The actual material consists only of two human teeth of the molar series. One is the first lower ‘milk’ molar of the left side. This tooth exceeds most corresponding modern examples in its dimensions. In a large collection of modern teeth from Berlin no example provided dimensions so large. The surface is more worn than is usual in modern milk teeth of this kind. The second tooth (Fig. 3) is the first lower ‘permanent’ molar of the left side. It bears five cusps. Neither this number of cusps, nor its absolute dimensions, confer distinction upon the tooth. Its chief claim to notice is based upon its relative narrowness from side to side. That narrowness (proportion of transverse to anteroposterior diameter), represented by the ratio 84.6:100, is present in a distinctly unusual and almost simian degree. In this character the Taubach tooth resembles the same tooth of the Chimpanzee (Fig. 4), to which it stands nearer than does the corresponding tooth of the Mauer jaw. The manner in which the worn surface of the tooth slopes downwards and forwards has been claimed as another simian character. In these respects, the Taubach tooth is among the most ape-like of human teeth (whether prehistoric or recent) as yet recorded, and in my opinion there is some difficulty in deciding whether this is the tooth of a human being or of a pithecoid human precursor. There is a very slight tendency (Figs. 5, 6) to concrescence of the roots, and these are curiously parallel in direction, when viewed from the side. In the latter respect no similarity to the teeth of apes can be recognised.

Krapina in Croatia.

Next in order to the discovery of human teeth at Taubach, the results of excavations in a so-called ‘rock-shelter’ on the bank of the river Krapini[vc]a in Croatia, call for consideration. Immense numbers of bones were obtained, and the remains of a large number of human beings were found to be mingled with those of various animals. Apart from their abundance, the fragmentary character of the human bones is very remarkable. The discovery that one particular stratum in the cave consisted mainly of burnt human bones has suggested that some of the early inhabitants of the Krapina shelter practised cannibalism.

Indeed this view is definitely adopted by Professor Kramberger, and he makes the suggestion that the remains include representatives of those who practised as well as those who suffered from this custom. Both young individuals and those of mature age are represented, but very aged persons have not been recognised.

Turning to the details of the actual bones, the conclusion of outstanding interest is the recognition of further instances of the type of the Neanderthal and of Spy, the latter discovery being separated by a lapse of twenty years and more from that at Krapina. An attempt has been made to reconstruct one skull, and the result is shewn in Fig. 7, which provides a view of the specimen in profile. Viewed from above, the chief character is the width of the cranial portion, which exceeds very distinctly in this respect the corresponding diameter in the more classic examples from the Neanderthal and Spy. It is very important to note that the brain-case is thus shewn to be remarkably capacious, and this is all the more remarkable since the limb-bones do not denote a very great stature or bulk.

Having recently examined the specimens now in the Museum of Palaeontology at Agram in Croatia, I venture to add some notes made on that occasion. The Krapina skull-fragments and the head of a femur are certainly most impressive. It is shewn that early palaeolithic man presents examples of skulls both of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic proportions. Variations in the form and arrangement of the facial bones also occur.

The form and proportions of the brain-case have been noted already. The profile view (cf. Fig. 7) shews the distinctive features of the brow region. The brow-ridges are very large, but they do not absolutely conform to the conditions presented by the corresponding parts in the skulls of aboriginal Australian or Tasmanian natives. The region of the forehead above the brows is in some instances (but not in all) flattened or retreating, and this feature is indicated even in some small fragments by the oblique direction of the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid bone.

Two types of upper jaw are distinguishable: no specimen projects forwards so far as might be expected, but the teeth are curiously curved downwards (as in some crania of aboriginal Australians). The facial surface of the jaw is not depressed to form a ‘canine fossa.’ The nasal bones are flattened.

The mandibles present further remarkable characters. By these again, two types have been rendered capable of distinction. In their massiveness they are unsurpassed save by the mandible from Mauer. In absolute width one specimen actually surpasses the Mauer jaw, but yet fails to rival that bone in respect of the great width found to characterise the ascending ramus in that example. In the Krapina jaws, the chin is absent or at best feebly developed. In one specimen the body of the jaw is bent at an angle between the canine and first premolar tooth, and is thus reminiscent of the simian jaw. Behind the incisor teeth the conformation is peculiar, again suggestive of the arrangement seen in the Mauer jaw, and differing from that found in more recent human specimens.

