47. General

Certain diseases attack pigeons. Normal preventive methods usually protect pigeons from disease. If, however, these diseases are not detected immediately, they are likely to sweep through the loft, destroying or ruining most of the birds. It is necessary, therefore, that the pigeoneer be able to detect, correctly diagnose, and treat the more common pigeon diseases, in addition to taking preventive measures.

48. Prevention of Disease

Disease prevention is much simpler and cheaper than control or cure. Medicines are only emergency measures used in an attempt to overcome disease.

a. Sanitation. This is the most important way of preventing disease and its value should never be underestimated. The following rules for sanitation in the care of pigeons must be strictly adhered to:

(1) Keep loft clean and dry.

(2) Keep drinking fountain clean and water free from pollution.

(3) Quarantine new stock until certain that all birds are free from disease.

(4) Never permit stray pigeons, wild birds, or rodents (mice, rats, etc.) to enter the loft.

(5) Never feed pigeons on a dirty floor, because most of the more serious diseases are transmitted through the droppings.

(6) Bury or burn diseased birds that have been destroyed.

(7) Immediately isolate birds showing any signs of sickness.

(8) After touching diseased birds disinfect the hands before handling other birds.

(9) Thoroughly clean and disinfect lofts contaminated by disease.

b. Loft condition. Pigeons must never be crowded in the loft. It is best to subdivide large lofts into smaller compartments for better control and ease of observation. Sunlight and dryness are two great natural disinfectants which should be utilized fully through plenty of window space and adequate ventilation. Eliminate strong direct drafts because they chill birds and lower their resistance to disease.

49. Control of Disease

a. Pigeons showing any signs of sickness must be segregated immediately. In combat lofts there is normally no place available to isolate and treat diseased birds, therefore, it is usually advisable to destroy them and burn or bury their remains to avoid contaminating the rest of the flock.

b. In any case of disease, the loft should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected to destroy the germs of the disease as well as the mites and lice which may be carriers. Cresol, saponated solution, is an efficient disinfectant when used in a 4-percent solution in warm or hot water. This disinfectant is issued to signal pigeon companies.

50. Anatomy and Physiology

A knowledge of the structure and function of the bird’s body helps a pigeoneer understand his birds and certain of their diseases. For convenience, the various organs are divided into groups or systems according to their functions.

a. Respiratory system. (1) Mouth and nostrils admit air.

(2) Glottis or larynx is the opening into the trachea.

(3) Trachea conducts air to and from the lungs.

(4) Lungs are organs of gaseous interchange. Air spaces are surrounded by a network of capillaries. Here the blood gives off carbon dioxide and takes on oxygen.

(5) Nine air sacs cool the pigeon, give it buoyance, and mechanically aid the pigeon to breathe.

b. Digestive system. (1) Mouth is the opening through which food is received.

(2) Esophagus conducts food to the crop.

(3) Crop, or ingluvius, stores and softens the food.

(4) True stomach, or proventriculus, furnishes gastric digestive juices that digest proteins and carbohydrates.

(5) Gizzard is the grinding and mixing organ.

(6) Pancreas furnishes digestive juices that digest fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, besides furnishing certain internal secretions.

(7) Liver produces bile which helps digest food.

(8) Intestines provide space for food while it is being digested and absorbed by the blood stream. The intestines also furnish some digestive juices.

c. Circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. Its function is to convey nourishing blood from the heart to all parts of the body and to dispose of the waste material produced by the working tissues. The heart consists of four chambers: two ventricles and two auricles. The right auricle receives the stale blood from the veins and pumps it into the right ventricle which pumps it through an artery to the lungs. Here waste matter, such as carbon dioxide, is eliminated from the blood and fresh oxygen is restored. The blood then returns to the heart through a vein entering the left auricle. Proceeding from the left auricle to the left ventricle, it is pumped out through the arteries to the capillaries, which are the smallest vessels of the body. The capillaries circulate the blood through every tissue of the body, dispensing oxygen and food. The blood then picks up waste material on its return to the heart through the veins. The circulation of blood in the pigeon is very rapid, and with the heart beating 200 to 300 times a minute, only a few minutes are required to complete the circuit.

d. Reproductive system. (1) Male birds have two testes (testicles).

