A Map is a picture of the whole, or of a part, of the Earth’s surface, on a plane or level. Generally the top of a map represents north; the right hand side, east; the bottom, south; the left hand side, west. West, east, north, and south, are called the Cardinal Points.

Young persons in studying maps, imbibe an idea that the top of a map represents the highest part of a country; but this is a great mistake, as will be at once seen, by looking at the maps, and finding many rivers flow north, and recollecting that water cannot flow up hill. That part of a country is the most elevated, which contains mountains, and where rivers have their source.

Cities and towns are represented on maps by an o; rivers, by black lines running irregularly; mountains, by dark shades; deserts, by clusters of small dots; boundaries, by dotted lines.

The Axis of the earth is an imaginary line passing through its centre from north to south. The extremities of the Axis are called the Poles.

The Equator or Equinox, is an imaginary circle, surrounding the Earth from west to east, at an equal distance from the poles. See Map of the World, fig. 2.

A Meridian, or Line of Longitude, is a circle crossing the equator at right angles, and passing through the poles. See fig. 4.

Parallels of Latitude, are lines, drawn across maps, representing circles equally distant in every part from the equator. See fig. 3.

The Tropics are two circles parallel to the equator, at about 23 degrees and 28 minutes from it. The northern is called, the Tropic of Cancer; and the southern, the Tropic of Capricorn. See fig. 2.

The Polar Circles are drawn at 23 degrees and 28 minutes from the poles. The northern, is the Arctic, and the southern, the Antarctic Circle. See fig. 2.

A Degree is the 360th part of a circle, and contains 69½ English miles; each degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes; and each minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds. They are marked (°) degrees, (’) minutes, (”) seconds.

The Longitude of a place, is its distance from any given meridian, as Washington, London, or Greenwich, and is reckoned in degrees, &c. on the equator. Longitude is marked in figures, either on the equator, or at the top and bottom of the map, and can be reckoned only 180 degrees east or west, that distance being half of a circle. Longitude, on most of these maps, is reckoned from the meridian of Greenwich, near London.

The Latitude of a place is its distance in degrees, &c. north or south from the equator, and is expressed in figures on the sides of the map. Latitude can never exceed 90 degrees.

The Zones are portions of the Earth’s surface divided by the tropics and polar circles. There are five zones, viz. one torrid, two temperate, and two frigid zones. See Map of the World, fig. 1.

The Torrid Zone is included between the tropics, and is distinguished for extreme heat, and luxuriant vegetation; the climate is generally unhealthy.

The Temperate Zones are included between the tropics and the polar circles; they have a healthy climate, and produce the greatest abundance of the most useful commodities.

The Frigid Zones lie between the polar circles and the poles, and are remarkable for extreme coldness of climate and general barrenness of soil.

A Hemisphere is half a globe. The map of the world is divided into the western and eastern Hemispheres; and the equator divides it into northern and southern Hemispheres.

The Diameter of the earth, that is, the distance through its centre, is about eight thousand miles; and its Circumference, that is, the distance round it, is about twenty-five thousand miles.

In tracing the relative situation of places, the pupil must remember to follow the direction of the parallels and meridians, and not be governed merely by the apparent direction of one place from another. Thus, on the map of the world, Iceland appears north from Newfoundland, but it is northeast. Therefore, the direction towards the top and bottom of maps is not always exactly north and south; but to go north you must proceed toward the north pole; and south, toward the south pole;—following the direction of the lines.

The preceding principles should be rendered as perfectly familiar to the pupil as the letters of the alphabet. To secure this object, the learner is required, in the following pages, to define a continent, an ocean, latitude, longitude, &c. in connexion with the subject of questions on the maps. It will also be useful, after the pupil has passed the map of the world, frequently to require similar definitions to be repeated, when naturally suggested by the subject, and thus impress the learner with the necessity of being always prepared to answer them. This method furnishes a general review of Elemental Geography through the whole course of studying the maps, and will give variety and pleasure to the exercise.

