The Dwelling: Water Closets. Continued from p. 48.

Messrs. Reid & Co., 69, St. Mary Axe, London, are well known as makers of Pearson’s “Twin Basin” Water Closets. These closets hardly need recommendation, they have stood the test of many years’ use in Hospitals, Schools, Railway Stations, Mansions, Warehouses, &c., with the best results. The “Portable” Water Closets made by this firm are indispensable for invalids’ apartments, and are also of great service where there is no proper system of drainage.

Ventilation. Continued from p. 60.

Automatic ventilation connected with the “Acme” system of heating (The Acme Ventilating and Heating Co., 35, Tarleton Street, Liverpool) and the Company’s patented system of graduated extraction flues, can be arranged in the following manner. A foul air chamber is formed of wood-work, and if desired lined with zinc, and fixed under the roof, into which channels of suitable dimensions are led from the perforated ceiling ornaments in the different apartments. The channels enter near the floor, so that impure air issuing and coming in contact with the highly heated surfaces of the hot water coil in the chamber, the foul air immediately rises to the roof, and is being constantly carried away through louvres into the open air. These louvres can be made to close in frosty or stormy weather, or when the apparatus is not in use. This coil (for ventilation purposes), together with that which heats the water for the bath and lavatories, can be connected to a separate furnace, so that either one or both can be in operation in the summer if required.

Another arrangement of ventilation (where hot water coils are not in use) is as follows: powerful rings of gas burners—each ring being placed inside a sheet-iron tube—are fixed in flue near the roof, or in the apex of roof in churches, &c. Into this the foul air is drawn by a powerful induced current, created by the novel manner in which the heat in the tubes is arranged, the foul air being finally carried away in a similar manner to that described in the foregoing paragraph. For dwelling houses the said rings of gas jets may be governed by a small master light which cannot be blown out, and which may be regulated by two small cords attached to a lever leading from landing, or other convenient position. The one small master light is constantly kept burning when others are turned off. Such master light costs but 2d. per annum at the most for gas; no matches are necessary, and there is perfect safety from fire. This is a most efficient and satisfactory means of ventilation, and far preferable to any of the revolving cowls, air pumps, and other unsightly and perishable systems.

The “Acme” patent system of mechanical ventilation, connected with hot water heating, is unequalled for public institutions, asylums, prisons, police courts, infirmaries, or other public buildings where many people are assembled; or where—as in hospitals—from the nature of the complaints, the air requires to be changed very often, and that without draughts.

By placing coils of pipe in the wards to be warmed, and passing fresh air, also previously heated, through them in such a manner that no draught whatever is caused, or by placing all the pipes in the basement, into and through which the fresh air is drawn by an “Acme” patent ventilating machine. Such warmed air is thence passed through properly regulated channels into the different rooms, each channel being provided with a valve worked from any convenient or central position, so as to regulate the supply of fresh air as circumstances may require.

Ventilating and heating as carried out by the “Acme” system, co-operate in establishing the most permanent and satisfactory results.

Blackman Ventilating Co. See page 2 of Advertisements.

Sugg’s Continuous Up-Draught Ventilator.—This new ventilator is submitted to the consideration of architects as embodying a novel system. It has been the custom hitherto to guard against down-draughts by fixing talc flapper arrangements at the lower ends of ventilating shafts (in the case of the lower floors of buildings), and to adopt either a sliding door or revolving shutter worked by cords from the floor to ventilators fixed at the roof ridge. It is clear that, with these arrangements, the outer cold air has free access through the cowl to the ventilating shaft, and, in fact, right down to the back-draught preventers, or shutters, at the lower end of the shaft. With this continuous up-draught ventilator the valve is in the cowl, and is opened by the up draught. Thus the whole of the shaft, right from the room to the cowl, is filled always by the warm air of the room, and is never allowed to become cold and damp by the ingress of the outer air. The valve impedes the outward passage of the foul air as little as (or less than) the old-fashioned talc flappers. It is noiseless, cannot get out of order, and its combination with the cowl renders the entire apparatus the cheapest and most effective extracting cowl and down-draught preventer in the market.

The reliance placed upon the strength of the up-draught to open the valve is based:—First—On the extraordinary aspirating power of this form of cowl. Most ventilators only expose one side at a time to the wind’s action, but this one allows its entire area (more than equal to the area of the tube) to be acted upon at the same moment. Secondly—Upon the fact that beneath the valve is a column of warmed air. The loss in ascending energy caused by cold flues may be put down, as an average, at 40 per cent., but the adoption of this new “exit valve” system conserves the power of the current to almost its fullest extent. With the continuous up-draught ventilator the great ventilating agents—the aspiration of the wind and the movements of air at different tensions—are utilised in a very great degree, and experiments prove the justification in claiming for it results never before attained.

