In the home artificial light exerts its influence upon every one. Without artificial lighting the family circle may not have become the important civilizing influence that it is to-day. Certainly civilized man now shudders at the thought of spending his evenings in the light of the fire upon the hearth or of a burning splinter.

The importance of artificial light is emphatically impressed upon the householder when he is forced temporarily to depend upon the primitive candle through the failure of the modern system of lighting. He flees from his home to that of his more fortunate neighbor, or he retires in his helplessness to awaken in the morning with a blessing for daylight. He cannot conceive of happiness and recreation in the homes of a century or two ago, when a few candles or an oil-lamp or two were the sole sources of light. But when the electric or gas service is again restored he relapses shortly into his former placid indifference toward the wonderfully efficient and adequate artificial light of the present age.

Until recently artificial light was costly and the householder in common with other users of light did not concern himself with the question of adequate and artistic lighting. His chief aim was to utilize as little as possible, for cost was always foremost in his mind. The development of the science of light-production has been so rapid during the past generation that adequate, efficient, and cheap artificial light finds mankind unconsciously viewing lighting with the same attitude as he displays toward his food and fuel bills. Another consequence of this rapid development is that mankind does not know how to extract the joy from modern artificial light. This is readily demonstrated by analyzing the lighting of middle-class homes.

The cost of light has been discussed in another chapter and it has been shown that it has decreased enormously in a century. It is now the most potential agency in the home when viewed from the standpoint of cost. The average householder pays less than twenty dollars per year for ever-ready light throughout his home. For about five cents per day the average family enjoys all the blessings of modern lighting, which is sufficient proof that cost is an insignificant item.

In order to simplify the discussion of lighting the home the terminology of electric-lighting will be used. The principles expounded apply as well to gas as to electricity, and owing to the ingenuity of the gas-lighting experts, the possibilities of gas-lighting are extensive despite its handicaps. There are some places in the home, such as the kitchen and basement, where lighting is purely utilitarian in the narrow sense, but in most of the rooms the esthetic or, more broadly, the psychological aspects of lighting should dominate. Pure utility is always a by-product of artistic lighting and furthermore, the lighting effects will be without glare when they satisfy all the demands of esthetics.In dealing with lighting in the home the householder should concentrate his attention upon lighting effects. Unfortunately, he is not taught to do so, for everywhere he turns for help he finds the discussion directed toward fixtures and lamps instead of toward lighting effects. However, these are merely links in the chain from the meter to the eye. Lamps are of interest from the standpoint of quantity and quality of light, and fixtures are of importance chiefly as distributers of light. These details are merely means to an end and the end is the lighting effect. Of course, the fixtures are more important as objects than the wires because they are visible and should harmonize with the general decorative and architectural scheme.

The home is the theater of life full of various moods and occasions; hence the lighting of a home should be flexible. A degree of variety should be possible. Controls, wiring, outlets, and fixtures should conspire to provide this variety. At the present time the average householder does not give much attention to lighting until he purchases fixtures. It is probable that he thought of it when he laid out or approved the wiring, but usually he does not consider it seriously until he visits the fixture-dealer to purchase fixtures. And then unfortunately the fixture-dealer does not light his home; he does not sell the householder lighting-effects designed to meet the requirements of the particular home; he sells merely fixtures.

Unfortunately there are few fixtures available which have definite aims in lighting as demanded by the home. Of the great variety of fixtures available there are many artistic objects, but it is obvious that little attention is given to their design from the standpoint of lighting. That the fixture-dealer usually thinks of fixtures as objects and gives little or no thought to lighting effects is apparent from his conversation and from his display. He exhibits fixtures usually en masse and seldom attempts to illustrate the lighting effects produced in the room.

The foregoing criticisms are presented to emphasize the fact that throughout the field of lighting the great possibilities which have been opened by modern light-sources are not fully appreciated. The point at which to begin to design the lighting for a home is the wiring. Unfortunately this is too often done by a contractor who has given no special thought to the possibilities of lighting and to the requirements in wiring and switches necessary in order to realize them. At this point the householder should attempt to form an opinion as to the relative values. Is artificial lighting important enough to warrant an expenditure of two per cent. of the total investment in the home and its furnishings? The answer will depend upon the extent to which artificial light is appreciated. It appears that four or five per cent. is not too much if it is admitted that the artificial lighting system ranks next to the heating plant in importance and that these two are the most important features of an interior of a residence. A switch or a baseboard outlet costs an insignificant sum but either may pay for itself many times in the course of a few years through its utility or convenience.

It appears best to take up this subject room by room because the requirements vary considerably, but in order to be specific in the discussions, a middle-class home will be chosen. The more important rooms will be treated first and various simple details will be touched upon because, after all, the proper lighting of a home is realized by attention to small details.