(2) Female birds have one (left) ovary and one oviduct, or egg tube, through which the yolks pass to get the albumin, shell membrane, and shell.

e. Urinary system. The kidneys take impurities out of the blood, and pass them into the cloaca (combination bladder and rectum).

51. Indications of Sickness

a. The common indications of sickness are—

(1) Refusing to eat.

(2) Dull, watery eyes.

(3) Droopy appearance with ruffled feathers and no desire to move.

(4) Green, watery droppings. If such droppings are noted in the loft all birds should be watched until the sick one is detected.

b. The easiest and best way to detect sick pigeons is to observe the birds at feeding time. The pigeoneer should also examine all birds as they are being basketed for training tosses.

52. Diseases

Pigeons are subject to numerous infectious and contagious diseases. These diseases are caused by germs such as bacteria and viruses, and are transmitted in poor feed, dirty water, unclean lofts, and similar conditions showing mismanagement. Infectious diseases are contagious if the birds themselves transmit germs to one another.

a. Pigeon pox is a common infectious, contagious disease which usually affects unfeathered portions of the pigeon’s head and feet. Pox often develop on the mucous membrane, lining of the mouth and throat. In an outbreak, both types are usually seen. The pox appear as swellings covered with light yellow material and are sometimes called wet pock, diphtheria, or canker.

(1) Symptoms. The course of the disease runs about 4 weeks.

(a) The virus gets into the skin or mucous membrane and causes a wartlike swelling, called a pock, at the point of infection. The virus grows and causes the pock to enlarge for about 10 days.

(b) During the next 10 days the tissues begin to die and turn yellow. Sometimes a blister forms in the pock, but only a slight enlargement occurs during this period. During the last 10 days the affected tissues begin to dry and form scabs which soon heal and drop off.

(c) Pock in the mouth and throat follows the same course as in (b) above except they are covered with a light yellow layer of tissues. Instead of becoming a dry scab formation, the pock becomes a yellow cheesy formation.

(2) Treatment. Usually this is of little value, as pox will run its course of about 4 weeks, regardless of treatment.

(a) One percent yellow oxide of mercury ointment will help soothe affected eyes.

(b) Pock in the mouth may be cut away, and the area painted with tincture of iodine or carefully cauterized with silver nitrate to stop bleeding.

(c) Birds that refuse to eat may be fed by force until the disease runs its course.

(d) Vaccination has no curative value on affected birds.

(e) Thoroughly clean and disinfect loft after an outbreak of this disease.

(3) Prevention. This is simple if all susceptible birds are vaccinated. Vaccination against pox is one of the most successful known because all birds receiving it are made permanently immune. Birds may be vaccinated at 5 or 6 weeks of age.

(a) Pluck five or six feathers from the breast region of the bird and brush the vaccine into the follicles.

(b) In about 10 days the follicles swell and a pock develops. This runs a course of about 4 weeks and heals.

(c) All susceptible birds in a loft should be vaccinated at the same time and each should be examined for “takes” after vaccinations.

b. Paratyphoid is a common infectious disease of pigeons and is probably the most devastating of bacterial infectious diseases at the present time. It may affect the bird in many ways, and produce such a variety of symptoms that it is often mistaken for numerous other diseases. The only definite way of diagnosing paratyphoid is by laboratory tests. A tentative diagnosis can be made, however, upon observing typical symptoms.

(1) Symptoms. The course of the disease varies from a rapidly fatal blood poisoning to a slow, chronic disease with, or without, complete recovery. The infection may take place through the egg, by way of milk fed to youngsters, or by contaminated feed, water, and grit. The manner of infection has no bearing on the course of the disease. The germs may get into the blood-stream, go all through the body, and cause sudden death; or the infection may be less severe and localize in any one of the numerous organs.

(a) Bacteria may localize in the intestines and produce mild to very severe inflammation. This usually results in diarrhea.

(b) Localizations in the lungs are very common and appear as hard, dried abscesses. These are seldom so serious as to cause respiratory distress.

(c) Joint boils result from direct localization of the germs in the joints of the legs or wings. Naturally this produces lameness.

