Within the tent, in the center, was the fireplace (uneȼĕ), formed by excavating a small hollow. Beside this was erected a forked post (isagȼĕ), on which was hung the apparatus for suspending a kettle over the fire. This apparatus was called ȼexe uȼugacke by the Ponka, literally, "that by means of which the kettle is hung." The Omaha have two names for it, uhaⁿ uȼugacke, and uȼugackegȼe, the last syllable of the latter name referring to the attitude of the post. Around the fireplace was a circular space for the feet of the people as they sat about the fire. The couches of the occupants of the tent were arranged outside of and all around this circular space.

Beds and Bedding.

A couch was formed by laying down two or three winter hides dried with the hair on. These hides were placed around the fireplace at a safe distance. In the earth lodges, according to Joseph La FlÈche, the Omaha used sahi, or grass mats, for seats, as is the present custom of the Winnebago; but at night they reclined on dressed hides with thick hair on them, and covered themselves with similar hides.

For pillows they used ibehiⁿ or iⁿbehiⁿ. When the vegetation was about 3 inches high in the spring, the Indians killed deer and pulled off the hair in order to remove the thin skin or tissue next to it. This latter, when thoroughly dried, is smooth and white, resembling parchment. It was used for pillows and moccasin-strings. When used for pillows the case was filled with goose feathers or the hair of the deer until it was about 2 feet long and 9 inches high. During the day, and whenever there was occasion, they were used as seats; but if none could be had, the people sat on winter robes or hides forming the couches.1 Back of the couches and next to the interior tent-poles were placed the baggage, sacks of corn, and other household properties.

The upright tent is one form of the Dakota "wakeya," the plural of which, "wakeyapi," undoubtedly gave rise to the familiar "wickiup" of the plains, and also to "wÄ-ka-yo" of Morgan.2

Cradles.

A board of convenient size, usually about a yard long and a foot wide, was selected to form a cradle or uȼuhe. No pillow was needed. A soft skin ([p]aqȼuqaha ȼaⁿ) covered with plenty of thick hair was laid on the board, and on it was placed the infant.

In the annexed figures, a is the ĭnduaȼisiⁿkaⁿhe, the object painted on the board at the end where the infant's head is laid; b is the ĭndeiȼidĭndiⁿ ("that which is drawn taut over the face"), the two strings of beads and sinew or thread (sometimes made of red calico alone), which keep in place the fan, etc.; the fan (ĭndeagani), which is suspended from a bow of wood, (c) is about 6 inches square, and is now made of interwoven sinew on which beads have been strung. Occasionally thimbles and other bright objects dangle from the bottom of the fan. The iȼaȼistage (d) is the band by which the infant is fastened to the cradle.

Children's Swings.

For swings the ends of two withes of buffalo hide were secured to four trees or posts which formed the corners of a parallelogram. A blanket was thrown across the withes and folded over on them. The infant was laid on top of the fold and swung from side to side without falling.

Brooms.

Brooms were of two kinds. One form was made of sticks tied together, and was used for sweeping the ground outside of the tent or earth lodge, and the interior of the earth lodge, except the fireplace. The other kind was made of goose or turkey feathers, and was used for sweeping the fireplace of an earth lodge.

Pottery.

Pottery has not been made by the Omaha for more than fifty years. The art of making it has been forgotten by the tribe.

Mortar and Pestles.

A mortar was made by burning a large hole in a round knot or piece of wood about 7 inches in diameter. The lower end was sharpened to a point, which was thrust into the ground when needed for use. After putting corn in a mortar of this description, the woman grasped the wooden pestle in the middle, with the larger end upward; the smaller end, which was about an inch in diameter, was put into the mortar. The operation of pounding corn among the Omaha was called "he." The mortar (uhe) and pestle (wehe) were both made commonly of elm, although sometimes they were fashioned of white oak. Mortars were of various sizes, some of them measuring 2 feet in diameter. Pestles were always of hard and heavy wood, and fully 3 feet long, taperring from 4 inches to an inch in diameter.

Spoons, Ladles and Drinking Vessels.