The distinction of two types of lower jaw was made in the following manner. The bone was placed on a flat surface. The vertical height of the tooth-bearing part was measured in two regions, (a) near the front, (b) further back, and close to the second molar tooth (cf. Fig. 2f, g). In some of the bones these measurements are nearly equal, but the hinder one is always the less. In the instances in which the two measurements approximate to one another, the proportion is as 100:92. In other instances the corresponding proportion differed, the ratio being about 100:86 or less. The former type is considered by Professor Kramberger to indicate a special variety (krapinensis) of the Neanderthal or Homo primigenius type. The second type is that of the Spy mandible No. 1. Professor Schwalbe[25] (1906) objects to the distinction, urging that the indices (92 and 86) are not sufficiently contrasted. However this may be, it is noteworthy that other bones shew differences. Thus the curvature of the forehead is a variable feature, some skulls having had foreheads much flatter and more retreating than others. The limb bones are also called upon to provide evidence. Some of the arm-bones and thigh-bones are longer and more slender than others.

How far these differences really penetrated and whether the thesis of two types can be fully sustained, does not appear to admit of a final answer. The view here adopted is that, on the whole, the distinction will be confirmed. But nevertheless I am far from supporting in all respects the view of Professor Klaatsch to whose imagination we owe the suggestion of realistic tableaux depicting the murderous conflict of the two tribes at Krapina, the butchery of one act culminating suitably in a scene of cannibalism. Nor am I persuaded that either variety or type found at Krapina can be reasonably identified with that of the Galley Hill skeleton. But of these matters further discussion is reserved for the sequel.

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This brief sketch of the cranial characters of the Krapina remains must be supplemented by a note on the teeth. Great numbers were found, and some of them are of enormous dimensions, surpassing those of the Mauer jaw. But some of the molar teeth are further distinguished in a very remarkable way, for the roots supporting the crown of the tooth are conjoined or fused: they are not distinct or divergent as is usual. The contrast thus provided by these anomalous teeth is well illustrated in the accompanying figure (8, Ko). Now such fusion of roots is not absolutely unknown at the present day; but the third molar or wisdom tooth is most frequently affected. The occurrence is extremely unusual in the other molar teeth of modern men. Yet among the Krapina teeth, such fusion is striking both in its degree and in its frequency. So marked a characteristic has attracted much attention. Professor Kramberger holds the view that it constituted a feature of adaptation peculiar to the Palaeolithic men of Krapina. In opposition to this, Professor Adloff holds that the character is so definite and marked as to enter into the category of distinctive and specific conformations. The discussion of these views was carried on somewhat warmly, but yet to some extent fruitlessly so long as the only known examples were those from Krapina. Dr Laloy supported Professor Kramberger, and on the other side may be ranged the support of Professor Walkhoff. But a recent discovery has very substantially fortified the view adopted by Professor Adloff and his supporters. For in a cave near S. BrÉlade's Bay in Jersey, the explorations of Messrs Nicolle, Sinel and Marett (1910-1911) have brought to light Palaeolithic human teeth of very similar form. They are said indeed by Dr Keith to be precisely comparable to those from Krapina. The conjoined roots of such teeth should be regarded therefore as more than a peculiarity of the Palaeolithic men of Croatia, and rather as a very definite means of assigning to a particular Palaeolithic epoch any other instances of a similar nature. Space will not admit of more than a simple record of two other features of the Krapina teeth. They are (a) the curvature of the canine teeth and (b) the remarkable size and extent of the ‘pulp-cavity’ (cf. Fig. 8, Ko) of the molar teeth. In entering upon so protracted a discussion of this part of the evidence, the excuse is proffered that, as may be noted in the instances at Trinil and Taubach, teeth are remarkably well-fitted for preservation in the fossil state, since they may be preserved in circumstances leading to the complete destruction of other parts of the skeleton.

The limb bones of the Krapina skeletons are chiefly remarkable for the variety they present. Some are short and stout, of almost pygmy proportions: others are long and slender, inappropriate in these respects to the massive skull fragments which predominate. The distinction of two human types upon evidence furnished by the limb bones has already been mentioned.

