CHAPTERI.

THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST. THE THREE ATTACKS: NORTHERN OR MORAL; WESTERN OR INTELLECTUAL; EASTERN OR MILITARY.

THE NORTHERN OR MORAL ATTACK ON THE ITALIAN SYSTEM, AND ITS TEMPORARY REPULSE.

Geographical Boundaries of Italian Christianity.—Attacks upon it.

The Northern or moral Attack.—The Emperor of Germany insists on a reformation in the Papacy.—Gerbert, the representative of these Ideas, is made Pope.—They are both poisoned by the Italians.

Commencement of the intellectual Rejection of the Italian System.—It originates in the Arabian doctrine of the supremacy of Reason over Authority.—The question of Transubstantiation.—Rise and development of Scholasticism.—Mutiny among the Monks.

GregoryVII. spontaneously accepts and enforces a Reform in the Church.—Overcomes the Emperor of Germany.—Is on the point of establishing a European Theocracy.—The Popes seize the military and monetary Resources of Europe through the Crusades.

CHAPTERII.

THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST—(Continued).

THE WESTERN OR INTELLECTUAL ATTACK ON THE ITALIAN SYSTEM.

The intellectual Condition of Christendom contrasted with that of Arabian Spain.

Diffusion of Arabian intellectual Influences through France and Sicily.—Example of Saracen Science in Alhazen, and of Philosophy in Algazzali.—InnocentIII. prepares to combat these Influences.—Results to Western Europe of the Sack of Constantinople by the Catholics.

The spread of Mohammedan light Literature is followed by Heresy.—The crushing of Heresy in the South of France by armed Force, the Inquisition, mendicant Orders, auricular Confession, and Casuistry.

The rising Sentiment is embodied in FrederickII. in Sicily.—His Conflict with and Overthrow by the Pope.—Spread of Mutiny among the mendicant Orders.

CHAPTERIII.

THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST—(Continued).

OVERTHROW OF THE ITALIAN SYSTEM BY THE COMBINED INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL ATTACK.

Progress of Irreligion among the mendicant Orders.—Publication of heretical Books.—The Everlasting Gospel and the Comment on the Apocalypse.

Conflict between Philip the Fair and BonifaceVIII.—Outrage upon and death of the Pope.

The French King removes the Papacy from Rome to Avignon.—Post-mortem Trial of the Pope for Atheism and Immorality.—Causes and Consequences of the Atheism of the Pope.

The Templars fall into Infidelity.—Their Trial, Conviction, and Punishment.

Immoralities of the Papal Court at Avignon.—Its return to Rome.—Causes of the great Schism.—Disorganization of the Italian System.—Decomposition of the Papacy.—Three Popes.

The Council of Constance attempts to convert the papal Autocracy into a constitutional Monarchy.—It murders John Huss and Jerome of Prague.—Pontificate of Nicolas V.—End of the intellectual influence of the Italian System.

CHAPTERIV.

THE AGE OF FAITH IN THE WEST—(Concluded).

EFFECT OF THE EASTERN OR MILITARY ATTACK.—GENERAL REVIEW OF THE AGE OF FAITH.

The Fall of Constantinople.—Its momentary Effect on the Italian System.

General Review of the intellectual Condition in the Age of Faith.—Supernaturalism and its Logic spread all over Europe.—It is destroyed by the Jews and Arabians.—Its total Extinction.

The Jewish Physicians.—Their Acquirements and Influence.—Their Collision with the Imposture-medicine of Europe.—Their Effect on the higher Classes.—Opposition to them.

Two Impulses, the Intellectual and Moral, operating against the MediÆval state of Things.—Downfall of the Italian System through the intellectual Impulse from the West and the moral from the North.—Action of the former through Astronomy.—Origin of the moral Impulse.—Their conjoint irresistible Effect.—Discovery of the state of Affairs in Italy.—The Writings of Machiavelli.—What the Church hadactually done.

Entire Movement of the Italian System determined from a consideration of the four Revolts against it.

CHAPTERV.

APPROACH OF THE AGE OF REASON IN EUROPE.

IT IS PRECEDED BY MARITIME DISCOVERY.

Consideration of the definite Epochs of Social Life.

Experimental Philosophy emerging in the Age of Faith.

The Age of Reason ushered in by Maritime Discovery and the rise of European Criticism.

Maritime Discovery.—The three great Voyages.

Columbus discovers America.—De Gama doubles the Cape and reaches
India.—Magellan circumnavigates the Earth.—The Material and intellectual Results of each of these Voyages.

Digression on the Social Condition of America.—In isolated human Societies the process of Thought and of Civilization is always the same.—Man passes through a determinate succession of Ideas and embodies them in determinate Institutions.—The state of Mexico and Peru proves the influence of Law in the development of Man.

CHAPTERVI.

APPROACH OF THE AGE OF REASON IN EUROPE.

IT IS PRECEDED BY THE RISE OF CRITICISM.

Restoration of Greek Literature and Philosophy in Italy.—Development of Modern Languages and Rise of Criticism.—Imminent Danger to Latin Ideas.

Invention of Printing.—It revolutionizes the Communication of Knowledge, especially acts on Public Worship, and renders the Pulpit secondary.

The Reformation.—Theory of Supererogation and Use of Indulgences.—The Right of Individual Judgment asserted.—Political History of the Origin, Culmination, and Check of the Reformation.—Its Effects in Italy.