Spoons were made of horn, wood, or pottery. The black spoons made of buffalo horn (ʇehe sabĕ), are not used by such Omaha as belong to the Buffalo gentes (IÑkesabĕ, Ȼatada, [T]esinde, etc.) which may not touch a buffalo head. Other horn spoons of light color are made of cow horn. These are of modern origin. Wooden spoons (jaⁿʇehe) were made of knobs or knots of trees. Spoons made of buffalo horn are found among the Omaha and Ponka, but the Osage, Kansa, and Kwapa use clam shells (ʇihaba, in Ȼegiha; tcÜhaba, tcÜhuba, in Kansa), so the Kansa call a small spoon, tcÜhaba jiÑga. Spoons of buffalo horn had their handles variously ornamented by notches and other rude carving, often terminating in the head of a bird, the neck or handle of each being elevated at an angle of 50° or 60° with the bowl, which, was about 3 inches in width by about 5 in length. As the handle of such a spoon usually terminates in a head or hook, it was impossible for it to slip into the bowl when the hook rested on the outside of the rim of the bowl.

Food was served in bowls of a very wide and simple form and of various sizes, generally carved out of large knots of wood. These served as drinking cups (niiȼÁtaⁿ), but now cups of tin or earthenware are used for that purpose.

Water Vessels

When pottery was made, they used bowls and kettles. Some used wooden bowls of different sizes, the largest being about 2 feet in diameter. When they went on the hunt, they used the Ínijeha (or sack made of the muscular coating of the buffalo paunch, by filling with, grass to make it stand out and keep its shape until dried). When the Ínijeha was filled with water the mouth was tied, and it was kept covered and in the shade that it might remain cool. After being used for a few days it became strong smelling, and was thrown away, another taking its place. Some preferred the "ʇenănde uqȼaha ȼaⁿ" or pericardium(?) of the buffalo, which is like sinew. This does not smell unpleasant, even when used for seven or ten days. But at the expiration of that time it is unfit for further service.

Jugs have been introduced by the traders.

Other Vessels.

Provision sacks or parflÈche cases were made of dried buffalo hide. When used for carrying the dried meat, they were called weÁbastÁ. After two or three years' use they became soft and were fit only for making moccasin soles. These sacks had the hair taken off, and were sometimes made in trunk fashion.

Fruit baskets were of three kinds. The Ponka made them of the bark of a tree, called tawÁߵaⁿhe, which is found on the old Ponka reservation in Dakota. Northern Indians make boats of this bark. The Omaha do not find the tree on their land, so they make the fruit baskets of other kinds of bark. The three kinds of baskets are as follows: Naⁿpa Úȼisĕ, used for chokecherries; agȼaÑkamaÑge Úȼisĕ, used for raspberries; and bact Úȼisĕ, used for strawberries. When the Ponka wished to make the baskets, they stripped off the bark in horizontal sections, not pulling upward or downward.

In modern times the Omaha have learned to make sacks of thread of different colors drawn from black, red, blue, and white blankets. Different figures are woven. Each sack is about a foot deep, 16 inches from the mouth to the opposite side, and from 2 to 2-1/2 feet long. The opening is on one of the long sides, and when the articles are put in a gathering string is drawn and tied.

Hoes and Axes.

For hoes, the Omaha used the shoulder blades of the buffalo. Axes and hatchets are now made of iron, hence, the Omaha name, maⁿze-pe, sharp iron. But the Kansa have the ancient name, maⁿhi-spe, answering to the Dakota, waⁿhiⁿ-kpe, sharp flint. The hatchet is distinguished from the ax by adding "jiÑga," small. Some of the stone axes and hatchets have been found on the Omaha reservation, but they could hardly have been used for cutting. It is not known what tools were used for felling trees.

Knives.

Knives were made of stone. A prominent butte, near the old Ponka agency, Nebraska, is known as "MÁhiⁿ-ʇu," signifying blue knife, from the character of the stone with which its surface is covered. It is several miles from the mouth of Ponka creek and nearly opposite the month of Choteau creek, South Dakota.

Implements Connected with Fire.

