pay according to quality, and from three to seven cents was the ruling price for unpacked raisins in sweatboxes during last season (1889). This practice will greatly promote the raisin industry and encourage growers to grow large grapes and fine bunches, and to cure their raisins well. It will also benefit the buyers, who will know what they pay for, and who will be able to furnish better grades, and more of the best grades than formerly, when good, bad and indifferent raisins brought five cents per pound. The raisin crop of 1889 did not exceed one million boxes. Should we venture upon a statement as to the distribution of the same among the various counties or districts of the State, the following figures would be found as near correct as it is possible to get them:
YOLO AND SOLANO.Location and Acreage.—The district is situated north of San Francisco Bay, bordering on it as well as on the Sacramento river, and is a part of the Sacramento valley. The number of acres overreaches seven thousand, and is increasing yearly. The principal vineyards are those of the late G. G. Briggs at Davisville, Solano county, with three hundred acres, and at Woodland in Yolo county, four hundred and sixty acres; E. Gould, also at Davisville, two hundred acres; H. M. Larou, at same place, about fifty acres; sundry vineyards around Davisville, fifty acres; around Woodland and Capay valley, some four hundred acres;—or in full bearing more than two thousand acres. The district comprises the southern part of Yolo and the northern part of Solano counties. The grape used for raisins is principally the Muscat of Alexandria, except the vineyard of R. B. Blowers, which is composed exclusively of Gordo Blanco. The Muscat of Alexandria is generally preferred, as it makes a fine raisin and bears well. Soil and Climate.—The soil varies somewhat; the best is a deep gray, alluvial bottom-land soil; other soils are not much thought of for Muscatel raisin grapes. The average depth of water is about eighteen feet from the surface. It is not necessary, as a rule, to first level the land, as the ground is very level naturally. The rainfall averages thirteen inches. The most rain falls in January and February; the least falls in August. There is seldom a shower in the summer, but about November 1st rains are almost always certain to interfere with the drying of the grapes. Sometimes the rain comes in October, when it causes considerable damage to the grapes and partially dried raisins. There is very little dew in summer time, but plenty in October and also some in September. The temperature is considerably modified by the nearness of the bay. It reaches in the hottest part of the summer one hundred and fourteen degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, but only for a day or two. The average highest is about ninety degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, while the heat almost every day in July and August shows eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. Thus this district is considerably cooler than the San Joaquin valley and San Bernardino county, but warmer than Los Angeles and San Diego districts. There are heavy frosts in winter, when at times even the thermometer falls to eighteen degrees Fahrenheit, although this is the extreme low temperature, six or seven degrees of frost being more common. There is spring frost in April one year in every three or four, and the vineyards are then smoked to prevent injury to the vines. Irrigation is not needed to produce crops, only to produce larger crops, as it increases the yield fifty per cent. Generally two irrigations a year are needed, the first one in early summer, the other later, when the berries have begun to ripen. Water from ditches is used and carried to the vines in furrows only, no flooding being practiced. The Vineyard.—In planting, cuttings are used principally, but rooted vines are preferred by some. The distances most common are ten by ten feet each way, one vineyard being set ten feet by sixteen feet. The vines bear the third year. The ground is plowed and In pruning, the crowns are never raised over six inches above the ground, from seven to eight spurs are left on large vines, and each spur is pruned to two or three eyes each. Formerly more eyes, say from four to five, were left on each cane, but it was found that this was too many, hence the change to two or three eyes. Summer pruning is practiced by some, but not by all; there is yet a controversy in regard to its usefulness. When practiced, the vines are cut six or eight inches from the tops, and this is done not later than June. Sulphuring is in use everywhere; the vines are sulphured two times, once before and once after the bloom. Sulphured vines do not suffer from mildew. Colure, or the dropping of the young berries, is not common, the Muscat of Alexandria even setting well. The leaf-hopper (Erythroneura comes) is more common in some years than in others. They eat the leaves and cause the grapes to sunburn. Grasshoppers have never caused any damage. Grape moths are more or less common, but never troublesome. Black-knot is often seen on neglected vines, but is rare in old vineyards well cared for. The Crop.