Some of its advantages are as follows:—(1) It is noiseless in its action and is weatherproof. No water can by any means get down the ventilating tube. (2) It extracts powerfully when the least current of air impinges upon it. The whole surface of the ventilator comes into action immediately, and a continuous up-draught is produced at all times. (3) It is fitted with a new patent automatic float valve, which is exceedingly simple in action, and cannot get out of order. It opens with an up-current and shuts when this current ceases. Thus, down-draught is impossible. Not only those down-draughts caused by wind movements, but also those induced by the specific gravity of the cold air in the ventilating tubes, hitherto incurable, are completely prevented. (4) It is well and strongly made, is complete in itself, cannot get out of order, and will last for years. It is made in sizes from 2 to 18 in., and is made in zinc, galvanized iron or polished copper. It is also made in special ornamental forms for large buildings, prices of which will be given on receiving size of air shaft and pitch of roof. (5) It is specially adapted for use with sun burners, gas fires, &c. The heat of horizontal tubes, particularly when lined with asbestos according to Sugg’s plan, contributes to its extracting energy, while the valve effectually prevents any of those down-draughts so often associated with this mode of ventilation. (6) This system of ventilation and lighting works without attention. It can be put in operation at a moment’s notice. By its use can be guaranteed not only the most effective lighting, but also a controllable and absolutely reliable induction and eduction of air from any building. It is shown in Fig. 221, and is made by William Sugg & Co., Ld., Grand Hotel Buildings, Charing Cross, London, under Sugg and Simmance’s patents.

Warming: by Open Fire. Continued from p. 69.

“The Eagle Convertible Open and Close Fire-grate,” Fig. 37 (makers, Eagle Range and Foundry Co., 176, Regent Street, London), is one of the latest improvements, and is to be commended as possessing all the details advocated by Dr. Teale and others, viz. the grated bottom and economiser, to which in this case is attached an ashes pan for convenience and cleanliness, and the fire-brick sides and back, the latter projecting to deflect the heat, &c.; the front bars are somewhat flat in section, and incline up outwards at an angle of about 20 degrees, which effectually prevents cinders and fuel falling from the fire, and having the further advantage of making the front of the fire visible to any one standing near. The chief novelty of this grate is its possessing 3 pairs of doors, which when open fold back out of sight behind the tiled side panels, and can be closed, to partly or wholly cover any portion of the fireplace. Fig. 37 shows the stove with the two upper pairs of doors closed. When first lighting the fire, or when the fire has become very low, and is heavily fed, with the doors closed thus, a rapid draught is carried through the fire, which burns very rapidly, and is established in a few minutes, after which the upper doors are opened. By closing the two lower doors only, it can be left quite safe at night, and as there is no means of the air passing through the fire, the combustion is very slow, in fact it only smoulders, yet keeps up a warmth in the apartment, and it can be relied upon that it will not be out in the morning; this is of especial convenience in invalids’ rooms. This stove is, in the majority of cases, a sure cure for smoky chimneys, and has several other advantages that would occupy too much space here.

“The Parson’s Grate,” Fig. 38 (Barnards, Bishop and Barnards, Queen Victoria Street, London), is a very well-known and good form of slow-combustion grate, and has the advantage of being changed to a fast-combustion grate at will, by means of a sliding blower, when first igniting the fire or at any time that it is desired to make it burn briskly; the bottom, back and sides of the fire-basket are of solid fire-brick, and it will be seen from the illustration that the blower can be drawn down to any point and so regulate the draught and speed of combustion to a nicety; this is of especial convenience when the chimney has a tendency to smoke.

Warming: by Gas. Continued from p. 79.

Sugg’s Gas Fires.—During a greater part of the year in this country, the variations in the temperature are so great and sudden, that those persons who have weak throats, or are subject to bronchitis—especially children who have a tendency to croup—find the cold, air of the early mornings a source of great discomfort and even danger. Although by the use of coal fires, with constant attention, the temperature of a bedroom or sick room can be maintained as required during the day, yet at night it is next to impossible to do so. The fire, if properly made up, gets too hot in the first part of the night, and goes out in the early morning, so that the room gets cold. If it has to be made up, the noise of putting on coals, or poking the fire, is most disturbing in all cases, and positively unbearable to a sick person. The object of the gas fire is to obviate these inconveniences, and to maintain an equal temperature throughout the entire day and night if required. The construction of this stove differs from every other stove hitherto introduced. The burners act independently, each being regulated by its own governor, and each is provided with a separate tap. The arrangement of the fire by which the flames from the burners play freely into a space left between the solid bottom of the grate and the asbestos lumps, permits of the perfect combustion of the gas, and the attainment of the highest point of incandescence. The consumption of London gas is 7 cub. ft. per hour for each burner. The quantity of gas being regulated to its proper rate by the governors (the taps always being turned full on), it necessarily follows that the admixture of gas and air is always in the right proportion to develop the greatest radiant heat. This gas fire is always ready, and can easily be lighted without explosion by the most timid person, and in a few minutes it will be glowing. After the room is warmed to the required degree, one or more of the burners can be turned off, and the consumption reduced by 7 ft. for each burner so turned off, without affecting these left on, which still continue to develop their full heating power.

