W. L. H. Duckworth

The principal characters of the oldest known human remains having been thus set forth, the circumstances of their surroundings next demand attention. A brief indication of these will be given with the aid of the illustrations provided in the original memoirs in each case, and the order of descriptions followed in the preceding chapter will be observed.

Pithecanthropus. The remains of Pithecanthropus were recovered from an alluvial deposit at Trinil. A section of this is shewn in Fig. 19. An idea may thus be gained of the very considerable amount of superincumbent materials. The associated fauna cannot be compared directly to that of any Western European locality. But in comparison with the modern fauna of Java, the strata in which the Pithecanthropus was found shew a predominance of extinct species, though not of genera. Elephants and hippopotami were present: they point to a close relation between the fauna of Trinil and that of certain Siwalik strata in India, referred to a late Pliocene age. The difference of opinion upon this point has been mentioned in the preceding chapter: here it will suffice to repeat that a final conclusion does not appear to have been reached, and that the experts who have examined the strata in situ still differ from each other.

Fig. 19. Section of the strata at Trinil in Java. A vegetable soil. B Sand-rock. C Lapilli-rock. D Level at which the bones were found. E Conglomerate. F Clay. H Rainy-season level of river. I Dry-season level of river. (From Dubois.)

Mauer. Impressed by the similarity of the conditions at Mauer to those of the fossiliferous tufa-beds near Taubach and Weimar, Dr Schoetensack had anticipated the possibility of obtaining valuable fossil relics from the former locality. For some twenty years, Dr Schoetensack kept in touch with the workmen of Mauer, and thus when the jawbone was found, he was summoned at once. Even so, the jaw had been removed from its resting-place, and broken in two fragments. Yet there is no doubt as to the exact position in which it was found. Sand and lÖss (a fine earthy deposit) had accumulated above it to a thickness of seventy feet. The nature of the surroundings may be estimated by reference to the illustration (Fig. 20) reproducing Dr Schoetensack's photograph of the sand-pit. The sands which contained the mandible represent an alluvial deposit, and so far resemble the Trinil beds in Java. The attempt to institute an exact comparison would be unprofitable, but on the whole it would seem that, of the two, the Mauer sands represent the later stage. The fauna associated with the Mauer jaw includes such forms as Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros etruscus, Ursus arvernensis, U. deningeri (an ancestral form of U. spelaeus), together with a species of horse intermediate between Equus stenonis, and the fossil horse found at Taubach. The cave-lion, bison, and various deer have also been recognised.

The aspect of this collection shews a marked similarity to that of the so-called Forest-bed of Cromer, though at the same time indicating a later age. The Mauer jaw must therefore be assigned to the very earliest part of the Pleistocene epoch. In his original memoir, Dr Schoetensack gave no account of any associated ‘industry,’ in the form of stone implements. But now (1911) Professor Rutot unhesitatingly (though the reasons are not stated) ascribes to the horizon of the Mauer jaw, that division of the eolithic industries termed by him the “Mafflien.” Upon the correctness of such a view judgment may well be reserved for the present.

Taubach. The bone-bed (Knochenschicht) of Taubach whence the two human teeth were recovered, lies at a depth of some 15 feet (5·2 m.) from the adjacent surface-soil. No fewer than eleven distinct horizons have been recognised in the superincumbent strata. Palaeoliths had often been obtained from the same stratum as that which yielded the human teeth. Dr Weiss referred it to the first, i.e. the earlier of two inter-glacial periods judged to have occurred in this region. The associated fauna includes Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros merckii, Bison priscus, with Cervidae and representatives of swine, beaver and a bear. The similarity of this assemblage to that of the Mauer Sands has been noted already.

The hippopotamus however does not seem to have been recorded in either locality. Nevertheless, the general aspect of the mammalian fauna is ‘southern’ (faune chaude of French writers). Upon this conclusion, much depends, for the Palaeolithic implements (claimed as contemporaneous with the extinct ‘southern’ mammals recorded in the foregoing paragraphs) are said to correspond to the type of Le Moustier. But Mousterian implements are (it is alleged) practically never associated with ‘southern’ animals, so that in this respect the Taubach bone-bed provides a paradox. Without discussing this paradox at length, it may be stated that the implements just described as ‘Mousterian’ are not recognised as such by all the experts. Thus Obermaier identifies them with those of Levallois, i.e. a late S. Acheul type (cf. Obermaier, 1909). Others declare that the type is not that of Le Moustier, but of Chelles. The latter type of implement is found habitually in association with the southern fauna, and thus the paradox described above may prove to be apparent only and not real. But the unravelling of the different opinions relating to the Taubach finds is among the easier tasks presented to anyone desirous of furnishing a clear statement of the actual state of our knowledge on these matters. The difficulties with which the whole subject bristles may thus be realised.