S. BrÉlade's Bay, Jersey.

A cave in this locality has been explored during the last two years (1910, 1911). Human remains are represented by the teeth already mentioned on account of their resemblance to those found at Krapina. The resemblance depends primarily upon the curious fusion of the roots in the molar teeth. Moreover, the circumference of the combined and thickened roots is so great as to confer a most remarkable ‘columnar’ appearance on the affected teeth (cf. fig. 8, K.o.). The teeth from Krapina and Jersey while thus associated must be contrasted with some specimens which they resemble in other respects. The corresponding teeth in the Mauer jaw have been described as similar to those from Krapina, but I cannot confirm this from Dr Schoetensack's illustrations, of which fig. 8 (H) is a fair representation. The teeth of the Forbes Quarry and Le Moustier specimens do not conform to the precise requirements of the test. The Spy teeth are said to have three distinct roots save in two cases, where the numbers are four and two respectively. The test of combined molar roots therefore provides a means of subdividing a group of examples otherwise similar, rather than a mark of recognition applicable to all alike.

The S. BrÉlade teeth also resemble those from Krapina in the proportions of their crowns and the unusually large size of the pulp-cavity. The latter character may prove more important than the fusion of the roots. But the evidence of their surroundings assigns the teeth from Jersey to an epoch less ancient than that of the Krapina men.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints (CorrÈze).

The human skeleton from La Chapelle-aux-Saints holds a very distinguished position among its congeners. In the first place, the discovery was not haphazard, but made by two very competent observers during their excavations. Again, the remains comprise not only the nearly intact brain-case, but much of the facial part of the skull, together with the lower jaw and many bones of the trunk and limbs. The individual was a male of mature age, but not senile (Manouvrier). For these reasons, the value of this skeleton in evidence is singularly great.

Speaking generally, the specimen is found to resemble very closely the Neanderthal skeleton in practically every structure and feature common to the two individuals. This correspondence is confirmatory therefore of the view which assigns great antiquity to the Neanderthal man, and in addition to this, further support is given to the recognition of these examples (together with those from Spy and Krapina) as representatives of a widely distributed type. It is increasingly difficult to claim them as individual variations which have been preserved fortuitously.

Beyond these inferences, the skeleton from La Chapelle adds very greatly to the sum total of our knowledge of the structural details of these skeletons. For here the facial bones are well preserved. Before proceeding to their consideration reference should be made to the side view of the skull (Fig. 9), as well as to the tracings of the brain-case brought into comparison with those provided by the Neanderthal and Spy crania. In the case of one illustration of those tracings (Fig. 10) it must be remarked[Pg 35]
[Pg 36] that objection is taken by Professor Klaatsch to the base-line selected, though in this particular instance, that objection has less weight than in others.

Turning to the facial parts of the skull, the brows will be seen to overhang the face less than in many crania of aboriginal Australians. Prognathism, i.e. projection of the jaws (Fig. 11), though distinct, is less pronounced than might be expected. Hereby the reconstruction of the facial parts of the Neanderthal skull, as prepared by Professor Klaatsch, is shewn to be much exaggerated. The skeleton of the nose reveals some simian traits, and on either side, the canine fossa (below the eye) is shallow or non-existent. A good deal of stress has been laid on this character, perhaps more than is justifiable. Yet it is quite uncommon in this degree among modern European crania, though alleged by Giuffrida Ruggeri to characterise certain skulls from the Far East. The reconstructed skull contains teeth which are large and in the incisor region (i.e. in front) are much curved downwards in the direction of their length. But this, though probably correct, is yet a matter of inference, for only a couple of teeth (the second premolars of the left side) were found in situ. And so far no detailed description of these teeth has appeared. The mandible is of extraordinary dimensions; very widely separated ‘ascending rami’ converge to the massive body of the jaw. The sigmoid notch is almost as shallow as in the Mauer jaw. The chin is retreating or absent.