This latter is a great advantage, because in ordinary stoves, where the burners are all controlled by one tap, the reduction of gas at once produces more or less imperfect mixture of gas and air, with an imperfect combustion, accompanied with a disagreeable odour, and a very imperfect development of heat. From this cause, together with ungoverned burners, the consumer is frequently disappointed in the working of gas fires, and lays the blame on the principle of heating by gas, when the discomfort and waste of gas arise solely from the imperfect construction of the stove he is using. The cost of gas for Sugg’s Patent Charing Cross Bedroom Stove at full power is less than 1d. per hour. But as on a very cold night, a bedroom 20 ft. by 15 ft. by 10 ft. high, after being once warmed to 60° F., can be kept at a temperature of 58°-60° F. through the night by two of these burners left burning, the cost per hour for maintaining this temperature will be actually less than ½d. It will be readily seen that to keep a room warm by gas, at the price above mentioned, is cheaper than by using coal; and that if the readiness, saving in trouble, and the absence of all noise and dirt are taken into consideration, the advantages of gas over coal are simply incalculable. This stove is constructed with a chamber around the sides and back, which keeps up a circulation of warm air in the room; and if desired a fresh air flue may be connected to this chamber, thus supplying the room with warm fresh air. The asbestos material is carefully made at Sugg’s own factory; it is very durable, and gives out a good heat. The stove, when fixed in front of an ordinary chimney, is provided with a flue pipe, which is made to go up through the register to carry off the products of combustion. In most cases of smoky chimneys, where it is found impossible to use a coal fire, a small wind guard can be fitted to the chimney, which will prevent down-draught, and make the use of the gas fire successful. The fire is very bright and cheerful, and having been carefully tried for upwards of 3 years in all kinds of weather, its successful working can be guaranteed. Directions for measuring grates, to enable a “Charing Cross” gas fire to be sent complete, and ready for fixing by an intelligent gasfitter, in any part of the kingdom, are furnished by the makers, William Sugg & Co., Limited, Grand Hotel Buildings, Charing Cross, London, whose illustrated catalogues show innumerable patterns of stove, adapted for halls, bedrooms, libraries, nurseries, &c., at various prices.

Cadogan Gas Fires.—A specially prepared indestructible fire clay lump is fitted into the grate and covered with small pieces of asbestos fuel, which should be carefully packed, so as to allow the gas flames a free action without any loss. The fire clay lump has apertures through which the gas flames pass from a swing bar, fitted in front of and underneath the grate, the gas supply being connected up with the bar either at the back or front of the hearth. The bar has an air-chamber fitted to it, so that the gas is consumed on the atmospheric principle, being, for heating purposes, the most economical, and one preventing the formation of soot, thus keeping the fire always clear and the grate clean.

A regulating valve can be fitted in a convenient position, either in front or at side of hearth, so that the gas may be controlled as easily as an ordinary gas burner.

To burn the gas economically, the flames should not be allowed to show much above the top of the fuel.

These fires are eminently suitable for all modern grates, but they can be fitted into most grates of old-fashioned pattern. Messrs. Strode & Co., 48, Osnaburgh Street, London, N.W., will advise as to their applicability on receipt of templet of grate, which can be made by cutting a piece of paper to the size of bottom of grate, and pencilling the openings.

Warming: by Hot-water. Continued from p. 82.

S. Deards’s coil adapted to open grates ensures healthy heating and perfect ventilation. The coil pipes are so adapted as to form the bars of an ordinary grate, and yet so arranged as to contain water, which, as soon as the fire is lighted, will put into circulation the water contained therein, and the coil grate being attached to other similar pipes, so arranged in any convenient position around the walls of the room or any adjacent room, hall, landing, or passage, will at once transmit that heat to those rooms, &c., without extra cost or expense of fuel. It is apparent and well known to all practical persons that the heat given out from the sides and back of an ordinary fire grate is actually lost in the brickwork surrounding it, yet by the application of S. Deards’s coil grates, that otherwise lost heat is retained and made use of, and it is by this heat that the other rooms are warmed for nothing.

The heating of schoolrooms by means of hot-water is often objected to by scientific men, doctors, and architects, as by doing away with the open cheerful fire, and the chimney shaft, the cheerfulness of the room is destroyed; and the “lungs of the schoolroom” being the ventilation by the chimney shaft is also absolutely lost. But by the adoption of the above-named coil grate the cheerful open fire is retained, the chimney still acts as the ventilator to carry off all foul air, and the furthermost parts of the schoolroom are as equally warmed by the circulation of hot-water as in the immediate vicinity of the fire.