The living-room is the scene of many functions. It serves at times for the quiet gathering of the family, each member devoted to reading. At another time it may contain a happy company engaged at cards or in conversation. The lighting requirements vary from a spot or two of light to a flood of light. Excepting in the small living-rooms there does not appear to be a single good reason for a ceiling fixture. It is nearly always in the field of vision when occupants are engaged in conversation, and for reading purposes the portable lamp of satisfactory design has no rival. Wall brackets cannot supply general lighting without being too bright for comfort. If they are heavily shaded they may still emit plenty of light upward, but the adjacent spots on the walls or ceiling will generally be too bright. Wall brackets may be beautiful ornaments and decorative spots of light and have a right to exist as such, but they cannot be safely depended upon for adequate general lighting on those occasions which demand such lighting.

As a general principle, it is well to visualize the furniture in the room when looking at the architect's drawings and it is advantageous even to cut out pieces of paper representing the furniture in scale. By placing these on the drawings the furnished room is readily visualized and the locations of baseboard outlets become evident. It appears that the best method of lighting a living-room is by means of decorative portable lamps. Such lamps are really lighting-furniture, for they aid in decorating and in furnishing the room at all times. A number of these lamps in the living-room insures great flexibility in the lighting, and the light may be kept localized if desired so that the room is restful. A room whose ceiling and walls are brilliantly illuminated is not so comfortable for long periods as one in which these areas are dimly lighted. Furthermore, the latter is more conducive to reading and to other efforts at concentration. The furniture may be readily shifted as desired and the portable lamps may be rearranged.

Such lighting serves all the purposes of the living-room excepting those requiring a flood of light, but it is easy to conceal elaborate lighting mechanisms underneath the shades of portable lamps. Several types of portable lamps are available which supply an indirect component as well as direct light. The former illuminates the ceiling with a flood of light without any discomforting glare. Such a lighting-unit is one of the most satisfactory for the home, for two distinct effects and a combination of these introduce a desirable element of variety into the lighting. Not less than four and preferably six baseboard outlets should be provided in a living-room of moderate size. One outlet on the mantel is also to be desired for connecting decorative candlesticks, and brackets above the fireplace are of ornamental value. Although the absence of ceiling fixtures improves the appearance of the room, wiring may be provided for ceiling outlets in new houses as a matter of insurance against the possible needs of the future. When ceiling fixtures are not used, switches may be provided for the mantel brackets or certain baseboard outlets in order that light may be had upon entering the room.

The merits of a portable lamp may be ascertained before purchasing by actual demonstration. Some of them are not satisfactory for reading-lamps, owing to the shape of the shade or to the position of the lamps. The utility of a table lamp may be determined by placing it upon a table and noting the spread of light while seated in a chair beside it. A floor lamp may also be tested very easily. A miniature floor lamp about four feet in height with an appropriate shade provides an excellent lamp for reading purposes because it may be placed by the side of a chair or moved about independent of other furniture. A tall floor lamp often serves for lighting the piano, but small piano lamps may be found which are decorative as well as serviceable in illuminating the music without glare.

The dining-room presents an entirely different problem for the setting is very definite. The dining-table is the most important area in the room and it should be the most brilliantly illuminated area in the room. A demonstration of this point is thoroughly convincing. The decorator who designs wall brackets for the dining-room is interested in beautiful objects of art and not in a proper lighting effect. The fixture-dealer, having fixtures to sell and not recognizing that he could fill a crying need as a lighting specialist, is as likely to sell a semi-indirect or an indirect lighting fixture as he is to provide a properly balanced lighting effect with the table brightly illuminated. The indirect and semi-indirect units illuminate the ceiling predominantly with the result that this bright area distracts attention from the table. A brightly illuminated table holds the attention of the diners. Light attracts and a semi-darkness over the remainder of the room crowds in with a result that is far more satisfactory than that of a dining-room flooded with light.

The old-fashioned dome which hung over the dining-table has served well, for it illuminated the table and left the remainder of the room dimly lighted. But its wide aperture made it necessary to suspend it rather low in order that the lamps within should not be visible. It is an obtrusive fixture and despite its excellent lighting effect, it went out of style. But satisfactory lighting principles never become antiquated, and as taste in fixtures changes the principles may be retained in new fixtures. Modern domes are available which are excellent for the dining-room if the lamps are well concealed. The so-called showers are satisfactory if the shades are dense and of such shape as to conceal the lamps from the eyes. Various modifications readily suggest themselves to the alert fixture-designer. Even the housewife can do much with silk shades when the principle of lighting the dining-table is understood. The so-called candelabra have been sold extensively for dining-rooms and they are fairly satisfactory if equipped with shades which reflect much of the light downward. Semi-indirect and indirect fixtures have many applications in lighting, but they do not provide the proper effect for a dining-room.