Such are the more easily recognisable features of the skull. It will be understood that many more details remain for discussion. But within the allotted space, two only can be dealt with. The capacity of the brain-case is surprisingly large, for it is estimated at 1600 cubic centimetres: from this figure (which will be the subject of further discussion in the sequel) it appears that the man of La Chapelle was amply provided with cerebral material for all ordinary needs as judged even by modern standards. In the second place, MM. Boule and Anthony, not content with a mere estimate of capacity, have published an elaborate account of the form of the brain as revealed by a cast of the interior of the brain-case. As the main result of their investigations, they are enabled to record a list of characters indicative of a comparatively lowly status as regards the form of the brain, although in actual size it leaves little to be desired.

The principal points of interest in the remainder of the skeleton refer in the first instance to the estimate of stature and the evidence provided as to the natural pose and attitude of the individual. Using Professor Pearson's table, I estimate the stature as being from 1600 to 1620 mm. (5ft. 3in. or 5ft. 4in.), a result almost identical with the estimate given for the Neanderthal man. In both, the limb bones are relatively thick and massive, and by the curvature of the thigh-bones and of the upper parts of the shin-bones, a suggestion is given of the peculiar gait described by Professor Manouvrier as ‘la marche en flexion’; the distinctive feature consists in an incompleteness of the straightening of the knee-joint as the limb is swung forwards between successive steps.

The bones of the foot are not lacking in interest, and, in particular, that called astragalus is provided with an unusually extensive joint-surface on its outer aspect. In this respect it becomes liable to comparison with the corresponding bone in the feet of climbing animals, whether simian or other.

That these features of the bone in question are not peculiar to the skeleton from La Chapelle, is shewn by their occurrence in bones of corresponding antiquity from La Quina (Martin, 1911) and (it is also said) from La Ferrassie (Boule, L'Anthropologie, Mai-Juin, 1911).

Homo mousterensis hauseri (Dordogne)

This skeleton was discovered in the lower rock-shelter of Le Moustier (Dordogne, France) in the course of excavations carried out by Professor Hauser (of Swiss nationality) during the year 1908. The final removal of the bones was conducted in the presence of a number of German archaeologists expressly invited to attend. The omission to inform or invite any French archaeologists, and the immediate removal of the bones to Breslau, are regrettable incidents which cast a shadow quite unnecessarily on an event of great archaeological interest. By a curious coincidence this took place a few days after the discovery of the human skeleton of La Chapelle (v. supra). The two finds are very fortunately complementary to each other in several respects, for the Dordogne skeleton is that of a youth, whereas the individual of La Chapelle was fully mature. In their main characters, the two skeletons are very similar, so that in the present account it will be necessary only to mention the more important features revealed by the study of the Dordogne specimen. Outline drawings of the two skulls are compared with the corresponding contour of the Neanderthal calvaria by Klaatsch.

In the Dordogne youth the bones were far more fragile than in the older man from La Chapelle. Nevertheless, photographs taken while the bones were still in situ but uncovered, provide a means of realising many features of interest. Moreover although the face in particular was greatly damaged, yet the teeth are perfectly preserved, and were replaced in the reconstructed skull of which a representation is shewn in Fig. 12. This reconstruction cannot however be described as a happy result of the great labour bestowed upon it. In particular it is almost certain that the skull is now more prognathous than in its natural state. Apart from such drawbacks the value of the specimen is very great, and this is especially the case in regard to the teeth and the lower jaw. The former are remarkably large, and they agree herein with the teeth from Krapina (though their roots are distinct and not conjoined as in the Krapina examples). In respect of size, the teeth of the Dordogne individual surpass those of the Mauer jaw, but the first lower molar has proportions similar to the corresponding tooth of that specimen. But, large as they are, the lower teeth are implanted in a mandible falling far short of the Mauer jaw in respect of size and weight (Fig. 13). In fact one of the great characteristics of the Dordogne skeleton is the inadequacy of the mandible when compared to the remainder of the skull, even though allowance is made for the youth of the individual. Were it not that the facts are beyond dispute, it is difficult to imagine that such a mandible could be associated with so large and capacious a cranium. And yet the jaw is not devoid of points in which it resembles the Mauer bone, in spite of its much smaller bulk. Thus the chin is defective, the lower border undulating, and the ascending branch is wide in proportion to its height. A good idea of these features is provided by the illustration of the side-view (cf. Fig. 14) given by Professor Frizzi. Seen from above, the contour is in close agreement with that of several well-known examples, such as the jaws from Spy (cf. Fig. 15) and Krapina.