(d) Inflammatory reactions of the spleen and liver are often the result of the localization of the germ in these organs. Chronic inflammation of the entire liver is also observed. The abdomen of such birds usually fills with fluid and the bird then gets thin and dies.

(e) Paratyphoid germs quite often localize in the brain and cause abscess formation. Such abscesses cause a variety of symptoms, depending on which part of the brain is involved. Usually the bird shows loss of equilibrium. It may twist its head and neck about, show trembling of the head and neck, or other nervous symptoms. Such birds rarely recover.

(f) Occasionally the germ will localize in the eye. The inside of the eye turns white and sight is lost. Only rarely are both eyes involved. Such birds appear to be very ill and usually die in a short period of time.

(g) Germs may localize in the ovary of the female or testes of the male. Such birds may show no symptoms, or they may become sterile. Eggs laid by such birds may be infertile. Youngsters, if hatched, may be weak and die soon after. Germs may localize in the oviduct and cause an impacted oviduct.

(h) The only definite way of diagnosing paratyphoid is by laboratory tests. A tentative diagnosis can be made, however, upon observing the typical symptoms.

(2) Treatment. Treatment is useless for visibly affected birds. Neither drugs nor vaccines seem to be of any value in treating this condition. Many birds recover from mild infections without treatment. Therefore, the best possible care should be provided for the birds in order to keep their resistance high so that they can successfully combat the infection and overcome disease.

(3) Prevention. Since contamination of feed, water, and grit by droppings is probably the greatest cause of paratyphoid, sanitation is the best preventive.

(a) Clean the loft scrupulously.

(b) Maintain sanitary drinking fountains with fresh water to avoid spreading infection by way of water. Take special care to prevent dampness from spillage or leakage around the drinking fountain, as this makes an ideal place for bacteria to accumulate.

(c) Feces from birds with diarrhea should be removed from the loft as soon as noticed.

(d) Frequent disinfection of the loft with a strong disinfectant like 4 percent saponified cresol will help keep down contamination.

c. Trichomoniasis. This is a very common disease of pigeons commonly seen in the mouth, esophagus, or crop in the form of cheesy yellow or white lesions. For this reason it is often called “canker” by pigeon fanciers. The cause is a motile one-celled organism. Only the common type of this organism will be considered here. This disease has many carriers. It shows up only where sanitary conditions are bad or other diseases are present.

(1) Symptoms. The course of the disease varies according to resistance of the affected bird, treatment, and care. Young birds in the nest become infected through “milk” of infected parents. Infection doubtless spreads by contact while “billing” and fighting. Germs cause affected tissues to die. This results in the formation of a sore or opening down into the tissue with a varying-sized yellow, cheesy exudate or scab forming over it. Sometimes such scabs become very large and nearly fill the mouth, throat, or crop.

(2) Treatment. Various drugs and chemicals have been used to treat trichomoniasis. However, this condition has proved quite unresponsive to usual medication. In fact, drugs do not have much, if any, direct effect on the healing of tissue. All that medicine can do is to cut down the number of parasites present and permit nature to repair the damage done to the tissue. Suggested procedures for treatment follow:

(a) Remove all yellow pus patches with cotton swabs. Then paint area with a mixture of iodized oil and sulfanilamide powder. The iodized oil is prepared by using 1 gram iodine, 1.5 grams potassium iodide, and 2 ounces light petrolatum. The iodine requires some time and frequent shaking to dissolve. Make a small cotton swab on an applicator stick, dip it into the oil, roll it in the sulfanilamide powder, and then apply to cleaned trichomoniasis (canker) lesion. Daily treatment, rest, and an abundance of good feed are necessary.

(b) Clean off exudate by local applications of tincture of iodine, or a mixture of one part iodine to three parts glycerine; at the same time lesions will respond to such treatment. Silver nitrate may be used either in stick form or in solution.

(3) Prevention. Sanitation is the best preventive.

(a) Correct predisposing causes such as wet floors, nests, and perches.

(b) Try to isolate infected birds, provided the number is not too large.

(c) Attempt to control spread of parasitic infestation by using a parasiticide like copper sulphate in the drinking water. This is used in a 1-2000 solution.

d. Tuberculosis. This is an infectious and highly contagious disease caused by a highly-resistant germ which can live in soil for 2 years.