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QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE WORLD.

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N. B. The Questions in Italics are to be answered by referring to the preceding elementary principles.

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1. Of what two elements is the surface of the earth composed? 2. Of which is there the greater part?

3. How is land divided? 4. What is a Continent, and how many are there? 5. Which contains the more land? 6. By what is the surface of the land diversified? 7. Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, are called the Grand Divisions of the earth;—which of them is largest? 8. Which is smallest? 9. How is North America bounded? 10. South America? 11. Europe? 12. Asia? 13. Africa? 14. Which way is South America from Africa? 15. Europe from North America?

16. What is an Island? 17. What large island lies south from Asia? 18. Where is New Zealand? 19. Which are the principal of the East India Islands? 20. Of the West India Islands? 21. Of Australasia? 22. Of Polynesia? 23. Australasia, Polynesia, and the East India Islands, are sometimes embraced under the general name Oceanica;—which of these groups contains the largest islands? 24. Where is Owhyhee, where Capt. Cook was slain? 25. St. Helena, where Bonaparte ended his life?

26. What is a Peninsula? 27. Which of the divisions of the Eastern continent is a peninsula? 28. Is South America properly a peninsula or an island?

29. What is an Isthmus? 30. What isthmus connects Asia with Africa? 31. North with South America?

32. What is a Cape? 33. Which are the principal capes of New Zealand? 34. Where is the Cape of Good Hope? 35. Cape Horn? 36. Which is further south?

37. What is a Plain? 38. A Prairie? 39. A Desert? 40. A Mountain? 41. A Hill? 42. A Volcano? 43. A Crater? 44. In which Grand Division is the Great Desert?

45. What is a Valley? 46. A Shore or coast? 47. What part of the coast of North America approaches nearest to Asia? 48. What ocean washes the eastern coast of America? 49. The western? 50. What sea forms the northern boundary of Africa?

51. What does Water comprise? 52. What is an Ocean? 53. Name the oceans. 54. Which is the largest? 55. What is a Sea? 56. Where is the Caspian sea? 57. Yellow sea? 58. Chinese sea? 59. The Sea of Ochotsk? 60. The Mediterranean sea? 61. The Black sea? 62. The Red Sea? 63. The Caribbean sea? 64. The Aral sea? 65. The Arctic sea, or ocean? 66. The Antarctic?

67. What is a Lake? 68. Which contains the largest lakes, the western or eastern hemisphere? 69. Which is the largest lake in the world? 70. Where is it situated? 71. Which is the largest lake on the eastern hemisphere? 72. In which of the Grand Divisions is it?

73. What is a Gulf or bay? 74. Where is Hudson’s bay? 75. Baffin’s bay? 76. Gulf of Mexico?

77. What is a Haven or harbour? 78. A Strait? 79. Where are Hudson’s straits? 80. Davis’ straits? 81. Straits of Gibraltar?

82. What is a River? 83. Where is Mackenzie’s river? 84. The Amazon river? 85. The Senegal river? 86. What is meant by the rise, course, and mouth of a river? 87. If the mouth of a river be wide, and is affected by tides, what is it called?

88. What is a Cataract? 89. A Morass or Swamp?

90. What is the Equator? 91. What countries does it intersect? 92. Which of the East India Islands does it intersect? 93. Into what does the equator divide the earth?

94. What countries does the tropic of Cancer cross? 95. The tropic of Capricorn?

96. What is a Hemisphere? 97. What islands in the western hemisphere are under the equator? 98. What is a Degree, and into how many is the equator divided? 99. How many degrees is the equator from the poles?

100. What is a Meridian? 101. What is Longitude? 102. What is the longitude of Madagascar? 103. Of the Azores? 104. Of Ireland?

105. What is Latitude? 106. What are Parallels of latitude? 107. What is the latitude of New York? 108. Of London? 109. Of Canton? 110. Of Spitzbergen? 111. How many degrees further north is Pekin than Canton? 112. Boston than Morocco? 113. What are the Tropics? 114. What are the Polar circles?