—The grapes ripen in September, generally from the first to the tenth. The drying and curing occupies three weeks. The bunches are placed on trays made of pine two feet by three. Several growers have artificial dryers, which are needed for curing the second crop. The sweatboxes are large enough to contain seventy pounds of raisins, and are eight inches deep. In the Briggs raisin vineyard, the following brands are packed: three crown Layer Muscatels; two crown Layer Muscatels; one and two crown Loose Muscatels; Dehesas and Seedless Muscatels. The raisins are seldom sold in sweatboxes, and no fixed price is known for such raisins. Most growers pack their own raisins. The oldest raisin vineyard is that started by the late G. G. Briggs, and now owned by his widow. The most renowned vineyard was that owned by R. B. Blowers of Woodland, which has of late years been mostly replaced by other crops. Raisin land can be had for from one hundred to one hundred and fifty dollars per acre. This is vacant land of the very best quality. An average profit of fifty dollars per acre is realized, although some have made more money out of their vines. A yield of two or three tons of grapes per acre is common. As regards prices of labor, etc., the following were those most common last season: Man and team, who boards himself and animals, three dollars and twenty-five cents per day, can plow one and a half acres of vineyard well. Pruning, one man, one dollar per day, can prune three hundred vines, or three-fourths of an acre. Laborers generally board themselves. The raisins of this district were the first ones in the State or on this continent to attract attention, and they were the first which successfully competed with Spain. The crop of 1889 reached one hundred and twenty thousand boxes. NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.General Remarks.—The Muscatel and Sultana raisin grapes grow almost everywhere in the State, and it is therefore natural enough that the planting of raisin-vines should have increased considerably of late years, even in localities situated outside of those raisin districts mentioned, which have already made a success of the raisin industry. Below will be found a few notices from various such places which aspire to raisin fame, some of which have yet to make their reputation in this line. These notices are partly taken from the San Francisco Chronicle, which paper went to the trouble and expense of collecting such statistics at the beginning of the year. It must be remembered, however, that these statements are more or less approximate. As will be seen, all these localities here mentioned lie in the interior or the Sacramento valley proper, enjoying an inland climate. The climate in this valley is somewhat like that of the San Joaquin valley, of which it is an extension. Only the heat in summer is less, the rain in winter is more profuse, the showers in the spring of the year are later and those of the fall are earlier. Placer County.—At Rocklin J. P. Whitney has two hundred and fifty acres of raisin grapes, and is the largest raisin-maker in the county. There are not over three hundred and fifty acres of Muscats devoted to raisin-making in the county, and the total output this year was about four hundred tons, most of which was shipped directly East. The first carload of Muscat raisins sent East was shipped from the Whitney vineyard about ten years ago. A large area of Muscat and other vineyards will be planted this season, but none for raisin-making. Yuba County.—The raisin industry has received but little attention in Yuba county, although it has long been known that raisins of superior quality can be produced here. The area in raisin-vines is about three hundred acres, which will probably be increased by several hundred acres this season. Less than a hundred acres are in bearing. The raisin vineyards planted last season are chiefly at Colmena, midway between Marysville and Wheatland. The Muscatel grape is planted to some extent, but the favorite grape is the Thompson Seedless, a new variety of great promise. Sutter County.—The raisin industry of Sutter county dates back to the year 1876, and the venture was first made by the late Dr. S. R. Chandler three miles south of this city. The area now in raisin vineyard is about six hundred acres, three-fourths of which are in bearing. The crops marketed and prices received are about as follows: Three thousand twenty-pound boxes at $1.65 per box; eight hundred sacks of one hundred pounds each, at five cents a pound; five hundred and twenty-five sacks of dried grapes of one hundred pounds each, at three cents a pound. The home consumption is extensive, but is not estimated. The county is well adapted to raisin growing and curing, and received the second prize at the late Oroville State Citrus Exposition. Muscatel and Thompson Seedless are the favorite grapes. The soil of this county is very rich and warm, and no irrigation has been practiced. Colusa County.—In the immediate vicinity of Colusa there are about one hundred and fifty acres in bearing, and fully one hundred acres more will be set out the coming season. The crop of raisins in 1888 was very insignificant; but in 1889 the Colusa canneries packed forty tons in boxes. The prices ranged from $1.75 to $2.25 per box, according to quality. These figures refer only to the territory lying within a radius of eight miles of Colusa. Some of the finest raisin grapes in the county are grown near College City, and the entire output was at least eighty tons of raisins. Many of the people around Orland are reported as going into the business on a large scale. The ranchers in and near the foothills are also producing raisins of excellent quality. A single vineyard of fifteen hundred acres is being planted in one place in the foothills. Butte County.—While Butte produces a fair quality of raisins, her vineyards are yet young and are just coming into bearing. The older vines are those of General Bidwell, at Chico, covering about one hundred acres, and those of Oroville and Mesilla valley, embracing about the same area. A large number of young vines have been set out during the past two years, and these number 52,200 near Oroville, 77,480 at Palermo, 67,200 at Thermalito, 20,570 at Wyandotte, 25,000 at Central House, 50,500 at Gridley, and something over 50,000 near Chico. These have nearly all been planted within the past two years, but a limited number are three years old. In the foothills are a number of small vineyards, but it is impossible to ascertain the acreage and product, though the total of each is not large. Practically the bearing vines of Butte number between 300 and 400 acres. The one and two year old vineyards embrace about 350 acres, so that a conservative estimate for the total raisin vineyards of the county, young and old, would be 700 acres. The raisins are all boxed and sold directly by the vineyardists, the local demand taking nearly the whole crop. The area to be planted this year will not exceed 250 acres. Tehama County.