Krapina. Researches productive of evidence as to the existence of Palaeolithic man in Croatia, were commenced at Krapina so long ago as August, 1899, by Professor Kramberger. A preliminary report was published in December, 1899. Until the year 1904 these researches passed almost unnoticed in this country. The site was not exhausted until 1905. The actual excavations were made in a rock-shelter on the right bank of the Krapini[vc]a river, near the village of Krapina. The rock-shelter had been to some extent invaded not long before the archaeological work commenced, and evidence of early human occupation of the site was revealed in the form of dark bands of earth, containing much charcoal. These bands were seen as lines in the lower parts of the exposed section of the cave contents. Fragments of human and other bones to the number of several thousands were removed. In one season's work six hundred stone implements were found.

A section of the several strata has been published and is reproduced in Fig. 21. Human bones or artefacts were found throughout a wide series of strata, in which no variations of a cultural nature were detected. Throughout the period of human occupation, the Palaeolithic inmates of the cave remained on an unaltered and rather lowly level of culture. This is described by some authorities as Mousterian, by others as Aurignacian; in either case as of an early Palaeolithic aspect.

But when the animal remains are considered, Krapina seems to present the difficulty already encountered in the case of Taubach. For there is no doubt but that the ‘southern’ fauna is to some extent represented at Krapina. This qualified form of statement is employed because one representative only, viz. Rhinoceros merckii, has been discovered, whereas its habitual companions, Elephas antiquus and Hippopotamus, have left no traces at Krapina. Other animals associated with the cave-men of Krapina are not so commonly found in the presence of the Rhinoceros merckii. Thus the Ursus spelaeus, U. arctos, Bos primigenius, and the Arctomys (Marmot) are suggestive of a more northern fauna. But the presence of even a possibly stray Rhinoceros merckii is sufficient to confer an aspect of great antiquity on this early Croatian settlement. No evidence of formal interments has come to light, and as regards the cannibalistic habits of the human cave-dwellers, no more than the merest surmise exists.

S. BrÉlade's Bay, Jersey. In the cave thus designated, old hearths were met with at a depth of twenty-five feet below the surface. Human beings are represented by teeth only. No evidence of interments has been recorded. The implements are of Mousterian type. Associated with the hearths and implements were many fragmentary remains of animals. Up to the present time, the following forms have been identified: Rhinoceros tichorhinus (the hairy rhinoceros), the Reindeer, and two varieties of Horse. So far as this evidence goes, the age assigned to the implements is supported, or at least not contra-indicated. It is most improbable that the period represented can be really earlier than the Mousterian, though it might be somewhat later. That the Krapina teeth (which so curiously resemble those of S. BrÉlade's Bay in respect of the fusion of their roots) should be assigned to the same (Mousterian) epoch is perhaps significant.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints (CorrÈze). This is the best example of an interment referable to the early Palaeolithic age (Fig. 22). Two reasons for this statement may be given. In the first place, the skeleton lay in a distinctly excavated depression, beneath which no signs of an earlier settlement are recorded. Secondly, the superincumbent strata can be assigned to one period only of the archaeological series, viz. that of Le Moustier. Indications of the preceding period (S. Acheul) as well as of the subsequent one (Aurignac) are practically negligible. Moreover the surroundings had not been disturbed since the interment: this is shewn by the leg-bones of a large bovine animal (Bison or Bos) found in their natural relations just above the head of the human skeleton.

The latter lay on the back, the right arm bent, the left extended; both legs were contracted and to the right. In general, this attitude recalls that of the skeletons of La Ferrassie and the Grotte des Enfants (Grimaldi). At Le Moustier too, the skeleton was found in a somewhat similar position.

At La Chapelle-aux-Saints, the associated fauna includes the Reindeer, Horse, a large bovine form (? Bison), Rhinoceros tichorhinus, the Ibex, Wolf, Marmot, Badger and Boar.