115. What are Zones? 116. What countries are in the Torrid Zone? 117. What in the Northern Temperate? 118. What in the Southern Temperate? 119. Has much land been discovered in the Frigid Zones?

120. What oceans, seas, &c. must a ship navigate in sailing from Boston to Canton? 121. From New York to Rome? 122. From the Island Jamaica to Otaheite? 123. In which of these voyages would the ship pass the Cape of Good Hope? 124. In which, Cape Horn?

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SURFACE OF THE EARTH.

In a general point of view, the surface of the earth may properly be considered as one vast ocean, in which are placed a great number of islands, whose sizes are various. Two of these islands are called CONTINENTS;—because it has hitherto been impossible to sail round them, owing to the frozen state of the waters of the Arctic seas. That which has been for the longer space of time inhabited by civilized nations, is called the eastern, or old continent, and contains Asia, Europe, and Africa. The other comprises America, and is named the western, or new continent. New Holland, a large tract of land situated in the midst of the most extensive mass of waters, is by some called a continent; but it is more proper to consider it as the largest island in existence. An island differs from a continent only in size, and the name continent is given to certain extensive portions of land, for the sake of convenience in geographical descriptions.

The bottom of the basin of the ocean has irregularities, similar to those seen on the surface of the land; and, if the waters were dried up, would present to view, mountains, valleys, and plains. Islands are therefore, the flattened tops of mountains, situated in the midst of the sea. Immense masses of rocks are found in many places under the water, and often rise so near the surface, that they are dangerous to navigation. Near Marseilles, there is a quarry under the sea, from which marble is obtained. These facts prove that the sea is not bottomless, as some people suppose, although there are some places so deep that no bottom has yet been found. It has been supposed, by many geographers, that the depth of the abysses of the ocean, are equal to the heights of mountains on land, and therefore that the ocean is in no place more than thirty thousand feet deep. The greatest depth that has ever been measured without finding bottom, is four thousand six hundred and eighty feet.

The chief characteristic of the ocean, is the saltness of its waters, which renders them disagreeable to the taste, and unfit for the use of man. Thus mariners are often, although surrounded by water, in danger of perishing from thirst, when their supply of fresh water has been exhausted, while they are yet at a great distance from land. The cause of this saltness is not yet ascertained. It is supposed that by the constant agitation of the waters the ocean preserves its purity.

The Arctic ocean is constantly frozen over, and immense pieces of ice become detached, and being driven about in the ocean, are often dangerous to navigators. Some of them are more than a mile long, and rise to the height of one hundred and fifty feet; others rise but a few feet above the waves, and form floating fields of ice of great extent. These fields are often visited by the natives of Greenland, in their canoes, while pursuing their seal fisheries. Ships are sometimes, while sailing in these dangerous waters, surrounded and crushed between these masses of ice.

The form which the shores of the land presents is very irregular; in consequence of which, the ocean extends towards the interior of countries, and thus forms inland seas, gulfs, &c. which are in reality parts of the ocean, detached, but not separated from it. The different names, as sea, bay, &c. are given for the sake of convenience.

The level of the sea is nearly the same in all parts of the globe, except in some inland seas, &c. For this reason all the measurements of the heights of places and mountains are calculated from this level.

GRAND DIVISIONS OF THE OCEAN.

The ocean is subdivided into portions, which are known by different names, viz. the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic or Northern, and Antarctic or Southern oceans. The situation of these may be seen by reference to the map of the world.

The Atlantic ocean varies in extent, from seven hundred to four thousand miles in breadth from west to east, and is nine thousand miles in length.

The Pacific ocean extends from north to south about eight thousand miles, and from west to east about eleven thousand miles,—almost half round the globe.

The Indian ocean extends from north to south about four thousand miles, and from west to east varies from twenty-five hundred to six thousand miles.