—The area planted to grapes in Tehama county is over ten thousand acres. The greater part of the fruit grown is used for wine, and probably one-third for raisins. All the raisins produced here are packed in boxes, and a large portion is used in home consumption, while the remainder is shipped. Probably about ten thousand boxes in bulk and packed will cover the yield. Shasta County.—The raisin industry of Shasta county is only in its infancy. There are 147 acres planted to raisin grapes within a radius of fifteen miles from Redding. The largest acreage of raisin grapes is in Happy valley. There are patches of grapes all through the foothills. Probably not over one thousand boxes of raisins were shipped. The planting of raisin grapes continues every year. Raisins are made by many small growers, and sold here at an average of six cents per pound. FRESNO AND SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY.General Remarks.—The San Joaquin valley is well adapted to raisins along its whole length almost, but especially in its central and southern parts. The farther we go south in the valley, the drier is the climate, and the less is the rainfall in the autumn of the year, both Extent and Location.—The Fresno district contains about thirty thousand acres, out of which about twelve thousand are in good or full bearing. Merced county has about two thousand acres, nearly all very young vines. Kern county has probably about one thousand acres, also very young vines, and some thirty acres of old vines. Tulare county has about seven thousand acres of Muscats, a large part of which is in full or good bearing. Many vineyards, large and small, are being planted in these counties this year, but enough attention is not paid to proper soil and to locality, and here, as elsewhere in the State, many of these vineyards will not turn out as the owners expect they will. In Fresno county, the old vineyards are planted principally around Fresno City, while in late years other raisin districts or sub-districts are growing into prominence around Malaga, Sanger, Selma, Fowler and Madera. The varieties used are principally the Gordo Blanco Muscatel, much mixed with the Muscat of Alexandria. There are some few acres of Sultanas and White Corinths, and of late many Malagas have been planted. Soils and Climate.—There are several different varieties of soils in the district,—the red or chocolate-colored sandy loam principally east of the railroad, the white, ashy soil west of the railroad, and the very sandy soil, generally occurring in elevated ridges. We have also the deep, gray-colored bottom land in the river bottoms or along the rivers and creeks. The best grades of the chocolate and reddish loams, and of the river bottom soil, is considered the best for raisins. The very sandy soil and the alkali soil should not be used for raisin Irrigation.—Irrigation is practiced wherever raisins are grown. The water is taken from the rivers,—from Kings river in the Fresno district, and from the Merced, Kaweah and Kern rivers, etc., in the other districts. Before irrigation was begun in the Fresno districts, there were from fifty to sixty feet of dry soil before the natural water level was reached; but this has been so changed through a few years of constant irrigation, that now in places the land is subirrigated or moist to the surface, while in places even the soil requires to be drained, and no other irrigation is now needed except to allow the water to flow in the main or secondary canals, from which it seeps and keeps the soil filled with water, the moisture rising from below. The irrigation when practiced is done by flooding or by irrigating in furrows. New land must be irrigated until it becomes subirrigated; but, when once this is done, no separate irrigation becomes necessary. Many vineyards planted on subirrigated land which was once dry land have never since been irrigated. The Vineyard.—The general distance of the vines is eight by eight or ten by ten feet, varying in different vineyards. Of late, there have been some efforts made to improve upon these distances, and to Pruning and Other Operations.—The heads of the vines are kept low,—from six to sixteen inches above the ground. The canes are cut to two or three eyes, and the number of canes left vary from five to fifteen or more. The pruning is done between December and February. Summer pruning is practiced by some, but not by all growers, there being considerable difference of opinion as to the value of this operation. Sulphuring is practiced by all growers, some sulphuring only once, but the best vineyards are sulphured three or more times. Oidium or mildew never appears in sulphured vineyards. Some few growers sulphur with great success against the colure or dropping of the grapes. Leaf-hoppers are common, but do no great harm. Grasshoppers and grape caterpillars were troublesome one or two seasons, but have not reappeared of late. Black-knot is common in many places. The Crop.