It would seem that this particular cave had served only as a tomb. For other purposes its vertical extent is too small. The stone artefacts are all perfect tools: no flakes or splinters being found as in habitations. The animal remains are supposed to be relics of a funeral feast (or feasts). But the presence of the Rhinoceros is perhaps antagonistic to such an explanation.

Le Moustier (Dordogne). The skeleton lay on its right side, the right arm bent and supporting the head; the left arm was extended. The stratum upon which the body rested consisted largely of worked flint implements. These are assigned to the later Acheulean and earlier Mousterian epochs.

Two features in contrast with the conditions at La Chapelle are to be noticed. It is doubtful whether the skeleton at Le Moustier had been literally interred. It seems rather to have been placed on what was at the time the floor of the grotto, and then covered partly with earth on which implements were scattered. Indications of a definite grave were found at La Chapelle. Again at Le Moustier, other parts of the same grotto had been occupied as habitations of the living. At La Chapelle this seems not to have been the case.

The evidence of the accompanying animal remains also differs in the two cases. At Le Moustier, only small and very fragmentary animal bones with the tooth of an ox were found in the immediate vicinity of the human skeleton. An extended search revealed bones of Bos primigenius in the cave. No bones of the Reindeer were found and their absence is specially remarked by Professor Klaatsch, as evidence that the skeleton at Le Moustier is of greater antiquity than the skeleton accompanied by reindeer bones at La Chapelle. In any case, it would seem that no great lapse of time separates the two strata.

La Ferrassie. The skeleton was found in the same attitude as those of La Chapelle and Le Moustier, viz. in the dorsal position, the right arm bent, the left extended, both legs being strongly flexed at the knee and turned to the right side. The bones were covered by some 3·5 m. of dÉbris: stone implements were yielded by strata above and below the body respectively. Beneath the skeleton, the implements are of Acheulean type, while above and around it the type of Le Moustier was encountered. Aurignacian implements occurred still nearer the surface.

In regard to the evidence of interment the conditions here resemble those at Le Moustier rather than those of La Chapelle. The human skeleton did not appear to have been deposited in a grave, but simply laid on the ground, covered no doubt by earth upon which flint implements were scattered. But the cave continued to be occupied until at the close of the Aurignacian period a fall of rock sealed up the entrance. It is difficult to realise the conditions of life in such a cave, after the death of a member of the community, unless, as among the cave-dwelling Veddas of Ceylon, the cave were temporarily abandoned (Seligmann, 1911). It is possible that the normal accumulation of animal remains created such an atmosphere as would not be greatly altered by the addition of a human corpse, for Professor Tylor has recorded instances of such interments among certain South American tribes. But it is also conceivable that the enormously important change in custom from inhumation to cremation, may owe an origin to some comparatively simple circumstance of this kind. The animal remains at La Ferrassie include Bison, Stag, and Horse, with a few Reindeer. The general aspect is thus concordant with that at La Chapelle.

Pech de l'Aze. It is impossible to decide whether the child's skull had been buried intentionally or not. The associated fauna is apparently identical with that of La Ferrassie and La Chapelle.

Forbes Quarry (Gibraltar). Of the surroundings of the Forbes Quarry skull at the time of its discovery nothing is known. In 1910 the present writer explored Forbes Quarry and a small cave opening into it. But no evidence of the presence of prehistoric man was obtained. Bones of recent mammalia and certain molluscs found during the excavations, throw no light on this subject.

Andalusia. At the time of writing, only the following information is available as to the surroundings of these human cave-bones. They were discovered on or near the floor of a deep fissure leading to a series of labyrinthine passages. The walls of the fissure or cave were decorated with drawings of animals resembling those at Cretas in Aragon. Besides the mineralised bones, other fragments of less antiquated aspect were found. Potsherds were also obtained, but I have no information as to the occurrence of implements.

Grotte des Enfants (Mentone). With regard to the two ‘negroid’ skeletons of this cave, the first important point is the enormous thickness of accumulated dÉbris by which the bones were covered. A depth of some twenty-four feet had been reached before the discovery was made (Fig. 23).