The limb bones agree in general appearance with those of the skeletons of the Neanderthal and La Chapelle. Though absolutely smaller than in those examples, they are yet similar in regard to their stoutness. The femur is short and curved, and the articular ends are disproportionately large as judged by modern standards. The tibia is prismatic, resembling herein the corresponding bone in the Spy skeleton. It is not flattened or sabre-like, as in certain other prehistoric skeletons.

Another point of interest derived from the study of the limb bones is the stature they indicate. Having regard to all the bones available, a mean value of about 1500 mm. (about 4 ft. 11 in.) is thus inferred. Yet the youth was certainly 16 years of age and might have been as much as 19 years. The comparison of stature with that of the other examples described is given in a later chapter. At present, it is important to remark that in view of this determination (of 4 ft. 11 in.) and even when allowance is made for further growth in stature the large size of the skull must be regarded as very extraordinary indeed. A similar remark applies to the estimate of the capacity of the brain-case. A moderate estimate gives 1600 c.c. as the capacity of the brain-case (practically identical with that of the La Chapelle skull). In modern Europeans of about 5 ft. 6 in., this high figure would not cause surprise. In a modern European of the same stature as the Dordogne man (4 ft. 11 in.), so capacious a brain-case would be regarded if not as a pathological anomaly, yet certainly as the extreme upper limit of normal variation. Without insisting further on this paradoxical result (which is partly due to defective observations), it will suffice to remark that early Palaeolithic man was furnished with a very adequate quantity of brain-material, whatever its quality may have been. In regard to the amount, no symptom or sign of an inferior evolutionary status can be detected.

La Ferrassie (Dordogne, France).

This discovery was made in a rock-shelter during its excavation in the autumn of 1909 by M. Peyrony. A human skeleton was found in the floor of the grotto, and below strata characterised by Mousterian implements. The bones were excessively fragile, and though the greatest care was taken in their removal, the skull on arrival at Paris was in a condition described by Professor Boule (L'Anthropologie, 1911, p. 118) as ‘trÈs brisÉe.’ No detailed account has yet appeared, though even in its fragmentary condition, the specimen is sure to provide valuable information. From the photographs taken while the skeleton lay in situ after its exposure, it is difficult to arrive at a definite conclusion as to its characters. But in regard to these, some resemblance at least (in the jaws) to the Neanderthal type can be detected.

M. Peyrony found also in the same year and in the same region (at Le Pech de l'Aze) the cranium of a child, assignable to the same epoch as the skeleton of La Ferrassie. But so far no further details have been published.

Forbes Quarry (Gibraltar).

The human skull thus designated was found in the year 1848. It was, so to speak, rediscovered by Messrs Busk and Falconer. The former authority described the specimen in 1864, but this description is only known from an abstract in the Reports of the British Association. Broca published an account of the osteological characters a few years later. After 1882, the skull again fell into obscurity for some twenty years: thereafter it attracted the attention of Dr Macnamara, Professor Schwalbe, and above all of Professor Sollas, who published the first detailed and critical account in 1907. This has stimulated yet other researches, particularly those of Professor Sera (of Florence) in 1909, and the literature thus growing up bids fair to rival that of the Neanderthal skeleton. A most important feature of the specimen consists in the fact that the bones of the face have remained intact and in connection with the skull. But the mandible is wanting, and the molar teeth of the upper set are absent.

As may be gathered from the tracing published by Dr Sera (cf. Fig. 16) the upper part of the brain-case is imperfect. Nevertheless the contour has been restored, and the Neanderthal-like features of distinct brow-ridges, followed by a low flattened cranial curve, are recognisable at once. The facial profile is almost complete, and in this respect the Forbes Quarry skull stood alone until the discovery of the specimen from La Chapelle. Since that incident, this distinction is not absolute, but the Forbes Quarry skull is still unique amidst the other fossils in respect of the bones forming what is called the cranial base. In no other specimen hitherto found, are these bones so complete, or so well preserved in their natural position.