—The grapes begin to ripen in the middle of August, or from the middle of August to the first of September, and at the latter date the first boxes of cured and packed raisins are generally heralded through the press. The first grapes dry in from seven to ten days, but the later grapes require three weeks or more. The drying continues through September, and for the second crop through October and even in November, or until the rains set in. The grapes are dried on trays two by three or three by three feet. The sweatboxes are generally two by three feet and from six to eight inches high. A large number of brands are packed, such as Imperial Clusters, Dehesas, Layers, Loose and Seedless. The common price for raisins in sweatboxes is from three and a half to six cents, five and five and a half cents being the average for good layers. Good land for raisin purposes can be had for one hundred dollars per acre, but nearer the town of Fresno is held higher. Bearing raisin vineyards have changed hands at as high as $1,000 per acre. From one hundred to two hundred and fifty boxes of raisins are realized per acre, and the profits vary from seventy-five to two hundred and fifty dollars per acre, according to location, soil, management, etc. From thirty to fifty dollars per acre is spent yearly in many vineyards. Few dipped raisins are produced. Some dipped Sultanas have brought seven cents in the San Francisco market. Last season about four hundred and seventy-five thousand boxes were produced in the Fresno district, and some twenty thousand boxes more in the other parts of the San Joaquin valley. SAN BERNARDINO COUNTY AND RIVERSIDE.Location and Acreage.—San Bernardino county, California, is entirely an inland county, sheltered by low and high hills from the ocean. Fogs and dew are rare, in places unknown, and the county offers unusual advantages for raisin-growing. The vineyards are widely distributed through the county in different localities or raisin centers, all of which are greatly similar as to climatic conditions, except as regards altitude. The San Bernardino vineyards are the highest elevated above the sea of any in California. Below will be found a list of the raisin centers in the county, with the number of acres and their altitude above the sea. It must be understood that each locality has a large extension as regards altitude, and varies in many instances several hundred feet; this fact being indeed a characteristic of the San Bernardino county vineyards. The raisin centers in San Bernardino county are:
There are several other localities where raisin vineyards are found in smaller quantities, and it is safe to estimate the number of acres in the county at over five thousand. Nearly all these vineyards are situated on mesa lands, by which is meant the lands situated between the river bottoms and the foothills. As a consequence, the surface water is never near the top, but generally far down, and even continued irrigation would not be liable to raise it much higher, as the water will as rapidly drain off through the substrata, which generally consists of sandy soil and gravel. The land is in fact well drained, and differs in this respect from the plains of the San Joaquin valley. In Riverside, the surface water is from thirty to fifty feet down, and only in one or two vineyards situated deep down in the arroyo is the surface water as shallow as ten feet. These latter vineyards are never irrigated. In Redlands the surface water is at an average of thirty feet on the mesa lands. In Ontario the surface water is even deeper, and found at from seventy to eight hundred feet, and the shallowest water in the district is, according to Mr. W. E. Collins, twenty-five feet below the surface. It is the general belief in the San Bernardino district that deep water is necessary for, or at least beneficial to, raisin grapes, and that shallow surface water is conducive to all kinds of diseases. In this I cannot agree, as contrary to my own experiences and to the experiences of the Spanish growers. Climate.—As regards temperature, there is some difference in the various districts. A true comparison between them and other districts is almost impossible, as the signal service thermometers are placed at unequal heights above the ground, and in localities with very different characteristics. It can, however, be said that the winter climate of the district is much milder during the winter than that of the plains of the San Joaquin valley, and very similar to the Orange county and Irrigation.—In Riverside grapes cannot be grown without irrigation on the mesa lands, with the exception of one or two localities in the arroyo. In the Ontario district, raisin grapes may be grown without irrigation in the center of the valley, but on the mesas, higher on the sides, they must be irrigated, and even in localities where they could be grown without artificial irrigation the same is always practiced whenever it can be obtained. Less water is, however, needed than in the San Joaquin valley, but more than would suffice in El Cajon. Through the nature of the gravelly subsoil, the raisin land cannot fill up with water. Seepage is only possible to a limited degree; summer irrigation is always required. The vines are irrigated three times a year, in April, June and August. The system of furrows is used, and a ten-inch flow is considered enough to irrigate one acre of grapes during one day and night each time. In Ontario the raisin grapes are irrigated every five weeks, not, however, while they are in bloom, as it is considered best to wait until the berries are well set. In Redlands, one irrigation after the winter rain ceases is considered enough, even on soil with thirty feet to water. Soils.—The soil in San Bernardino county varies considerably. In Riverside and Redlands the best soil is a reddish loam, with some sand and gravel. But in Riverside we also find sandy soil of lighter color and strength, which, however, is less suited to grapes. In The Vineyards.