The bodies had been definitely interred, large stones being found in position, adjusted so as to protect the heads particularly. The bodies had been[Pg 77]
[Pg 78] placed on the right side. Of the woman, both arms were bent as were the lower limbs. The male skeleton has the right arm flexed, but the left extended (as in the cases of La Chapelle, Le Moustier, and La Ferrassie).

It is practically certain that the skeletons do not belong to an epoch represented, as regards its culture or fauna, by strata lower than that which supported the human remains. This conclusion is very important here. For the evidence of the stone implements accompanying the human bones is fairly definite: it points to the Mousterian age. The animal bones are those of the Reindeer and Cave Hyaena. The presence of the former animal supports the conclusion arrived at on the evidence of the human artefacts. The presence of the Cave Hyaena does not controvert that conclusion.

But an interesting fact remains to be considered. Below the two human skeletons, the animal remains are those of the ‘southern’ fauna. All the characteristic representatives were found, viz. Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros merckii, and Hippopotamus. The Hyaena was also associated with these large animals. It is not clearly stated whether implements of Mousterian type occurred in these, the deepest strata of the cave-floor. Were this so, the contention made in respect of the Taubach implements (cf. supra, p. 67) would be remarkably corroborated, as would also the somewhat similar suggestion made in regard to Krapina. For the moment, however, it must suffice to attribute these human remains of negroid aspect to the Mousterian period at Mentone. Inasmuch as the reindeer appears in several strata overlying the remains of the Grimaldi race (for so it has been named by Dr Verneau), it is certainly conceivable that the two individuals are Aurignacian or even later. But this is to enter a wilderness of surmise. Human skeletons were actually found in those more superficial strata and also were associated with the Reindeer. But their cranial features are of a higher type (Cro-Magnon) and contrast very clearly with those of the more deeply buried individuals.

South America. The two discoveries mentioned in the preceding chapter were made in the so-called Pampas formation of Argentina. This formation has been subdivided by geologists into three successive portions, viz. upper, middle and lower. The distinction is based partly upon evidence derived from the actual characters of deposits which differ according to their level. But the molluscan fauna has also been used as a means of distinction. The whole formation is stated by some to be fluviatile. Other observers speak of it as LÖss. This need not necessarily exclude a fluviatile origin, but speaking generally that term now suggests an aerial rather than a subaqueous deposit. The upper subdivision is designated the yellow lÖss in contrast to the brown lÖss forming the middle layer. Opinion is much divided as to the exact geological age of the Pampas formation. Ameghino refers it to the Pliocene period, excepting the lower divisions which he regards as upper Miocene. Professor Lehmann-Nitsche assigns Pliocene antiquity to the lowest sub-division only. Dr Steinmann regards the middle and lower sub-divisions as equivalents of the ‘older’ lÖss of European Pleistocene deposits. The latter determinations are more probably correct than is the first.

Baradero. The Baradero skeleton was obtained from the middle formation or brown lÖss, in a locality marked by the presence of mollusca corresponding with modern forms, and contrasted with the Tertiary Argentine mollusca. The skeleton was in a ‘natural’ (i.e. not a contracted) position, the head being depressed on the front of the chest. No associated implements or remains of mammalian skeletons are recorded.

Monte Hermoso. The vertebra and femur were found in the lower subdivision of the Pampas formation. We have seen that Ameghino refers this to the Miocene epoch: Lehmann-Nitsche speaks of it as Pliocene, Steinmann's opinion suggests a still later date, while Scott also declares that no greater age than that of the Pleistocene period can be assigned. The two specimens were obtained at very different times, an interval of many years separating the dates of the respective discoveries. So far as is known, no mammalian or other animal remains have been yielded by the strata in question, so that the whole case in regard to evidence is one of the most unsatisfactory on record. Indeed the whole question of ‘dating’ the Argentine discoveries, whether absolutely or relatively, must be regarded as an unsolved problem.

Combe Capelle (Dordogne). The circumstances of this discovery were as follows. The skeleton lay in an extended position, and it had been placed in an excavation made for the purpose of interment. This excavation entered a stratum distinguished as Mousterian. But the interment is considered to be later, and of Aurignacian antiquity. Stone implements of Aurignacian type were disposed around the skeleton: in addition to these, a number of molluscan shells were arranged about the skull. This suggestion of ornament would of itself suggest the later period to which the skeleton is assigned. No remains of animals are mentioned in the accounts accessible to me.