The Princess Louise coil grate was awarded the First Prize at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition, in 1882, for giving the greatest amount of heat per lb. of coal consumed. It is now improved so as to burn 18 to 20 hours without attention; hence it is possible to heat a greenhouse or conservatory from one’s own fireside, and in fact to obtain all the hot-water for the baths, &c., of a household for no extra expense. It is shown in front view in Fig. 222, and can be seen in action at S. Deards’s show rooms, 11, North Buildings, Eldon Street, Liverpool Street, London, and at Harlow, Essex.

The “Acme” small bore pipe apparatus (The Acme Ventilating and Heating Co., 35, Tarleton Street, Liverpool) is one of the most economical, rapid, and perfect systems of heating. This system consists of strong wrought-iron tubes of best quality procurable, of 1⁵/₁₆ in. external diameter and ? in. bore, the ends of which are provided with right and left hand threaded screws. They are connected together right and left hand, which, when screwed up, brings the coned end of one tube into the flattened end of the other, thus making a perfectly sound hydraulic joint—in fact, such joint is actually stronger than the tube itself, the threaded screws are not intended to make any joint excepting by the power applied in forcing the conical end to the opposite flat end of tube, which generally makes an indentation of about ¹/₁₆ in.: this forms the joint, the cone making its own seat, and when once fitted, water has no access to the screw in the socket, which, therefore, cannot rust, and may be unscrewed at any time without trouble. This joint is not affected by expansion and contraction, which is a constant source of annoyance and expense where the ordinary form of joint is used, as with the large cast-iron hot water pipes used in the low pressure systems. The “Acme” system offers the further advantage of readily allowing any tube to be disconnected and removed without disturbing the rest.

A large portion of the said tubes form the boiler or furnace, which, being fixed at the lowest level, forms one of the most rapid and economical furnaces known. Smaller furnaces, with wrought or cast-iron casings, with coils of pipes built in fire-bricks, are used for small buildings, halls, corridors, or offices.

An ordinary fire-grate may be utilised by a few feet of piping being coiled and placed in same, forming the fire-bars and back of grate, which constitutes a boiler in itself, and is connected with other piping connecting with adjacent apartments. As many as three or four bedrooms, or a suite of offices, may be comfortably heated from the one fire.

The apparatus consists of an endless circuit of strong wrought-iron tubes (all of the same diameter), filled with water. It is thoroughly tested under a hydraulic pressure of about 3000 lb. per sq. in., so as to ensure that the joints, and all parts of the apparatus, are perfectly safe and sound. The fire being lighted, the water circulation commences, as the water in the furnace-coil becomes heated, it ascends to the top of the apparatus, whilst the cold water, being heavier, descends, to supply the place of the ascending heated water, and thus a continuous circulation of hot water is kept up, which rapidly increases in velocity, through the pipes, as the heat in the furnace becomes greater. The tubes are kept absolutely full without the possibility of a higher pressure than that at which the expansion valve is set, and this setting corresponds with the temperature the pipes are intended to give off. As will be seen, a very large margin of safety is provided for in every case, much beyond the maximum pressure by heat that can possibly be obtained. Formation of steam is impossible, as is also the stoppage of the circulation through air locking.

The superior quality and small diameter of the tubes, and the ready manner in which they can be bent, makes it the most complete system extant. The “Acme” apparatus is equally well adapted to old or new buildings, as it may be introduced without disturbance of existing arrangements, and does not necessarily require the construction of trenches or channels, an inconvenience in other systems which often prevents their adoption. The preliminary expenses in introducing the “Acme” system are very trifling, and as the circulation does not depend upon the tubes being laid at an incline, the apparatus is not unsightly or in the way.

All the difficulties arising from condensation, air stoppage, and the consequent necessity for attention to valves and air-cocks (as in other systems) are avoided—so simple, indeed, is the apparatus that it may safely be left to the care of any ordinary house-servant. Fixed close to the expansion (or safety) tube is another tube for supplying the apparatus with water. Beyond the necessity of attending to the furnace, it is only requisite to see that the tube is supplied with a proper quantity of water about once a week (when in constant operation), this, in an ordinary sized apparatus, is about ½ pint. If this arrangement is not convenient, a small cistern of sufficient capacity to hold the expanded water can be fixed, inside of which is placed an expansion and in-take valve. The expansion tube and the water supply pipe are so arranged that when the water is level with the top of the filling pipe it is only up to the bottom of the expansion tube, leaving the whole of the tube empty. It is, therefore, impossible to fill the tube by pouring water into it, the expansion tube being always empty when the apparatus is cold. Before the fire is lit, the apparatus is filled with water, and the two screw-plugs seal them; as the water rises in the tube, when the furnace becomes heated, it compresses the air that is left in it, and so automatically regulates the pressure that no undue strain is put upon the apparatus.