The Northern ocean is encircled by the coasts of the two continents. Its greatest extent in one direction is computed to be three thousand miles.

The Southern ocean lies south from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, and surrounds the south pole.

The most remarkable phenomenon which occurs throughout the extent of the ocean is the Maelstrom. This is a whirlpool by which a ship or any thing which comes within the reach of the circling current is swallowed up.

This whirlpool is in the Atlantic ocean, near the coast of Norway, Europe.

MOUNTAINS, &c.

Mountains form the principal feature which presents itself on viewing the surface of the land. These immense heights have their descents, more or less steep, and their exteriors greatly diversified. Some of them present a surface of naked and rugged rocks piled one upon another; others show an abrupt and almost perpendicular surface, which conveys to an observer an idea that the mountain has been cut from top to bottom, so as to show the interior. Sometimes mountains seem, when viewed from particular points, to show the form of the head of a tiger, a bear, a man’s face, &c.

Some are composed of columns of basaltic rock, so regularly formed and disposed that they seem to have been formed by art. The columns are five or six sided, and appear to be divided into joints, at intervals of about thirty feet. The Giant’s Causeway in Ireland, is a remarkable instance of this natural curiosity.

At this place there are ranges of these columns which extend into the sea several hundred feet, and their tops present an almost level surface of pavement.

Mountains have often large cavities in their interiors. In Norway, Europe, there is a remarkable instance of a singular natural formation of a mountain. Mount Torghat is pierced through with an opening one hundred and fifty feet high, and three thousand long; at certain seasons of the year the sun lights up the interior of this passage from one end to the other.

Defiles or passes are narrow natural openings or roads through a chain of mountains, and often form the only communication from one part of a country to the other. There is a famous defile of this kind at the Cape of Good Hope, Africa, which is called Holland’s Kloffe.

This pass is so situated that it forms the only communication from the country of the Hottentots to the country beyond the mountains. One hundred men could here successfully oppose the march of an immense army.

A defile sometimes forms the bed of a river, by which means the stream passes through a chain of mountains. In the United States there is an instance of this, where the opposite sides of the defile are connected together at the top by a natural bridge of rock.

A Plateau is a plain of immense extent, which is formed of an extensive surface of elevated land. Some plateaus are eight thousand feet above the level of the sea. Lofty mountains often rise from these plateaus, many of which are volcanic.

Volcano is a word taken from the name which the Romans gave to the God of Fire. It now designates those mountains which are subject to eruptions of fire, smoke, stones, and lava. The irruption of a volcano is a most awful and majestic phenomenon. The earth is shaken, and rumbling noises are heard, which sound like thunder. Smoke and fire begin to issue from the top of the mountain.

Suddenly the fire becomes extinguished, and red-hot stones are thrown out; then the crater is filled with a burning liquid called lava, which looks like metal in a melted state. At last, the lava overflows the sides of the crater, and runs down the sides of the mountain, destroying every thing which lies in its path, and covering cities and cultivated fields with a sea of burning matter. Sometimes the lava is too heavy to be elevated to the summit, and bursts out from the side of the mountain.

The cities Herculaneum and Pompeii, in Italy, were entirely destroyed, A. D. 79, by an irruption of Vesuvius.

Herculaneum was discovered by digging away the ashes and lava, in the year 1713. Pompeii was discovered about forty years afterwards.

The height of mountains is measured from the level of the sea.

The highest mountains in the world are the Himmaleh mountains, in Asia.

The second in point of elevation are the Andes mountains, in South America; Chimborazo is the highest peak.

The highest mountain in North America is Mount Elias,—in Europe, Mont Blanc,—in Africa, the Atlas mountains.

A traveller in South America has lately asserted, that he has discovered a mountain in Peru, which is higher than the Himmaleh mountains in Asia. If this be a fact, it will probably soon be confirmed by the testimony of other travellers.

The highest volcanic mountain in the world is Cotopaxi, one of the Andes, in South America. Other celebrated volcanoes are Popocatepetl, in North America,—Mount Etna, Stromboli, and Vesuvius, in Europe,—and Mount Hecla, in Iceland.