The Forbes Quarry skull is clearly of Neanderthaloid type as regards the formation of the brain-case; in respect of the face it resembles in general the skull from La Chapelle. But in respect of the estimated capacity of the brain-case (estimated at 1100 c.c.), the Forbes Quarry skull falls far short of both those other examples. Moreover the cranial base assigns to it an extremely lowly position. The individual[Pg 48]
[Pg 49] is supposed by some to have been of the female sex, but there is no great certainty about this surmise. The enormous size of the eye-cavities and of the opening of the nose confer a very peculiar appearance upon the face, and are best seen in the full-face view. Some other features of the skull will be considered in the concluding chapter, when its relation to skulls of the Neanderthal type will be discussed in detail.

Andalusia, Spain.

In 1910, Colonel Willoughby Verner discovered several fragments of a human skeleton in a cave in the SerranÍa de Ronda. These fragments have been presented to the Hunterian Museum. They seem to be absolutely mineralised. Though imperfect, they indicate that their possessor was adult and of pygmy stature. The thigh-bone in particular is of interest, for an upper fragment presents a curious conformation of the rounded prominence called the greater trochanter. In this feature, and in regard to the small size of the head of the bone, the femur is found to differ from most other ancient fossil thigh-bones, and from those of modern human beings, with the exception of some pygmy types, viz. the dwarf-like cave-dwellers of Aurignac (compared by Pruner-Bey in 1868 to the Bushmen), the aborigines of the Andaman islands, and the aboriginal Bushmen of South Africa. A full description of the bones has not been published, but will probably appear very shortly.

Grimaldi (Mentone Caves).

Among the numerous human skeletons yielded by the caves of Mentone, two were discovered at a great depth in a cave known as the ‘Grotte des Enfants.’ The excavations were set on foot by the Prince of Monaco, and these particular skeletons have been designated the ‘Grimaldi’ remains.

Their chief interest (apart from the evidence as to a definite interment having taken place) consists in the alleged presence of ‘negroid’ characters. The skeletons are those of a young man (cf. Fig. 17), and an aged woman. The late Professor Gaudry examined the jaw of the male skeleton. He noted the large dimensions of the teeth, the prognathism, the feeble development of the chin, and upon such grounds pointed out the similarity of this jaw to those of aboriginal natives of Australia. Some years later Dr Verneau, in describing the same remains, based a claim to (African) negroid affinity on those characters, adding thereto evidence drawn from a study of the limb bones. In both male and female alike, the lower limbs are long and slender, while the forearm and shin-bones are relatively long when compared respectively with the arm and the thigh-bones.

From a review of the evidence it seems that the term ‘negroid’ is scarcely justified, and there is no doubt that the Grimaldi skeletons could be matched without difficulty by skeletons of even recent date. Herein they are strongly contrasted with skeletons of the Neanderthal group. And although modern Europeans undoubtedly may possess any of the osteological characters claimed as ‘negroid’ by Dr Verneau, nevertheless the African negro races possess those characters more frequently and more markedly. Caution in accepting the designation ‘negroid’ is therefore based upon reluctance to allow positive evidence from two or three characters to outweigh numerous negative indications; and besides this consideration, it will be admitted that two specimens provide but a feeble basis for supporting the superstructure thus laid on their characters. Lastly Dr Verneau has been at some pains to shew that skulls of the ‘Grimaldi-negroid’ type persist in modern times. Yet the possessors of many and probably most such modern crania were white men and not negroes.

Enough has however been related to shew how widely the skeletons from the ‘Grotte des Enfants’ differ from the Palaeolithic remains associated as the Neanderthal type.

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South America. With the exception of Pithecanthropus, all the discoveries mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs were made in Europe. From other parts of the world, actual human remains referable to earlier geological epochs are scanty save in South America. The discoveries made in this part of the New World have been described at great length. In many instances, claims to extraordinary antiquity have been made on their behalf. It is necessary therefore to examine the credentials of such specimens. Upon an examination of the evidence, I have come to the conclusion that two instances only deserve serious attention and criticism.

Baradero.

Fragmentary remains of a human skeleton: the mandible is the best preserved portion; unfortunately the front part has been broken off so that no conclusion can be formed as to the characters of the chin. Otherwise in regard to its proportions, some resemblance is found with the mandible of the Spy skull (No. 1). More important and definite is the direction of the grinding surfaces of the molar teeth. In the lower jaw, this surface is said to look forwards. The interest of this observation consists in the fact that the tooth from Taubach presents the same feature, which is unusual.