Instances are known where Acme apparatus have been in use for over 20 years without entailing the least expense for repairs. When erected, they are tested by hydraulic means to a pressure of 150 atmospheres, and the valve is regulated to blow off at six atmospheres—it is manifest that, with proper care, leaks or accidents are of very rare occurrence. The material throughout being of best wrought iron, breakage is impossible, even with the roughest usage; hence the cost of maintenance, often such a heavy item incidental to other systems, is avoided. With the “Acme” system repairs are practically nil; further there is no trouble and no sulphurous smells. Where trouble and expense have been experienced with small pipes, they have invariably been the result of bad workmanship, or of neglect by the attendant of the simple instructions given.

The heating surfaces can be regulated to the utmost nicety, and may be raised to very high temperatures without the formation of steam. The system is, therefore, specially applicable for drying-closets and stoves for manufacturing purposes, where great heat is required, and where systems of hot-air flues are not expedient on account of danger from fire or damage by noxious vapours. Any degree of temperature up to 500° F. may be obtained.

In the “Acme” system the ordinary boiler is replaced by a series of specially constructed tubes, bent in tiers one over the other. The fire and heat are induced to travel over the whole surface of the tubes. The temperature of the tubes steadily increases throughout their entire length; hence great economy of fuel is secured. It is manifest that the temperature of the smoke, as it passes into the flue, need only be slightly in excess of the temperature of the return pipes, say about 190° F., whereas in the ordinary boiler, where perfectly free circulation is possible, and the temperature of the water is practically the same throughout, the heat of the flow-pipes governs that of the chimney. As the practical result, it may be said that about 90 per cent. of the calorific power of the fuel consumed is actually taken up and distributed by the heating surfaces of the “Acme” apparatus. This, as against 40 to 70 per cent. in the case of hot water, and steam boilers, or of cast-iron hot water apparatus (low pressure large bore-pipes), is a source of economy. Another notable source of economy is the remarkably small amount of fuel necessary to the effective working of the “Acme” system. The comparison between the two stands as 8 to 1, in consequence of the difference in the weight of the materials used in each system to obtain like results.

Buildings warmed by the “Acme” system are more thoroughly under control than where large pipes are used; the tubes being so small, contain but little water, consequently are more quickly heated, causing much greater rapidity of circulation. The temperature can be easily raised or lowered—automatically if desired—and the heat maintained for any length of time at pleasure. This is an obvious advantage in warming conservatories, as the temperature can be quickly raised when frost suddenly sets in, or lowered without opening the windows when a thaw commences. The heat of the house may be maintained at the requisite temperature without attention during the night, it simply being necessary to make the fire-place large enough to contain sufficient quantity of fuel, as the damper regulates the combustion. Where a moist heat is desired, such can readily be obtained at any given point by placing trays of water upon the pipes, or on a coil of pipes, thus giving the moisture so essential to the health of plants.

It has been supposed that the sediment from the water would soon choke the tubes, but as they are hermetically sealed there is no evaporation, and the same water being heated over and over again there is no deposit, and the remote possibility of incrustation is entirely overcome by using a small quantity of the patent anti-corrosion and non-freezing liquid.

There are no red lead or luting or perishable rubber joints used in connecting the pipes, but a perfectly solid metallic contact is made.

In applying the “Acme” apparatus to dwellings the warming pipes can be placed in any desired position along the skirting, under windows, coiled and covered by ornamental coil cases of various sizes and patterns, or pipes sunk beneath the floor in a channel. In the best rooms the pipes may be covered by iron gratings, of any design, to suit the other decorations of the building, while in servants’ rooms they may be placed in front of the skirting boards on suitable iron stands or brackets.

Fresh air is admitted into each compartment by an opening in the external wall through an iron box fitted with a valve to regulate the supply, and warmed by a surrounding coil of pipe. This can be placed beneath the windows, or when that is not convenient, in any other desired position, and if desired, may be covered with an ornamental iron coil case.

Warm water for bath and bedrooms may be drawn as required by having a cistern attached to the apparatus.

Lighting: Gas. Continued from p. 93.

An exceptionally good governor is that introduced by Joseph Shaw, of Albert Brass Works, Lockwood, Huddersfield, and 41, Hart Street, New Oxford Street, London, W.C. This is illustrated in Fig. 223. A searching trial of this governor was made a few months since, by Thos. Newbigging, Esq., M. Inst. C.E., who reports on it as follows:—

“I have tested the ‘Shaw’ gas governor which you forwarded out of stock, in the various circumstances under which gas is ordinarily consumed, and I pronounce it to be a satisfactory and trustworthy instrument in every respect.

“The pressure of gas in the mains is usually in excess of the average requirements of consumers, owing to circumstances over which the gas authorities have no control.

“The lower the pressure at which gas is consumed, the smaller the consumption and the better the light, provided the pipes and the pressure are sufficient to admit of the required volume of gas passing to the burners.