In former ages, the Ȼegiha made fire by rubbing or turning a stick round and round between the hands. On the present Omaha reservation, and in that region, the Omaha use elm roots for that purpose. In the country called [P]izÁbahÉhe, near the source of Elkhorn river, there is a grass known as "duÁduÁhi," which has about a hundred fine shoots from each root, which is half the size of the head. The stalk was used for hand drills and fire sticks. One stalk was cut almost flat, and the man puts his feet on the ends to steady them. Then, holding the other stick in his hands, with one end touching the stalk on the ground, he turned it round and round till the friction produced fire. Sometimes a small quantity of dry sand was placed on the flat stick. The same flat stick answered for several occasions. When the cavity made by turning the hand drill became too large, the point of contact was shifted to another part of the flat stick, and so on until the whole of that stick was used, when it was thrown away and another was obtained. DuÁduÁhi, according to Mr. Francis La Flesche, may be found in Judiciary square, Washington, District of Columbia. After the coming of the white man, but before the introduction of friction matches, which are now used by the whole tribe, the Omaha used flints and tinder for making fire.

Spits for roasting, etc., nÁqpe, or wÉbasnaⁿ, were made of any kind of wood.

For tongs they used the [p]ediȼaȼisande ("fire-holder"), made by slitting one end of a stick. This implement was also called, jaⁿ jiÑga nini ibista ("the stick that presses the fire against the tobacco"), because it was used for lighting pipes.

Smoking Paraphernalia.

The pipes in use among the Omaha are of three kinds: the sacred pipe (niniba waqube, mysterious pipe), including the war pipes and those used by the chiefs in making peace; the niniba weawaⁿ or calumet (illustrated in figure 315), used in the calumet dance or dance of adoption,1 and the hatchet pipe or maⁿzepe niniba, introduced since the coming of the white man. One form of the pipe used on ordinary Tobacco pouches (niniÚjiha) were made of deer or antelope skin, and were ornamented with porcupine quills or a fringe of deerskin. Sometimes buffalo bladders were used for this purpose. The women used them as receptacles for their porcupine quills.

occasions is shown in figure 316. This pipe has a bowl of catlinite, and the stem is decorated with horsehair.

Equipage for Horses.

Saddles (cÁnakÁgȼe) were in use before the coming of the whites. They were made of wood, around which was wrapped hide, while still "ʇaha-nuʞa" (green or soft). According to Joseph La FlÈche these saddles did not rub sores on the backs of the native horses (Indian ponies), but Dougherty1 said, in 1819, "The Indians are generally cruel horse-masters, perhaps in a great measure through necessity; the backs of their horses are very often sore and ulcerated, from the friction of the rude saddle, which is fashioned after the Spanish manner, being elevated at the pummel and croup, and resting on skin saddle cloths without padding." They ride very well, and make frequent use of the whip and their heels, the latter being employed instead of spurs.

For bridles and halters they used strips of hide, out of which material they made also lariats. The bridle used consisted of a withe, one end of which was wrapped two or three times around the animal's lower jaw, while the other was held in the hand, forming but a single rein. This did not hinder the rider from guiding his horse, as he was able to turn him to the left by pressing the single rein against the animal's neck, as well as by the use of the right heel against its side. When he wished to turn to the right, he pulled the rein and pressed his left heel against the horse's side.

Whips were of three kinds. The wahÍ wÉgasapi was attached to a bone handle. The handle of a jaⁿukeȼiⁿ wÉgasapi was made of common wood. That of a zaⁿzÍ wÉgasapi was made of Osage orange wood, which is very hard. The whip was attached to the wrist by a broad band, which passed through a hole near the end of the handle. The handle was about 15 inches long and was very stout. A specimen that has been deposited in the National Museum (a gift to the author from an Omaha) has a lash 2 feet long, composed of 8 thongs one-fifth of an inch wide. These are plaited together in one rounded plait for 18 inches, the rest of the lash being in 2 plaits of 4 thongs each, knotted near the ends.