It is easy to make a special fixture which will send a component of light downward to the table and will permit a small amount of diffused light to the ceiling and walls. If a daylight lamp is used for the direct component, the table will appear very beautiful. Under this light the linen and china are white, flowers and decorations on the china appear in their full colors, the silver is attractive, and the various color-harmonies such as butter, paprika, and baked potato are enticing. This is an excellent place for a daylight lamp if diffused light illuminating the remainder of the room and the faces of the diners is of a warm tone obtained by warm yellow lamps or by filtering these components of the light through orange shades. The ceiling fixture should be provided with two circuits and switches. In some cases it is easy to provide a dangling plug for connecting such electric equipment as a toaster, percolator, or candlesticks. Two candlesticks are effective on the buffet, but usually the smallest normal-voltage lamps available give too much light. Miniature lamps may be used with a small transformer, or two regular lamps may be connected in series. At least two baseboard outlets are convenient.

The foregoing deals with the more or less essential lighting of a dining-room, but there are various practicable additional lighting effects which add much charm to certain occasions. Colored light of low intensity obtained from a cove or from "flower-boxes" fastened upon the wall is very pleasing. If a cove is provided around the room, two circuits containing orange and blue lamps respectively will supply two colors widely differing in effect. By mixing the two a beautiful rose tint may be obtained. This equipment has been installed with much satisfaction. A simpler method of obtaining a similar effect is to use imitation flower-boxes plugged into wall outlets. Artificial foliage adds to the charm of these boxes. The colored light is merely to add another effect on special occasions and its intensity should never be high. In the dining-room such unusual effects are not out of place and they need not be garish.

The sun-room partakes of the characteristics of the living-room to some extent, but, it being smaller, a semi-indirect fixture may be satisfactory for general illumination. However, a portable lamp which supplies an indirect component of light besides the direct light serves admirably for reading as well as for flooding the room with light when necessary. Two or three baseboard outlets are desirable for attaching decorative or even purely utilitarian lamps. The sun-room is an excellent place for utilizing "flower-box" fixtures decorated with artificial foliage. In fact, a central fixture may assume the appearance of a "hanging basket" of foliage. The library and den offer no problems differing from those already discussed in the living-room. A careful consideration of the disposition of the furniture will reveal the best positions for the outlets. In a small library wall brackets may serve as decorative spots of light and if the shades are pendent they may serve as lamps for reading purposes. In both these rooms an excellent reading-lamp is desired, but it may be decorative as well. Wall outlets may be desired for decorative portable lamps upon the bookcases.

The sleeping-room, which commonly is also a dressing-room, often exhibits the errors of a lack of foresight in lighting. In most rooms of this character there is one best arrangement of furniture and if this is determined it is easy to ascertain where the windows and outlets should be located. The windows may usually be arranged for twin beds as well as for a single one with obvious advantages of flexibility in arrangement. With the position of the bureau determined it is easy to locate outlets for two wall brackets, one on each side, about sixty-six inches above the floor and about five feet apart. When the brackets are equipped with dense upright shades, the figure before the mirror is well illuminated without glare and sufficient light reaches the ceiling to illuminate the whole room.

A baseboard outlet should be available for small portable lamps which may be used upon the bureau or for electric heating devices. The same is true for the dressing-table; indeed, two small decorative lamps on the table serve better than high wall brackets owing to the fact that the user is seated. A baseboard outlet near the head of the bed or between the beds is convenient for a reading-lamp and for other purposes. An outlet in the center of the ceiling controlled by a convenient switch may be installed on building, as insurance against future needs or desires. But a single lighting-unit in the center of the ceiling does not serve adequately the needs at the bureau and dressing-table. In fact, two wall brackets properly located with respect to the bureau afford a lighting much superior for all purposes in the bedroom to that produced by a ceiling fixture.

In the bath-room the principal problem is to illuminate the person, especially the face, before the mirror. Many mistakes are made at this point, despite the simplicity of the solution. In order to see the image of an object in a mirror, the object must be illuminated. It is best to do this in a straightforward manner by means of a small lighting-unit on each side of the mirror at a height of five feet. Both sides of the face will be well illuminated and the light-sources are low enough to eliminate objectionable shadows. The units may be merely pull-chain sockets containing frosted or opal lamps. A center bracket or a single unit suspended from the ceiling is not as satisfactory as the two brackets. These afford enough light for the entire bath-room. A baseboard or wall outlet is convenient for connecting a heater, curling-iron, and other electrically heated devices.