(1) Symptoms. The young die suddenly and old birds waste away. Grayish white nodules appear in liver and spleen, basket ulcers in intestines, and yellow nodules in all parts of the body.

(2) Treatment. There is no treatment for tuberculosis. Destroy all affected birds and thoroughly clean and disinfect loft.

(3) Prevention. Keep all stray pigeons out of loft and maintain sanitary conditions at all times.

e. One-eye cold (CONJUNCTIVITUS). (1) Symptoms. There is a watery discharge from the eye, and the surrounding membranes are frequently swollen.

(2) Treatment. Place bird in a warm room and treat eye daily with one drop of metaphin, or one drop of 15 percent argyrol.

(3) Prevention. Provide proper ventilation in the loft. Avoid dampness and drafts.

f. Going light. This is not a disease in itself but a symptom or result of a disease. Any pigeon showing loss of flesh should be isolated and observed until the affecting disease is determined.

g. Diarrhea. This is not usually a distinct disease, but the result of some other disease.

(1) Symptoms. Droppings are green and watery.

(2) Treatment. Sick birds should be isolated and observed to determine if they have some other disease. Feeding of rice will usually check the condition if it is caused by feed or drinking water.

(3) Prevention. Sanitary loft conditions, proper diet, and fresh drinking water will help prevent it.

h. Sour crop. Sour crop is caused by damp or mouldy grain, impure water or lack of grit.

(1) Symptoms. The pigeon will sit with feathers ruffled. A greenish diarrhea usually accompanies sour crop. On examination the crop is found to be hard and distended.

(2) Treatment. Hold the bird with head down and gently press on the crop until all feed has been removed. Flush out the crop with a solution of 4 teaspoons of bicarbonate of soda to a quart of warm water. Feed a light mixture, consisting mostly of rice, millet, kaffir corn, and other small seeds. Repeat the cleaning and flushing of the crop daily, if necessary, until this condition clears.

(3) Prevention. Sanitary loft conditions, proper diet, and fresh drinking water will help prevent it.

53. External Parasites

Many insects and related species live off other animals. Some of these parasites, like lice, live on the host but feed only upon bits of its feathers and tiny scales and excretions of the skin. Others are more vicious and suck blood from the animal. Diseases are often spread from bird to bird through the life habits of these parasites.

a. Lice. Lice are undoubtedly the most common of these external parasites.

(1) Different species. There are at least six different species of lice that attack pigeons in this country. The three most common are—

(a) Feather louse. This is the long, slender species that lives on the barbs and shaft of the feather over nearly any part of the bird’s body.

(b) Golden feather louse. This louse is a little shorter and much broader and lives on the feathers, particularly on the bird’s body.

(c) Body louse. This is the largest of the pigeon lice. It lives on the skin rather than on the feathers. It is thought that these lice, by biting the very young pin feathers when they are filled with blood, cause the small pinhole perforations often seen in pigeon feathers.

(2) Habits (fig. 41). In order to combat lice properly and intelligently, it is necessary to know something about where and how they feed, live, and breed.

(a) Adult lice live on the skin and feathers of the bird and only rarely leave the pigeon. When accidentally dislodged, they crawl very short distances to other birds. Lice cannot live longer than a few days away from the birds.

(b) Lice eat bits of feathers, scales, and other debris off the skin. They do not suck blood.

(c) Female lice lay eggs (nits) along the shafts of the feathers, particularly on the primary coverts.

(d) Louse eggs hatch in 10 to 14 days.

(e) Young lice eat, molt (3 to 5 times), and grow to maturity in about 14 days.

(3) Diagnosis. Infested pigeons are restless and constantly pick and scratch in an effort to dislodge the lice. Heavily infested birds may become weak and thin because the constant annoying movement of lice interferes with their proper relaxation and rest. Careful examination of the birds will reveal the lice.

(4) Treatment. The use of sodium fluoride is a good standard method for ridding pigeons of lice. It can be applied in two ways:

(a) Dip method is very efficient, but can be used only in warm weather. Birds should be dipped on a warm, sunny day early enough so they will dry before night. Each bird is immersed into the solution up to the head, and the feathers ruffled to allow penetration of the solution. Then the mouth and nostrils are held shut and the head immersed. The dip is made of 1 gallon warm water, and 1 ounce sodium fluoride.