BrÜx (Bohemia). The BrÜx skeleton was discovered in 1871. It lay some five feet beneath the surface in a deposit which seems to be an ancient one of fluviatile origin. The Biela river is not far from the spot. The bones were very fragmentary, and in particular the skull-cap has been reconstructed from no less than a dozen fragments. The limb bones were also fractured. Near the skeleton, some remains of an Ox were found on the same level. Two feet above the skeleton, a stone implement, seemingly a Neolithic axe, was brought to light.

The information is thus meagre in the extreme, and when the condition of the skull is taken into account, it is evident that the BrÜx skeleton is not one upon which far-reaching arguments can be successfully based. The interest of the specimen depends above all upon the results of the careful analysis of its characters made by Professor Schwalbe[25] (1906).

BrÜnn (1871). This discovery was made at a depth of 4·5 metres in red lÖss. Close to the human bones lay the tusk and the shoulder-blade of a Mammoth. The same stratum subsequently yielded the skull of a young Rhinoceros (R. tichorhinus): some ribs of a Rhinoceros are scored or marked in a way suggestive of human activity: other ribs of the same kind were artificially perforated. More noteworthy, however, is a human figurine carved in ivory of a Mammoth tusk. Several hundreds of the shell of Dentalium badense lying close to the human remains were truncated in such a way as to suggest that they had once formed a necklace.

Galley Hill (Kent). The gravel-pit whence the skeleton was obtained invades the ‘high-level terrace-gravel’ of the Thames valley. Such is the opinion of expert geologists (Hinton[26]). In the gravel-pit a section through ten feet of gravel is exposed above the chalk. The bones were eight feet from the top of the gravel. Palaeolithic implements of a primitive type have been obtained from the same deposit at Galley Hill. No precise designation seems to have been assigned to them. From the published figures, they seem to correspond to the earlier Acheulean or to the Chellean type. One in particular, resembles the implements found at Reculver, and I have recently seen similar specimens which had been obtained by dredging off the Kentish coast near Whitstable. Some of the Galley Hill implements are compared to the high plateau forms from Ightham. These must be of great antiquity. Professor Rutot in 1903 assigned the Galley Hill skeleton to a period by him named Mafflian. This diagnosis seems to have been based upon the characters of the implements. Recently however (1909) Professor Rutot has brought the skeleton down into the StrÉpyan epoch, which is much less ancient than that of Maffle.

The associated fauna comes now into consideration. From the Galley Hill gravel-pit no mammalian remains other than the human skeleton have been reported, but the fauna of the ‘high-level terrace’ has been ascertained by observations in the vicinity of Galley Hill as well as in other parts of the Thames basin. The mollusc Cyrena fluminalis, indicative of a sub-tropical climate, has been found in these strata. As regards the mammalian fauna, it is interesting to compare the list given by Mr E. T. Newton in 1895, with that published by Mr M. A. C. Hinton in 1910 on the basis of independent observations.

No definitely ‘Arctic’ mammals are recorded: the general aspect of the above fauna shews a strong similarity to the Pliocene fauna, which appears to have persisted to this epoch without much alteration of the various types represented.

TABLE A

[1] South American remains and some others are omitted owing to insufficiency of data relating to their surroundings.[2] Names of fossil varieties of Rhinoceros. These are very confused. The term R. leptorhinus should be avoided altogether. R. megarhinus represents the R. leptorhinus of Falconer and Cuvier. R. merckii represents R. hemitoechus of Falconer, which is the R. leptorhinus of Owen and Boyd Dawkins. R. tichorhinus is R. antiquitatis of Falconer and some German writers.[3] The formation of the High Terrace drift is earlier than the date of arrival of the ‘Siberian’ invasion of Britain by certain Voles. Already in Pliocene times, some Voles had come into Britain from the south-east of Europe. But the Galley Hill man, if contemporary with the High Terrace drift, had arrived in Britain ages before the appearance of Homo aurignacensis supposed by Klaatsch to be closely allied, and to have come into Europe through Central if not Northern Asia. The ‘High Terrace’ mammals have a ‘Pliocene’ facies.[4] The upper strata at Taubach yielded Reindeer and Mammoth. Near Weimar, WÜst says the stratigraphical positions of R. merckii and R. antiquitatis have been found inverted.[5] Typical Val d'Arno (Pliocene) form.