—The variety used for raisins is nearly entirely the Muscat of Alexandria, although several vineyardists call these grapes incorrectly the Gordo Blanco. I saw nowhere this variety, but I suppose some must have been imported there. In planting, cuttings have been preferred, probably because they are the cheapest, and because the value of rooted vines has not been properly understood. The vines are set, almost everywhere, eight by eight, only in a few vineyards nine by nine feet. There is, however, a growing belief that eight by ten feet or eight by twelve feet is better than the old accepted eight by eight feet. But I believe that this tendency to give the vines greater room will, in course of time, be followed by the opposite tendency to plant them closer, at least one way, and give more room the other way. The Muscat of Alexandria begins to bear in three years, and in four years will pay fifty dollars per acre. The practice of plowing is, in Riverside, to first plow towards the vines in the fall, and then, when the vegetation has begun in the spring, the soil is turned back towards the center of the space between the rows, or from the vines. Then the soil is cultivated with chisel-tooth cultivators, both crosswise and lengthwise, also similarly after every irrigation. But this practice is not entirely the same everywhere, and the different vineyardists have here as elsewhere different ideas, even in regard to the most common farm or vineyard practices. Pruning was formerly done much closer than now, but it was found that by close pruning the vines bore less. To-day from fifteen to twenty spurs are left on the strongest vines, and on every spur about two eyes. From twenty to twenty-five spurs were found to be too much; with such quantity of spurs the vines produce smaller and inferior grapes. Some vines which were pruned with twenty-five spurs last year have this year been given nine or ten spurs only, so as to enable them again to recover and grow strong, when the quantity of spurs will again be increased to fifteen. Summer pruning is used by some, but not by others. It does not, according to observation, injure the vine, but produces always a second crop, which is difficult to cure. Sulphuring the vines is practiced by some, but not by all, growers. A great many cannot see the use and value of sulphur. No one sulphurs for colure or the dropping of the grape, which is quite a common occurrence. The vines, however, never suffered from the leaf-hopper nor the grape caterpillars, but sunscald is not uncommon, nor is black-knot. The Crop.—The Muscat grapes begin to ripen in Riverside later than in the San Joaquin valley, and picking commences between the 10th and the 30th of September. Highlands is said to be two weeks later than Riverside. The first crop is ready to turn in two weeks, and is ready for the sweatbox in three weeks’ time. For drying, trays are used, and about twenty pounds are placed on each tray. These trays are all made of pine or fir. Redwood has been found unsuitable, as imparting both a color and a taste to the raisins if accidentally wet The Profits and Other Items.—The profit varies, of course, greatly, but an average profit may be considered to be from about $125 to $150 per acre. The yield of an acre is variable, but from eight to ten tons of fresh grapes is said not to have been uncommon. In some cases the yield has been much higher and the profit larger. I have from trustworthy source the statement that one vineyardist who owns only a few acres, I believe only five, and who has given all his time and attention to these vines, has realized as much as $430 per acre. This I quote only as an instance of what might be done with care and expense in an exceptionally favored locality. Some few growers have realized $250 profit on each of a few acres, which also is to be considered exceptional. I believe my former statement of $150 per acre as being reliable and attainable by all San Bernardino county raisin-growers who have good land, and who give their vines sufficient care. As another instance of a high yield, I copy below an account of the vintage of C. Newton Ross of Etiwanda, San Bernardino county, California. The article appeared in the Press and Horticulturist of Riverside, September 27th, and I have every reason to consider it trustworthy. The writer adds that the yield is extraordinary. “Mr. Ross has seventeen acres of 8,000 vines five years old from which he picked 8,648 trays of grapes that average twenty-five pounds to the tray, or a total of 108 tons of grapes, which will make thirty-six tons of raisins,—equal to 3,600 boxes,—over 200 boxes to the acre. This is As regards care of the vineyard and expenses of running the same, they vary, of course, and are estimated at from twenty dollars upwards. But the best vineyardists spend from thirty to forty dollars per acre in the care of an acre, but in this do not include interest, trays bought, etc., nothing in fact but “care.” Vines were first planted in Riverside by Judge John Wesley North in 1873. Vacant land that is suitable for raisins may be had with water for $250 per acre. Some land with choice locations is held at higher prices. The highest yield of raisins in San Bernardino has been 290,000 boxes in 1888. Of this Riverside produced 150,000 boxes, Etiwanda 30,000 boxes, and Ontario 15,000 boxes. The raisin shipments from Riverside during the fall of 1889, up to December 12th, amounted, according to the Daily Press, to 216,000 boxes. There was a balance on hand of 7,000 boxes, making the total production 223,000 boxes. It is estimated that the value of this crop was $3,500,000 at wholesale. Later advices give to the county 265,000 boxes as last season’s crop. The San Bernardino raisins are superior both as regards quality and size, and raisin growing and curing is a profitable business, eminently suited to the settler with small means, who cannot invest large capital, nor can afford to wait long for a return. No dipped or sulphured raisins have ever been produced in the district, although dipped raisins would prove profitable. Especially does this refer to the second crop, which ripens enough to make good raisins, but which cannot be cured when the early rains set in. ORANGE COUNTY AND SANTA ANA.General Remarks.