“Regulation by means of a stop tap at the meter, or near to the burner, is impossible owing to the varying pressures during the hours of consumption, and hence the need of a regulator or governor which will adapt itself automatically to the changing conditions.

“Shaw’s governor performs that function with certainty and constancy.

“With a series of ordinary burners, regulated by the ‘Shaw’ governor the consumption of gas per hour was 28 cubic feet, and each one gave an illuminating power equal to 15·25 standard sperm candles; whereas with the same burners, consuming the same gas, but ungoverned, the consumption was 33·8 cubic feet per hour, and each gave an illuminating power of 13·7 standard candles.

“The governed burners were then extinguished one by one, and the consumption and illuminating power remained constant.

“The saving in gas by the application of the ‘Shaw’ governor was therefore 17·16 per cent., whilst the illuminating power of the gas was increased 11·31 per cent.

“These results need no comment, as they speak for themselves.

“The governor may be said to be practically indestructible under ordinary good usage, and the ease with which the working parts can be reached for cleaning when required, without detaching the instrument from its position, is an important recommendation, and adds to its value.”

Subjoined is a copy of the gas account of the Salford Union Workhouse:—

This saving in three months was effected by the use of Shaw’s governors, which cost 33l., and will continue to produce a similar economy indefinitely.

Price List, including Lock and Key.

Another economizer of light is the Shaw self-cleaning reflector, made by the same firm. It consumes its own smoke, is easily fixed to present gas fittings, and is simple, efficient, durable, and cheap. It is shown in Fig. 224 in its plainest, simplest form. Many other more elaborate designs are made in ornamental wrought ironwork and enamelled ware.

Fig. 225 illustrates the most convenient and useful plant adapted to the home manufacture of illuminating gas, known as the “Alpha.” It is constructed by the patentee, H. L. MÜller, of Mary Ann St., St. Paul’s Square, Birmingham, and has recently had some improvements added. The process of gas making by this plant consists simply in combining atmospheric air with a light hydro-carbon in a state of vapour. There are many available forms of such light hydro-carbon derived from mineral oils, shales, and coal tar. When air is charged with such vapours it forms a mixture that can be ignited and burned. But the most successful results cannot be attained without certain important conditions are fulfilled, which are carefully provided for in MÜller’s apparatus. In many respects the illuminating agent thus produced is superior to coal gas. Its cost is certainly no greater, and in some instances considerably less; the supply can be placed under control, instead of being liable to interruption through strikes and other causes; the light is bright and pleasant; and the vapour being pure is much less unwholesome to breathe, less unpleasant to smell, and less injurious to furniture, pictures, &c. The object of MÜller and Adkin’s recent improvements is to completely control the flame, preventing any sudden increase above the normal, when fresh supplies of hydro-carbon are furnished to the apparatus. This is accomplished by a self-acting feed-box, which enables the reservoir to be replenished whilst the apparatus is in use, without in any way interfering with the lights which are burning. The system is being largely adopted in mansions and rural districts, where coal gas is not obtainable or is very dear, and can successfully compete with coal gas, even in localities where it is cheap. An additional advantage it possesses is that it furnishes a most convenient motive power for pumping, chaff-cutting, and the numerous other operations conducted in a country house.

Sugg’s Specialities.—In all matters relating to the use of coal gas in the house, whether for lighting, warming, or cooking purposes, the name of Sugg stands pre-eminent. To attempt to illustrate or describe all the appliances introduced by him, and sold by William Sugg & Co., Limited, Grand Hotel Buildings, Charing Cross, London, would require the space of a good-sized volume; even then it would not do justice to the inventor, because it could not include new things which are continually being perfected under his direction. This is especially the case with regard to gas burners, globes, and governors, of which hundreds of forms and designs can be seen at the show-rooms, all possessing some special quality of usefulness or ornament. Instead, therefore, of selecting a few examples for illustration, which would very inadequately represent the subject, it will be more just to recommend every user of gas to procure Sugg’s catalogue, and observe for himself those articles which best furnish his needs, not forgetting that the advice to be obtained from the maker is the result of a unique experience and long study, and therefore well worth taking to heart.

Lighting: Electric. Continued from p. 95.

During the past few years the manufacture of incandescent lamps has been developing rapidly, numerous improvements having been introduced, and by the use of high class of photometrical instruments in the examining rooms, the exact light-giving power of each lamp in standard candles is registered, the ordinary sizes being 5, 8, 12, 16, 25, 30, and 50, those of higher power being only suitable for halls, ball-rooms, &c. The manufacture in this country is, owing to patent monopolies, confined to two types, the Edison-Swan and the Woodhouse and Rawson, the difference between which is chiefly in the shape of the carbon. In the former, the carbon has a loop in it; in the latter, it is like a plain horse-shoe. In both cases the price is 3s. 6d. each for all sizes up to and including 30 candle power, but the Woodhouse and Rawson lamps consume less current for an equal amount of light, while the length of life is phenomenal, in one instance being close on 11,000 hours.