The lasso was called maⁿtanah-Íȼize, i.e., "that by which (a) wild (horse) is taken." It was made by taking the hair from the head of a buffalo and plaiting it into a very strong rope as thick as one's thumb. This rope was called "ʇaha-ȼisaⁿ," and was utilized by the Omaha and Ponka instead of the common lasso for catching wild horses in northwestern Nebraska. One end of the rope was formed into a noose large enough to slip over a horse's head, and the ends of this noose were secured to a long pole by small cords. The other end of the rope, arranged in a coil, was fastened to the belt or waist of the man. He rode with the pole held in one hand and tried to thrust the noose in front of a horse. When he succeeded in passing the noose over the head of an animal, he threw away the stick, which had become separated from the noose, and held the rope alone, which he pulled toward him. When the horse was caught, the man made an ĭndÚȼiciⁿ. (bridle or face cover), being careful to place some buffalo hair over the nose and under the chin, to guard against paining the horse, whose eyes remained uncovered.

Trappings for the saddle (sĭnde-ehÉȼĕ) were used. Some years ago a specimen of Omaha trapping was presented by the writer to the Anthropological Society of Washington, and subsequently was deposited in the National Museum.

Traveling Gear.

Snow-shoes (sÉ-hiⁿbe) were worn by the Omaha and Ponka when they traversed a region, north of their modern, habitat.

For traveling on foot a staff (hÍ-maÑgȼe) was used when it was necessary to pass over mountains; also when, heavy loads had to be carried. This staff differed from the crutch (Í-maÑgȼe).

The women had mÁcaʞa^n, or straps, for aiding them in carrying loads of wood, etc.

Boats.

When they wished to cross streams they made hide boats, or mandÉha. These were manufactured from dried buffalo hides, which were sewed together with sinew, and so tightly that no water could penetrate the seams. Ten branches of red willow were placed within, the ends being bent upward and fastened by withes to two other saplings, which extended the whole length of the boat at the inside of the gunwale. The ten pieces were the ʇÍci-Íki[p]Ádaⁿ. The rudder or steering oar (Íȼisaⁿȼĕ) was fashioned like the oars (mandÚȼugÁhi), with the blade flat and of the breadth of two hands. The rowers (uȼÚgahi akÁ) sat near the bow, and the steersman (ȼisaⁿȼa akÁ) took his seat at the stern.

Musical Instruments.

Battles were of five kinds, [P]exe were generally gourds; wataⁿ [p]exe, gourd rattles, were always round, and were partially filled with seed, fine shot, or gravel, [T]ahÁnuʞa [p]Éxe, green-hide rattles, were of two sorts, one of which is "ȼigÚje," bent a little. Specimens of this form are in the National Museum.

Two kinds of rattles were called ʇa-cÁge, i.e., "deers-claws," from the composition of one variety, though the other was made of molars of the elk.

The Omaha used three styles of drums. The ȼÉxe-gaʞÚ bȼÁska, or flat drum, is illustrated by a specimen (no. 21675) in the National Museum. The ȼÉxe-gaʞÚ gadÁje is made of buffalo hide, cowhide, or the skin of a horse. An example of this drum (no. 24682) is also in the National Museum, and is illustrated by the accompanying figure 317. The jaⁿ ȼÉxe-gaʞÚ, or ʞÚge ȼÉxe-gaʞÚ, is a wooden or box drum, represented by the accompanying figure 318, also from a specimen (no. 58610) in the National Museum.

Whistles were made of elder (baʇÚci-hi, or popgun wood) by pushing out the pith. No holes were made in the sides of the tube.

NisÚde ʇaÑga, or large flutes, were made of red cedar. A branch was cut off, rounded, split open with a knife, and hollowed out; then six holes were made in the side of one of them, and the halves were stuck together again. When one of these instruments is blown it produces quavering notes. The best specimens were made by [P]Áȼiⁿ-ʇaÑga, Big Pawnee.

The large flute is illustrated in figure 319.1 WahÍ nisÚde, or bone flutes, were made of the long bones from the eagle wing. These small flutes have only one hole. Reed flutes, ȼÍqȼe nisÚde, were made of a kind of reed which grows south of the Omaha territory, probably in Kansas. The Omaha obtained the reeds from some of the southern tribes and made them into flutes having but one hole each.