—On account of the vine disease which has been injuring the Orange county raisin and wine vineyards, this district has a special interest to every one engaged in grape-growing. While the country has received a hard blow through the injury and destruction of so many of its vineyards, still it is likely that it will recover and rise as soon as the vine disease leaves. Location.—The Orange county raisin district lies close to the sea. Of all raisin districts, it is nearest the ocean, the average distance of the raisin vineyards from the latter being eight to twelve miles, some few perhaps a little more. As will be seen, the district resembles in this respect some of the Mediterranean districts, such as Malaga and Smyrna, where the vineyards come within actual reach of the sea fogs. On one side of the Orange county district we have the ocean, on the opposite side it is bordered by rather high foothills, beyond which are the San Bernardino county vineyards, some forty to sixty miles away. A Raisin-grower’s Residence at Fresno. Climate.—The nearness to the ocean modifies the climate much. The temperature is more even all the year round than anywhere else on the coast where raisins are grown. The extreme of heat is 105 degrees; in fact, July 27, 1889, it was 104 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, while in the winter it seldom goes lower than 28 degrees Fahrenheit, and indeed very, very rarely as low as that. In many places there is no frost at all, except, perhaps, one in April, which, of course, cannot but prove damaging to the vines. This absence of heavy frost, which is beneficial to every other semi-tropical product, is not favorable to the vine. The grape requires heavy frost to become dormant. The farther south we go the less frost and the less grapes, at least of the Asiatic kind. There are, as we know, native grapes even in tropical countries, but they are adapted to their surroundings and cannot be considered here. The proximity to the coast modifies the air considerably. With 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, which is an exception here, I felt as warm as I do in the San Joaquin valley with the mercury at 114;—the two extremes in both places affect us just the same. The air here is certainly much more moist, which again must have a marked effect upon the vine, and in no small degree promote fungoid growths, or parasites generally. In this respect, then, the coast vineyard must certainly be at a disadvantage. The fog is not an unusual visitor in the district between the coast and the foothills, which, in fact, covers the whole area ever planted in raisin grapes. For days in succession every morning is foggy, and the fog condenses on the leaves of the trees and falls under them in real showers, making the adjoining and underlying road wet. For a few days again the sun will rise bright, again to be followed by foggy mornings. By from nine to eleven o’clock the fog is again gone and the sun shines brightly. Every evening and morning there is a heavy dew, and every branch, leaf or grass is then dripping wet. Several mornings when the fog was in I found the thermometer at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, while at noon it rose to over 100. Soils and Ripening.—The soil here is the very best, and I doubt if the same fine quality of soil is found anywhere else in California over the same extended territory. I ride for miles and miles, everywhere the finest and richest loam of a gray color, sometimes a little drawing towards slate blue, sometimes again towards yellowish. It is immensely rich, and can hardly be improved. There is, however, especially near Orange, a different kind of soil consisting of the sand loam, but intermixed with very coarse gravel. This soil is warmer but consequently not so rich. The grapes ripen on it two weeks earlier, but yield only one-half as much as those on the richest loam along the creeks. The vines planted here were alone the Muscat of Alexandria. Strangely enough I find no traces of Sultanas or currant, which latter, it seems, should be especially adapted to the coast climate. The Vineyards.—In planting a vineyard, rooted vines were seldom used. Cuttings grew so readily and so well that they were much The Crop and its Curing.—The grapes begin to ripen in the end of August, say about the twenty-fifth, on the gravelly soil, but on the cooler and richer bottom land very much later, or about the middle of September. The harvest then begins; the grapes are picked on trays two and a half by three feet and placed to dry in the sun; the drying takes two or three weeks or more, and is accomplished with some difficulty. Two years the grapes had to be carried out to the Mojave desert, to be dried there. The trays are placed among the vines in such a way that the trays from three rows are placed in one. To protect them from the fog and dew, they are covered with canvas. This is done in two ways. One way is to put small pegs on one side of the trays. The long canvas is furnished at intervals with rings, Yield and Profits.