Mountains are sometimes found standing alone; but generally many of them are united in a range, or ridge, which extends many miles, and, in some instances, through the whole extent of a continent.

In ascending mountains it will be found, that as you proceed towards the top, the climate grows continually colder; and after passing beyond the height of about 17,000 feet from the level of the sea, you arrive at a region where snow and ice cover the ground during the whole year. This contributes much to the coolness and salubrity of the climate of countries where such high mountains are found.

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COMPARATIVE LENGTHS OF RANGES OF MOUNTAINS.

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Small streams are called Brooks, Rivulets, and sometimes Creeks. In the study of the maps they are called branches of rivers.

Many small streams, being formed in the mountainous and other elevated parts of a country, flow together, and form a large current of water which takes the name of a river, and is constantly augmented in its course, by other brooks, &c. and by rain, until it discharges itself into an ocean, sea, lake, or some other river.

The length of rivers has not been so definitely ascertained as the height of mountains. The length of the same river varies in the statements of different geographers, and this difference is owing to the principles on which their measurements are made, some measuring the windings of the river, and others only the valleys through which they flow.

The longest and largest river in the world is the Amazon, in South America. It is more than 150 miles wide at its junction with the Atlantic ocean. The body of water is so great that it constantly flows into the ocean, and is not affected by tides. The commotion caused by the meeting of the tide and the current of the river, sometimes renders navigation dangerous.

The longest rivers in North America are the Missouri and Mississippi.

The longest river in Asia is the Kian Ku. In Europe, the Volga. In Africa, the Nile.

The Missouri flows into the Mississippi about 1300 miles from its mouth, and is, in fact, the main river. And the length of the Missouri is given, in the opposite table, from its source to the mouth of the Mississippi.

The Missouri and Mississippi rivers, taken together, have no rival in the world, for length of course, the size and number of their tributaries, and the vast extent of country through which they flow. The Mississippi is called by the native Indians the ‘Father of Waters,’ and the Missouri, the ‘Mother of Floods.’

[Click anywhere on chart for high resolution image.] Rivers are supplied with water principally from springs, and the melting of snow upon high mountains. Mountains attract clouds around their tops and sides, and by this means become saturated with water, which, finding its way through the fissures of the rocks, forms springs. In this manner probably all springs are formed, whether they are found on mountains or plains. Heavy rains also augment the quantity of water, and often after a heavy fall of rain, many rivers are so swollen that the water overflows their banks, and the flood sweeps away every thing that is within its reach.

The Mississippi is subject to inundations during the spring, and the banks of the river being higher than the adjacent country, the water never returns to the river, but seeks other channels. These inundations greatly enrich the lands.

The banks or shores of rivers present very different appearances, according to the formation of the land through which they pass. The banks of some rivers are but little elevated above their level, and slope gently down to the water’s edge; others flow through rocky channels, and are walled on each side with high and almost perpendicular precipices.

Sometimes a precipice occurs immediately across the course of a river, and the water falling nearly perpendicularly over, forms a cataract or falls.

They are often obstructed by rapids which render navigation difficult and sometimes impracticable. A rapid is a gradual descent in the bed of a river, where the current is swift, and the water shallow.

Some rivers suddenly disappear, by flowing into a chasm, and are lost in the earth. Some of these again issue from the earth at a great distance from where they disappeared.

Rivers present obstacles to the route of roads, and many expedients have been invented by the ingenuity of man to obviate them. In many places bridges are built of wood, stone or iron; and where the current is too swift, or the channel too deep to permit a bridge to be built, the passage is made in boats. But the most astonishing project that has been undertaken for this purpose is the Tunnel under the river Thames, at London, England. A road is here dug out under the river, and is nearly completed. A view of the work is given in the cut.