Causes of the Arrest of the Reformation.—Internal Causes in Protestantism.—External in the Policy of Rome.—The Counter-Reformation.—Inquisition.—Jesuits.—Secession of the great Critics.—Culmination of the Reformation in America.—Emergence of Individual Liberty of Thought.

CHAPTERVII.

DIGRESSION ON THE CONDITION OF ENGLAND AT THE END OF THE AGE OF FAITH.

RESULTS PRODUCED BY THE AGE OF FAITH.

Condition of England at the Suppression of the Monasteries.

Condition of England at the close of the seventeenth Century.—Locomotion, Literature, Libraries.—Social and private Life of the Laity and Clergy.—Brutality in the Administration of Law.—Profligacy of Literature.—The Theatre, its three Phases.—Miracle, Moral, and Real Plays.

Estimate of the Advance made in the Age of Faith.—Comparison with that already made in the Age of Reason.

CHAPTERVIII.

THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON.

REJECTION OF AUTHORITY AND TRADITION, AND ADOPTION OF SCIENTIFIC TRUTH.—DISCOVERY OF THE TRUE POSITION OF THE EARTH IN THE UNIVERSE.

Ecclesiastical Attempt to enforce the Geocentric Doctrine that the Earth is the Centre of the Universe, and the most important Body in it.

The Heliocentric Doctrine that the Sun is the Centre of the Solar System, and the Earth a small Planet, comes gradually into Prominence.

Struggle between the Ecclesiastical and Astronomical Parties.—Activity of the Inquisition.—Burning of Bruno.—Imprisonment of Galileo.

Invention of the Telescope.—Complete Overthrow of the Ecclesiastical Idea.—Rise of Physical Astronomy.—Newton.—Rapid and resistless Development of all Branches of Natural Philosophy.

Final Establishment of the Doctrine that the Universe is under the Dominion of mathematical, and, therefore, necessary Laws.

Progress of Man from Anthropocentric Ideas to the Discovery of his true Position and Insignificance in the Universe.

CHAPTERIX.

THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON—(Continued).

HISTORY OF THE EARTH.—HER SUCCESSIVE CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF TIME.

Oriental and Occidental Doctrines respecting the Earth in Time.—Gradual Weakening of the latter by astronomical Facts, and the Rise of Scientific Geology.

Impersonal Manner in which the Problem was eventually solved, chiefly through Facts connected with Heat.

Proofs of limitless Duration from inorganic Facts.—Igneous and Aqueous Rocks.

Proofs of the same from organic Facts.—Successive Creations and Extinctions of living Forms, and their contemporaneous Distribution.

Evidences of a slowly declining Temperature, and, therefore, of a long Time.—The Process of Events by Catastrophe and by Law.—Analogy of Individual and Race Development.—Both are determined by unchangeable Law.

Conclusion that the Plan of the Universe indicates a Multiplicity of Worlds in infinite Space, and a Succession of Worlds in infinite Time.

CHAPTERX.

THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON—(Continued).

THE NATURE AND RELATIONS OF MAN.

Position of Man according to the Heliocentric and Geocentric Theories.

Of Animal Life.—The transitory Nature of living Forms.—Relations of Plants and Animals.—Animals are Aggregates of Matter expending Force originally derived from the Sun.

The Organic Series.—Man a Member of it.—His Position determined by Anatomical and Physiological Investigation of his Nervous System.—Its triple Form: Automatic, Instinctive, Intellectual.

The same progressive Development is seen in individual Man, in the entire animal Series, and in the Life of the Globe.—They are all under the Control of an eternal, universal, irresistible Law.

The Aim of Nature is intellectual Development, and human Institutions must conform thereto.

Summary of the Investigation of the Position of Man.—Production of Inorganic and Organic Forms by the Sun.—Nature of Animals and their Series.—Analogies and Differences between them and Man.—The Soul—The World.

CHAPTERXI.

THE EUROPEAN AGE OF REASON—(Continued).

THE UNION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY.

European Progress in the Acquisition of exact Knowledge.—Its Resemblance to that of Greece.

Discoveries respecting the Air.—Its mechanical and chemical Properties.—Its Relation to Animals and Plants.—The Winds.—Meteorology.—Sounds.—Acoustic Phenomena.

Discoveries respecting the Ocean.—Physical and chemical Phenomena.—Tides and Currents.—Clouds.—Decomposition of Water.

Discoveries respecting other material Substances.—Progress of Chemistry.

Discoveries respecting Electricity, Magnetism, Light, Heat.

Mechanical Philosophy and Inventions.—Physical Instruments.—The Result illustrated by the Cotton Manufacture—Steam-engine—Bleaching—Canals—Railways.—Improvements in the Construction of Machinery.—Social Changes produced.—Its Effect on intellectual Activity.

The scientific Contributions of various Nations, and especially of Italy.

CHAPTERXII.

CONCLUSION—THE FUTURE OF EUROPE.

Summary of the Argument presented in this Book respecting the mental Progress of Europe.

Intellectual Development is the Object of Individual Life.—It is also the Result of social Progress.

Nations arriving at Maturity instinctively attempt their own intellectual Organization.—Example of the Manner in which this has been done in China.—Its Imperfection.—What it has accomplished.

The Organization of public Intellect is the End to which European Civilization is tending.

INDEX.