It is a very good plan to use the Trotter dioptric shades, in which the light is subdivided by numerous prisms, without any appreciable loss.

Formerly switches, to turn the lamps on and off, were a great source of trouble, being as a rule cheap and nasty. They are now, however, made of superior quality, being thoroughly mounted on either porcelain or slate, with ornamental covers harmonising with the wall of the room, fitted with spring arrangements preventing any sparking from taking place when turning the switch off, the brake being practically instantaneous. Those called the “W. & R. Diamond,” can be safely recommended as fulfilling all the requirements of the Fire Insurance Office rules. Various sizes are of course made, from a small switch to turn on one light to others to turn on say all the lights in a room, and large main switches which are used below in the engine-room for turning on as many as 500 lights. One great advantage is that the switch can if necessary be fixed outside the door of the room, so that the light can be turned on before entering.

Small switches are also made somewhat similar in design to a gas tap, for fixing just above the lamp and shade, and these are very convenient as supplementary switches to the main switch outside the door of the room; they cannot, however, be used for more than one light at a time.

Small independent cut-outs should be used in connection with each individual lamp or group of lamps, in order to add as much as possible to the security of the house. In addition to this, a magnetic cut-out should be fixed in the main circuit, by means of which the whole of the light would be automatically switched off, in the event of any dangerous excess of current passing through the wires. The cut-outs are as a rule so cheap and effective, that there is no real excuse for neglecting to use them, and under the rules of the Phoenix Fire Office, which are those chiefly worked to by the installation contractors, they have to be fixed in every circuit.

In confirmation of the above, we cannot do better than quote the following extract from the rules of the Phoenix Fire Office:—

“Any firm, by arranging to place inferior quality of work in your premises, can easily underprice firms that are more conscientious; and experience proves that inferior work is nearly certain to result in a fire breaking out sooner or later.”

Thieves and Fire. Continued from p. 110.

Shut all doors and windows immediately; every effort must be made to exclude air. By this means fire may be confined to a single room for a sufficient period to enable all the inmates to be aroused and escape; but if the doors and windows are thrown open, the draught will instantly cause the flames to increase. Moments are precious at the commencement of a fire, and not a second should be lost in tackling it. In a room a table-cloth can be so used as to smother a large sheet of flame, and a cushion, coat, or anything similar may be successfully used to beat it out. The great point is presence of mind—calmness in danger—action guided by reason and thought. In large houses buckets of water should be placed on each landing, a little salt or ammonia being mixed with the water. Always endeavour to attack the seat of a fire; if you cannot extinguish a fire, be sure to shut the door when making good your retreat. Make your way through smoke on hands and knees, keeping your face down as much as possible. A wet silk handkerchief tied over the eyes and nose will make breathing possible even in the midst of much smoke, and a blanket wetted and wrapped around the body will enable a person to pass through a sheet of flames in comparative safety.

For a chimney on fire.—Burn a handful of sulphur in the grate.

Burns.—In a serious burn, the clothes must be removed as soon as possible. If not already thoroughly wet, the injured part should be drenched with water, and the clothes cut away. Everything must be sacrificed to getting them off without pulling, as the slightest dragging will lacerate the skin. If patches of the clothing adhere and will not drop off they must be allowed to remain. Dip cloths in a thick paste of common baking soda and water, and lay them over the burnt surface, bandaging lightly to exclude the air. As soon as a dry spot appears on this dressing, wet it with the soda and water by squeezing some on it. There will be no smarting while it is saturated and the air excluded. If the feet are cold, heat should be applied. If the pulse is weak, give a little stimulant, and send for a doctor. Pain is a good sign in severe burns; it shows that there is still vitality. For slight burns, any oil is good (salad oil for preference); apply plentifully, and bandage to keep the cold out.

The Dairy. Continued from p. 167.

Bradford’s (Bradford & Co., 140, 141, 142, and 143, High Holborn, London; Salford, Manchester, and Liverpool) revolving-disc milk-pan stands are simple, substantial, portable, and utilise space, as they can be placed in line or in square—the revolving discs or tables allow of skimming each pan without moving from one position—being portable, they can be placed in the most desirable position for ventilation, and for thorough cleansing of the milkhouse walls, which fixed shelves do not admit of. Made to hold six pans. Larger sizes to order. Price (in iron) 2l. 2s.; (in wood) 3l. 3s.

The most satisfactory milk cooler is the capillary pattern, which is made in all sizes by Laurence, Bradford & Co.

Bradford’s “post-diaphragm” churn, and the same maker’s “Charlemont diaphragm” churn, have gained many first prizes, and are to be recommended.

The “Arch-Albany” butter worker, with helical roller, is also made by Bradford’s in all sizes to suit large or small dairies. It gained a silver medal at the R.A.S. Show at Plymouth, 1890.