Beyond these, the skeleton from the lÖss of Baradero presents no distinctive features save the remarkable length of the upper limbs.

Monte Hermoso.

From this region two bones were obtained at different dates. These are an atlas vertebra (the vertebra next to the skull) and a thigh-bone. The latter is of less than pygmy dimensions. Both are from fully adult skeletons.

An attempt has been made to reconstruct an individual (the Tetraprothomo of Ameghino) to which the two bones should be referred. It will be noticed that the circumstances bear some, although a very faint, analogy to those in which the remains of Pithecanthropus were found. The results are however extraordinarily different. Professor Branco has ably shewn that in the case of the bones from Monte Hermoso, the association in one and the same skeleton would provide so large a skull in proportion to the rest of the body, that the result becomes not only improbable, but impossible. It is therefore necessary to treat the bones separately. If this is done, there is no reason to regard the thigh-bone as other than that of a large monkey of one of the varieties known to have inhabited South America in prehistoric as well as in recent times.

The vertebra is more interesting. It is small but thick and strong in a degree out of proportion to its linear dimensions. Professor Lehmann-Nitsche supposes that it may have formed part of a skeleton like that of Pithecanthropus, that is to say that it is not part of a pygmy skeleton. On the other hand, Dr Rivet considers that the Monte Hermoso vertebra could be matched exactly by several specimens in the large collection of exotic human skeletons in the National Museum, Paris. Be this as it may, there is no doubt that the atlas vertebra in question constitutes the most interesting discovery of its kind made so far in South America. It is important to notice that time after time the attempts made to demonstrate the early origin of Man in the American Continent have resulted in failure, which in some instances has been regrettably ignominious.

Combe Capelle (H. aurignacensis hauseri).

Returning to Europe, it is to be noted that in a rock-shelter near Combe-Capelle (Dordogne), the excavations of Dr Hauser led to the discovery in 1909 of an entire human skeleton of the male sex. The interment (for such it was) had taken place in the Aurignacian period. The skeleton presents a very striking appearance. In stature, no important divergence from the Neanderthal type can be noted. But the more vertical forehead, more boldly-curved arc of the brain-case, the diminished brow-ridges, large mastoid processes and distinct canine fossae provide a complete contrast between the Aurignac man and those of the Neanderthal group. Moreover the Aurignac jaw has a slight projection at the chin, where an ‘internal process’ is now distinct. The brain-case has dolicho-cephalic proportions in a marked degree. The limb bones are straight and slender, and not so much enlarged in the regions of the several joints.

The Aurignac skeleton of Combe Capelle has been associated with several others by Professor Klaatsch. By some authorities they are considered as transitional forms bridging the gap between the early Palaeolithic types and those of the existing Hominidae. But Professor Klaatsch evidently regards them as intruders and invaders of the territory previously occupied by the more lowly Neanderthaloid type.

Galley Hill.

Among the skeletons which have been thus associated with the Aurignac man, are three which have for many years attracted the attention of anthropologists. For this reason, no detailed account of their characters will be given here. Of the three instances referred to, two are the fragmentary skull-caps of the skeletons found at BrÜx and at BrÜnn in Moravia. The latter specimen is generally described as BrÜnn (91) to distinguish it from BrÜnn (85), a different and earlier find of less interest.

It will suffice to mention here that both specimens agree in possessing what may be described as a distinctly mitigated form of the characters so strongly developed in the Neanderthal skull and its allies. The Aurignac and BrÜx skulls are distinctly longer and narrower than that of BrÜnn (91). The limb bones are not available for the purposes of evidence.