—The yield is quite small on the gravelly soil, at the most being three tons of green grapes to the acre, on richer land from six to seven tons, and in rare instances ten tons to the acre. I heard of one vineyard where the owner had sold from twenty acres of Muscatels thirty-three tons of raisins and fifty-six tons of green grapes, equal to about 155 tons from the lot. Another lot of three-year Muscatels bore ten tons to the acre,—indeed a very unusual yield anywhere for Muscatels. I hear reports of some wonderful yields and high profits, but am informed by the most experienced and trustworthy that $125 per acre is an average profit which can be relied upon year after year. The first Muscat vines were planted near Orange, now the station of McPherson, about 1873, by McPherson Bros. The acreage in grapevines in the Orange county district was about 8,000 acres; but probably over half of it is wine grapes. The highest output of raisins was 170,000 boxes of twenty-pounds each. SAN DIEGO AND EL CAJON.Location and Acreage.—The El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys are the raisin centers of San Diego county. The former contains about four thousand acres of Muscat vines, the latter about five hundred acres. Magnificent-looking Muscat grapes are also grown within three miles of San Diego. Escondido is by many pronounced superior for raisin grapes to any of the other places; but El Cajon is the present center of the raisin industry, and is likely to remain so for years. The raisin-growing section of the two valleys lies from about fifteen to seventeen miles from the coast line, and at an altitude of from 450 to 500 feet. The arable land in El Cajon valley contains 50,000 acres, or perhaps less, and consists of the rolling bottom of the valley, but which can in no way be classed as bottom land. The land partakes Climate and Rainfall.—The rainfall of the valley varies considerably. It has been known to be as little as six inches and as much as twenty, the average probably being about twelve inches, distributed as generally elsewhere in California,—during the winter months. In summer time it seldom rains,—perhaps a shower in two or three years. September is the warmest month, or at least the month with the greatest number of warm days. The highest temperature reached in the shade in El Cajon is 105 degrees Fahrenheit, and in Sweetwater valley 108, and the coldest in the winter twenty-four degrees Fahrenheit on the upper mesa land, while on the lower land, close to the river, the temperature falls low enough to kill orange trees, probably somewhere about eighteen degrees Fahrenheit. September is freer from fog than any other month. During the other summer months there is fog in the morning two days out of three. The fog, however, is warm and pleasant to all but consumptives, but, nevertheless, leaves behind a soaking dew on all vegetation, and is even heavy enough to moisten the dust on the roads. The moisture on this mesa land—by which is meant all the land between the hills, which are too steep to be plowed, and the actual river bottom lands—is near the surface. In the El Cajon and Sweetwater valleys, the water is found on this mesa at from eight to twenty feet, or at an average of from twelve to fifteen feet. On little hills or knobs in the valley the water is found at about the same depth. It is strange that with the water so near the surface no perennial vegetation of either shrubbery or trees should be found on this land. The grapevines will grow on it without irrigation; in fact none is used anywhere now, but no doubt it would prove profitable to irrigate somewhat, so as to increase the crops of grapes. Water can be had through the Cuyamaca flume, but has so far not been used. The vines do not grow after August 1st, and may stop growing sooner. Soils.—The soils of the district are of four kinds: First, reddish clay mixed with gravel, the color changing between light chocolate and deep reddish. This soil is considered by many the most desirable. Second, a steel or slate gray adobe with much gravel of a coarse nature. Third, black adobe with little gravel. Fourth, alluvial sandy soil, apparently consisting of decomposed granite mixed with much vegetable matter. This soil is coarse, of a dark steel-gray color, very easily worked; it is considered the best for raisins, but it contains streaks where they will not grow and prove profitable. The last-named soil goes gradually over into common alluvial soil of a sandy nature. The two last-named soils are found principally in the Sweetwater valley. The Vines and the Vineyard.—In planting, cuttings are generally used, not because they are most preferred, but because good rooted vines cannot be obtained. The distance to, and the difficulty of reaching, this district was formerly such that roots would suffer in transit and would rapidly dry, while cuttings could be had handy and fresh. The vines, originally planted eight by eight feet, have been given more distance of late, some vineyardists planting them eight by twelve feet, while others prefer twelve by twelve or ten by twelve feet. The varieties used are the Muscat of Alexandria only. This variety happened to be the one that was imported first from Riverside, I believe, and it was afterwards propagated by every one. The variety as grown in El Cajon is the type of Muscat of Alexandria with oblong berries, large clusters with loosely hanging berries and large strong stems. The shape of the vines is erect, with a few center shoots, strong and upright. The vines commence bearing the second year, and are said to pay expenses of caring for in the third year, but I think it would be safer to say in the fourth year. As regards cultivation and plowing, many plow both ways and harrow and cultivate crosswise several times until the 1st of June, when, on account of the dryness of the soil, no more weeds start and no cultivation of any kind is needed. The large majority of the vineyards are splendidly kept, not a weed being seen anywhere for miles around. Winter pruning commences as soon as the leaves fall. In former years from five to nine spurs were left in pruning and two or three eyes on each