The following additional books of reference deserve notice:—

J. Long: ‘British Dairy Farming.’ London. 1885.

H. M. Upton: ‘Profitable Dairy Farming.’ London. 1888. 2s.

C. R. Valentine: ‘Butter-making.’ London. 1889. 1s.

J. P. Sheldon: ‘The Farm and the Dairy.’ London. 1889. 2s. 6d.

J. Long: ‘The Dairy Farm.’ London. 1889.

The Pantry: Ovens and Bakings. Continued from p. 208.

There are several different systems of baking bread in the market, mostly with steam ovens, which are generally acknowledged to be superior to the ordinary bakers’ bread. It, however, will be found, by the examination of a loaf made and baked by the aid of gas, that this system is a great improvement over the best hitherto introduced. Moreover, the method is so simple that success is brought within reach of all who use a well-constructed gas kitchener.

In the preparation of bread by the usually adopted methods, the dough is allowed to rise in a warm place, and after being cut into loaves, is at once placed in an oven and heated up to its highest point, viz., 500°-600° F. In the case of bread made by the new method, the dough, which is leavened as usual with brewers’ or German dried yeast, is allowed to stand in a warm place and rise in the ordinary way. But after it is cut into loaves, it is treated in a manner diametrically opposite to that described above, for it is at once put into a cold gas oven, and the gas jets are lighted only sufficiently to produce a gradually increasing heat, not greater than 80° F. at the end of one hour, during which the loaves are left in the oven to rise.

The scientific explanation of the operation which is going on during this period is this. The yeast plant which grows and ramifies all through the bread has full time to do its work and make it light and open, and the plant is not killed until it has fully done its work. A smaller quantity of yeast will do the work of a larger quantity usually required because the comparatively low and regular temperature of the gas stove is favourable to its proper development throughout the bread. When the loaves have well-risen, the heat of the oven is gradually increased by turning on the gas. The yeast plant dies after about 90° F. is reached. The cooking then goes on, the heat steadily increasing until it reaches in about ¾ hour a temperature of 480°-500° F. The bread is by this time thoroughly cooked and beautifully browned, with a nice equal thickness of crust. During all this process no steam accumulates in the oven, which is Sugg’s “Westminster” (see p. 1004), as the luminous flames supply a sharp dry heat and the ventilation is thorough. After the loaves are done they are taken out of the tins, and after the gas is turned out they are restored to the oven for 10 minutes to dry. They are then ready for use, and can be eaten as soon as they are cold. They will be found to be easily digestible even by invalids or persons of weak digestion.

The process has been seen and approved of by Dr. Charles, lecturer at St. Thomas’s Hospital, who moreover stated at his lectures on Food and Digestion, recently delivered at Westminster Town Hall, that it was a process which would produce good and thoroughly digestible bread. It is only by the use of gas that such a process of gradually heating the oven can be carried out, but the simple method here described enables every housekeeper, by the aid of gas, to produce bread and pastry which will be light and thoroughly digestible. The cost of gas to bake eight 1¼ lb. loaves is under ¾d.

For some time past, the baking of bread by this process has been carried on in the window of Sugg’s show-room, Grand Hotel Buildings, Charing Cross. The dough is prepared by young girls at the Works in Regency Street, and then baked in a “Westminster” oven, fitted with a glass door, so that the bread is visible during the whole time of baking. The loaves weigh 1¼ lb. each when put into the oven, and only slightly less when taken out perfectly cooked.

The Kitchen: Ranges. Continued from p. 235.

Even in the best appointed kitchen the problem will often arise, how to obtain on the instant a small quantity of fresh boiling water. Many inventions have been devised to meet this constantly recurring want, such as quick-boiling kettles with ingeniously constructed bottoms, and powerful gas burners arranged to concentrate a large amount of flame upon the ingenious kettle-bottoms. But usually it is found in practice, that, no matter with what waste of gas, it is several minutes before even so small a quantity of water as is needed to make a cup of tea can be raised from cold to boiling. Hence it happens that tea and other things are frequently spoiled from being made either with water which has not boiled at all, or with water which boiled long before it was wanted. Many will therefore be glad to hear of a little instrument sold by Ewart and Son, of Euston Road, which they call the “Kitchen Geyser.” The water does not remain in the geyser, but merely flows through it and is boiled as it flows. At first lighting, a few seconds are lost in warming the copper of which the geyser is made. And so a single minute (not longer) has to be allowed before the stream of water actually reaches boiling point. It then flows at the rate of a pint per minute, so that it takes in all just two minutes to produce the first pint of boiling water. After this, however, the metal is kept hot by the minute flame which is left burning when the water is stopped. A second pint of boiling water can thus be had in a single minute whenever afterwards required, until the gas is finally turned off. The saving of time, fuel, and temper effected by this little instrument will be found to make it quite indispensable where it has once been tried.

226. Sugg’s “Westminster” Gas Kitchener.