The third specimen possesses a very much greater interest. It is known as the Galley Hill skeleton from the site of its discovery near Northfleet in Kent. Since it was first described by Mr E. T. Newton (in 1895), much literature has accumulated about the difficult problems presented by the Galley Hill skeleton. By some authors it is regarded as clearly associated with the other examples just mentioned (BrÜx, BrÜnn, and Aurignac). Others reject its claims to high antiquity; of the latter some are courteous, others are scornful, but all are absolutely decided. Having investigated the literature as well as I could, and having seen the cranium, I decided that the claims to great antiquity made on its behalf do really justify its inclusion. But I am quite convinced that the skeleton will give no more than very general indications. Thus the bones are fragile in the extreme. And besides this, the skull is so contorted that measurements made in the usual way must be extraordinarily misleading and the possible error is too great to be successfully allowed for (cf. Fig. 18).

To insist upon these points is the more important since nowadays various indices based on such measurements of the Galley Hill cranium will be found tabulated with data yielded by other skulls,[Pg 58]
[Pg 59] and yet no mark of qualification distinguishes the former figures.

The description of the skeleton may be given in a very few words. In the great majority of its characters, it is not seen to differ from modern human beings (though the stature is small, viz. 1600 mm., 5 ft. 3 in.). And so far as I am able to judge, the characters claimed as distinctive (separating the Galley Hill skull from modern dolichocephalic European skulls) are based upon observations containing a very large possibility of error.

Having regard to such statements, the inference is that the Galley Hill skull does not in fact differ essentially from its modern European counterparts. Similar conclusions have been formed in regard to the other parts of this skeleton. It is important to note that the specimen does not lose its interest on this account.

Summary.

From the foregoing descriptions, it follows that of the most ancient remains considered, at least three divisions can be recognised. In the first place, come the examples described as Pithecanthropus and Homo heidelbergensis (Mauer). In the second category come instances as to which no reasonable doubt as to their definitely human characters now exists (save possibly in the case of the Taubach tooth and the Hermoso atlas). Of the members of this second series, two sub-divisions here designated (A) and (B) can be demonstrated; these with the first examples complete the threefold grouping set out in the table following, with which Table A, p. 85, should be compared.

Group I.Early ancestral forms.Ex. gr. H. heidelbergensis.
Group II.
Subdivision A.Homo primigenius.	Ex. gr. La Chapelle.
Subdivision B.H. recens; with varieties		H. fossilis. Ex. gr. Galley Hill.
		H. sapiens.

Taking the first group (Pithecanthropus and Homo heidelbergensis) it is to be noticed that close correlation is quite possible. Besides this, evidence exists in each case to the effect that far-distant human ancestors are hereby revealed to their modern representatives. Of their physical characters, distinct indications are given of the possession of a small brain in a flattened brain-case associated with powerful jaws; the lower part of the face being distinguished by the absence of any projection of the chin. The teeth indicate with some degree of probability that their diet was of a mixed nature, resembling in this respect the condition of many modern savage tribes. Beyond this, the evidence is weak and indefinite. It is highly probable that these men were not arboreal: though whether they habitually assumed the distinctive erect attitude is a point still in doubt. And yet again, while the indications are not clear, it is probable that in stature they were comparable, if not superior, to the average man of to-day.

Passing from this division to the second, a region of much greater certainty is entered. Of the second group, one subdivision (A) retains certain characters of the earlier forms. Thus the massive continuous brow-ridge persists, as do also the flattened brain-case with a large mass of jaw-muscle, and a ponderous chinless lower jaw. For the rest, the points of contrast are much more prominent than those of similarity. The brain has increased in size. This increase is very considerable in absolute amount. But relatively also to the size of the possessor, the increase in brain-material is even more striking, for the stature and consequently bulk and weight are less. The thigh-bone offers important points of difference, the earlier long slender form (in P. erectus) being now replaced by a shorter, curved, thick substitute. If there has been inheritance here, marked and aberrant variation is also observed.

The second subdivision (B) remains for consideration. Here the stature has not appreciably changed. The limb bones are long, slender, and less curved than those of the other associated human beings (A), and herein the earliest type is suggested once more. But the differences occur now in the skull. The brain is as large as in the other subdivision (A) and in modern men. The brain-case is becoming elevated: the brow-ridges are undergoing reduction; this process, commencing at their outer ends, expresses to some extent the degree of reduction in the muscles and bone of the lower jaw. The teeth are smaller and the chin becomes more prominent. The distinction from modern types of humanity is often impossible.

In the next chapter some account is given of the circumstances under which the bones were discovered, and of the nature of their surroundings.