The tunnel consists of two brick archways for carriages, and two foot paths. The passages are divided by a line of arches, between the pillars of which are placed gas lights. This undertaking was commenced in the year 1825. The whole length is thirteen hundred feet, and each archway is about fourteen feet in width. The thickness of the earth between the bed of the river and the tunnel is about fifteen feet.

A country, possessed of large and navigable rivers, enjoys a great blessing. They form a means of internal communication, by which the productions of the inland country are brought to the city and seaport. Their currents are made use of, by the aid of machinery, to manufacture many of the necessaries and luxuries of life.

Many rivers whose waters are pure, afford water for the use of the inhabitants of neighboring cities.

London and Westminster, England, are supplied from the New river; the water is here brought thirty-eight miles through a canal. The Schuylkill river in Pennsylvania, United States, supplies the city Philadelphia with good and wholesome water, for the use of the inhabitants.

These works are ingeniously constructed at Fair Mount on the eastern bank of the river. The water is raised by the action of an engine, moved by the water power of the river itself, and deposited in large reservoirs, from whence it is conveyed by iron pipes to every part of the city. The aggregate length of the pipes already laid exceeds 63 miles. Three reservoirs have already been constructed which contain ten millions of gallons, and a fourth has been commenced which will contain ten millions more, being a quantity sufficient for the use of the city Philadelphia ten days.

LAKES.

Lakes are of four distinct classes.

1. Those which have no streams of water running into nor from them. They are generally very small, and of little consequence.

2. Those which have streams flowing from them, but none flowing into them. These are mostly supplied with water from subterraneous springs. Some of this class form the sources of large rivers, and are generally situated on elevated land.

3. Those which have streams flowing both into and from them. These, by a continual flow of fresh river water, preserve their clearness and sweetness; and often, besides the river which seems to flow through them, have sources of their own near their shores, or from springs at their bottoms.

4. The fourth class is ranked among the phenomena of nature. They have no visible outlet, but receive the waters of rivers which flow into them. The Caspian sea, in Asia, is an instance of this kind. These lakes probably lose the surplus of their waters by evaporation produced by the heat of the sun.

The waters of lakes which receive their supply from springs and rivers, partake of their qualities. There are some lakes whose waters are exceedingly clear and transparent. Lake Wetter in Europe is so limpid that a piece of money can be seen at the bottom at 120 feet depth.

CAVERNS.

In many parts of the earth are found caverns, or deep cavities and grottoes, which are remarkable on account of their great extent, and for the grand and imposing appearance of the rocks which compose the sides and roof.

Fingal’s cave, in the island Staffa, one of the western islands of Scotland, is a noted cave.

It is thus described by a celebrated traveller. ‘The mind can hardly form an idea more magnificent than such a space, supported on each side by ranges of basaltic columns and roofed by the ends of those which have been broken off, between the angles of which, a yellow matter has exuded, which serves to define the angles exactly, and at the same time vary the color with a great degree of elegance. To render it still more imposing, the whole is lighted up from without, so that the farthest extremity is visible, and the air within being agitated by the motion of the water, is perfectly wholesome, and free from the noxious vapors with which caverns are usually filled.’

Some caverns are of great depth, descending in some instances, eleven thousand feet. Others, after a descent, assume a horizontal direction, and are formed into many grottoes. The most remarkable grotto known, is the Grotto of the island Antiparos, in the Archipelago sea. The principal chamber of this cavern is exhibited on page 3.

In many caverns, water is found at a great depth, and this circumstance, together with the fact that water is obtained by digging deep wells, seems to prove that there are sheets of water under ground, which extend to considerable distances.

MINERALS.

The earth contains many mineral substances beneath its surface, which are useful to man. These substances are dug out, and thus immense mines are formed. Gold and silver are obtained in great quantities in South America. Iron, the most useful of metals, is obtained in various parts of the world. Annexed is a representation of the iron mine at Dalmora, in Europe. The iron ore is not dug out as in mines of coal, tin, &c. but is torn up by means of gunpowder.

The descent into this mine is by means of buckets attached to ropes.

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