spur, but it has been found profitable and judicious to leave more spurs, so as to take the sap in the spring, and now from twelve to fifteen spurs with two or three eyes each are left every winter. Spring or summer pruning has only been practiced the last two seasons, and being found very profitable is now adopted by everybody. The vines are not pinched, but headed well back as soon as the grapes are well set. This method has in this district the following advantages: It gives better shade to the bunches on account of the production of a strong second growth; it causes the bunches to fill better, and, finally, it leaves more room between the rows of the vines. I was told that any of these three advantages would warrant the system of summer pruning to be generally adopted. The valley has been unusually free from any insect pest, such as leaf-hoppers (Erythroneura comes) caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc., but suffers from mildew, not, however, to the extent that the presence of almost daily fogs would lead us to suppose. Sulphuring is now practiced to some extent, but not as much as it should be. The sulphur is applied with bellows as soon as the berries are the size of shot, but not before. Sulphuring for colure, or the dropping of the grapes when very small, is not practiced, nor was it ever suspected that it would help. Colure is quite common, much more so on sandy soil. Sunscald is frequent but not bad. I saw quite a number of grapes scalded on every vine, but not enough to warrant any special measures to be taken as a protection. The grapes have during this and last year ripened by the first days of September, but it is generally much later, or at about the 10th of September, when the vintage usually commences. The picking was, The Crop.—The grapes are dried on redwood trays made of sawed redwood shingles, three-eighths of an inch thick. The trays are made two by three feet. The best growers are this year going to assort the grapes when putting them on the trays. This was never done before, but will be of great advantage. A tray will average eighteen pounds of fresh grapes, which will take about one month to dry,—never less than three weeks. There is but little second crop, generally none that can be saved. September is the warmest month, or else the grapes could not be dried. At a temperature of 103 degrees Fahrenheit, it was found that grapes scalded or cooked while on the trays. This is, however, very rarely the case. From ninety-five to one hundred degrees is considered the best temperature at which the best raisins are made. The sweatboxes used formerly were two by three feet and ten inches deep; but of late eight inches and six inches in depth is considered the best, on account of the facility with which they can be handled. As to packing, many advocate twenty-pound boxes, that are only four and one-half inches deep, contending that they will hold twenty pounds of loose raisins. Few Dehesas are put up, the general brands being three crown London layers, and three crown loose Muscats. Some are also put up in fancy paper boxes. This year the valley has two packing companies, who buy raisins in sweatboxes, and pay from four to five and a half cents per pound. The yield per acre is from two to three tons of green grapes, I should say this year nearer two than three tons. I saw, however, some that would average five tons per acre, but this land was favorably situated in a moister place than is generally found in Sweetwater valley, and the vines were yet growing on August 21st. I heard of much greater yields, so extraordinary indeed that they are not likely to return again. From five to seven tons to the acre is a really rare yield, even on the best land, where the water is within six or seven feet of the surface. This shows me conclusively that judicious irrigation would materially increase the crop, and greatly improve the uniform size of the berries. The profit on an acre of bearing Muscat vines is from fifty to one hundred and twenty-five dollars per acre. The latter is the most any one realized, and thirty-five dollars is considered a good profit. The expense of running a vineyard is hard to ascertain, but those best informed told me that forty dollars per acre would be an average; this of course includes everything. The small amount of weeds and the absence of irrigation materially lessens the expenses of the El Cajon vineyards. Good vineyard or raisin land can be had for seventy-five dollars per acre. No vineyards in bearing have changed hands. Last year’s (1888) pack of the whole of San Diego county was variously estimated at from twenty to thirty thousand boxes, and this year at sixty thousand boxes of twenty pounds each. The unanimous verdict of the best growers in El Cajon is that want of moisture is the greatest drawback to raisin culture there. And I OTHER RAISIN DISTRICTS.Of late raisin grapes have been planted in considerable quantities in Salt river valley and in Gila river valley in Arizona, but the outcome of the venture is yet unknown, at least to us. The growers of Arizona claim for their localities the advantage of great earliness, as the grapes ripen there in July, or a month earlier than in California. In the Argentine Republic in South America it is said that the Spanish immigrants have planted many raisin grapes during the last few years. In Australia we are also informed that dipped raisins, and perhaps even sun-dried ones, have been produced, but even there the result is unknown to us. So far these raisins have cut no figure in the general market, but it is not improbable that many localities in those vast countries will be found where Muscat grapes can be profitably grown and cured. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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