OBTAINING TWO DIFFERENT MOODS IN A ROOM BY A PORTABLE LAMP WHICH SUPPLIES DIRECT AND INDIRECT COMPONENTS OF LIGHT

The sewing-room, which in the middle-class home is usually a small room, is sometimes used as a bedroom. A ceiling fixture will supply adequate general lighting, but a baseboard outlet should be available for a short floor lamp or a table lamp for sewing purposes. An intense local light is necessary for this occupation, which severely taxes the eyes. A so-called daylight lamp serves very well in this case.

In the kitchen the wall brackets are easily located after the positions of the range, work-table, sink, etc., are determined. A bracket for each is advisable unless they are so located that one will serve two purposes. It is customary to have a combination fixture for gas and electricity. This is often suspended from the center of the ceiling, but inasmuch as the gas-light cannot be close to the ceiling, the fixture extends so far downward as to become a nuisance. Furthermore, a light-source hung low from the center of the ceiling is in such a position that the worker in the kitchen usually works in his shadow. If a ceiling outlet is used it should be an electrical socket at the ceiling. The combination fixture is best placed on the wall as a bracket. The so-called daylight lamps are valuable in the kitchen.

In the basement a generous supply of ceiling outlets adds much to the satisfaction of a basement. One in each locker, one before the furnace, and a large daylight lamp above but to one side of the laundry trays are worth many times their cost. Furthermore, a wall socket for the electric iron and washing-machine is a convenience very much appreciated.

In the stairways convenient three-way switches for each of the ceiling fixtures represents the best practice. A baseboard outlet in the upper hall affords a connection for a decorative lamp and pays for itself many times as a place to attach the vacuum-cleaner from which all the rooms on that floor may be served. In vestibules and on porches ceiling fixtures controlled by means of convenient switches are satisfactory. The entrance hall may be made to express hospitality by means of lighting which should be adequate and artistic.

An adequate supply of outlets and wall switches is not costly and they pay generous dividends. With a scanty supply of these, the possibilities of lighting are very much curtailed. There is nothing intricate about locating switches and outlets, so the householder may do this himself, or he may view critically the plans as submitted. The chief difficulties are to throw aside his indifference and to readjust his ideas and values. It may be confidently stated that the possibilities of lighting far outrank most of the features which contribute to the cost of a house and of its furnishings.

After considering the requirements and decorative schemes of the various rooms the householder should be competent to judge the appropriateness of the lighting effects obtained from fixtures which the dealer displays, but he should insist upon a demonstration. If the dealer is not equipped with a room for this purpose, he should be asked to demonstrate in the rooms to be lighted. If the fixture-dealer does not realize that he should be selling lighting effects, the householder should make him understand that lighting effects are of primary importance and the fixtures themselves are of secondary interest in most cases. The unused outlets that have been installed for possible future needs may be sealed in plastering if the positions are marked so that they may be found when desired.

An advantage of portable lamps is that they may be taken away on moving. In fact, when lighting is eventually considered a powerful decorative medium, as it should be, it is probable that fixtures will be personal property attached to ceiling, wall, and floor outlets by means of plugs.

A variety of incandescent lamps are available. For the home, opal, frosted, or bowl-frosted lamps are usually more satisfactory than clear lamps. Bare filaments should not be visible, for they not only cause discomfort and eye-strain but they spoil what might otherwise be an artistic effect. Lamps with diffusing bulbs do much toward eliminating harsh shadows cast by the edges of the shades, by the chains of the fixtures, etc. These lamps are available in many shapes and sizes and the householder should make a record of voltage, wattage, and shape of the lamps which he finds satisfactory in the various fixtures. The Mazda daylight lamp has several places in the home and the Mazda white-glass and other high-efficiency lamps supply many needs better than the vacuum lamps. In brackets and other purely decorative lighting-units small frosted lamps are usually the most satisfactory. There is a general desire for the warm yellowish light of the candle-flame, and this may be obtained by a tinted shade but usually more satisfactorily by means of a tinted lamp.

The householder will find it interesting to become intimate with lighting, for it can serve him well. The housewife will often find much interest in making shades of textiles and of parchment. Charming glassware in appropriate tints and painted designs is available for all rooms. In the bedchamber and the nursery some of these painted designs are exceedingly effective. Fixtures should shield the lamps from the eyes, and the diffusing media whether glass or textile should be dense enough to prevent glare. No fixture can be beautiful and no lighting effect can be artistic if glare is present. If the architect and the householder will realize that light is a medium comparable with the decorator's media, better lighting will result. Light has the great advantage of being mobile and with adequate outlets and controls supplemented by fixtures from which different effects are available, the householder will find in lighting one of the most fruitful sources of interest and pleasure. It can do much toward expressing the taste of the householder or if neglected it can undo much of the effect of excellent decoration and furnishing. Artificial lighting, softly diffused and properly localized, is one of the most important factors in making a house a home.