(b) Dust method may be used at any time. The birds are held while a few pinches of powdered sodium fluoride are dusted into the feathers over various parts of the body. Sodium fluoride poisons lice when they eat it. Efficiency in delousing birds depends on thoroughness of wetting or dusting.

(5) Repeat treatment. Neither method above will kill nits nor prevent them from hatching; therefore, the delousing must be repeated in 10 to 14 days in order to kill newly hatched lice.

(6) Prevention. Normally, only pigeons carry pigeon lice. For this reason, the spread of lice to or from other kinds of birds is of no concern. However, common pigeons and stragglers are prolific sources of spread. Contact in crates is also a common source of infestation. Lice are often brushed from infested birds onto the hands and clothing of pigeoneers who later carry them to clean birds handled later.

b. Red mites. Red mites are a common parasite of the pigeon.

(1) Habits (fig. 42). It is important to note the difference between the habits of lice and mites.

(a) Mites live in, on, and under the nest bowls, nest boxes, and any available crack or crevice.

(b) Mites go onto the birds only long enough to feed—usually about ½ hour.

(c) Red mites suck blood from the pigeons. It is the engorged blood that makes the mite red.

(d) Mite eggs are deposited in the cracks and crevices or debris around the nest box where they live.

(e) Eggs hatch in 2 or more days, according to weather conditions.

(f) Newly-hatched mites mature in about 5 days.

(2) Diagnosis. Pigeon’s loss of condition is the most evident indication of mite infestation. Actual loss of blood is probably less harmful to the bird than annoyance caused by crawling and biting of mites.

(3) Treatment. Most good disinfectants supplied to lofts will kill mites satisfactorily if worked well into all cracks and crevices. Oily disinfectants are inexpensive and very effective, but leave the loft rather unsightly. Whitewash kills only by covering up and is ineffective if any areas are missed. For this reason, some of the more refined cresols are used. Four percent saponified cresol in warm water is quite effective.

(4) Repeat. Since the cresol does not kill the eggs, it is necessary to repeat treatment in 5 to 7 days.

(5) Prevention. Mites that attack pigeons are apparently the same as found on other birds, including domestic poultry. Therefore, wild birds, straggling pigeons, and neighborhood poultry are possible sources of infection. Light, dry, airy lofts do not favor breeding of mites.

c. Pigeon flies which are particularly troublesome in warm climates are true flies with short, flat, wide bodies and long wings.

(1) Life cycle (fig. 46). (a) Pigeon flies live among body feathers.

(b) They leave the birds only to deposit larvae, or when disturbed.

(c) Adult flies suck blood from the birds.

(d) Female flies deposit living larvae in or around the nest bowl, nest box, or around the loft.

(e) Newly deposited larvae are white and about the size of a small buck shot. Within a few hours, a hard shell forms around them and they turn from white to brown and then to jet black.

(f) Young flies emerge from these shells in about 30 days and are ready for their first meal of blood.

(2) Diagnosis. Pigeon flies can easily be observed crawling among the bird’s feathers. Their movement as well as biting greatly annoys the birds. However, the greatest damage they do is transmitting pigeon malaria.

(3) Treatment. A very effective and easily applied method of treatment is to dust the birds lightly with pyrethrum powder. Sweep nest boxes and loft carefully to collect pupae so that they can be destroyed. Pigeon flies will not travel far from the birds; therefore, keep stragglers out of loft and carefully inspect newly-introduced birds to avoid admitting flies.

d. Mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are a very common but usually underestimated pest. Besides molesting the birds by biting and sucking blood, they may transmit pox. These troublesome insects breed in standing water, such as swampy areas, old tin cans, and rain barrels. Control consists of draining or oiling breeding places and using screens on loft openings.

e. Other parasites attacking pigeons are fleas, chiggers, ticks, bed bugs, depluming mites, feather mites, air sac mites, subcutaneous mites, sand flies, and beetle larvae. Fortunately, these are rare.

54. Internal Parasites

These are the worms that live inside pigeons. Round worms are by far the most numerous. Tape worms are occasionally found in pigeons, but seldom present a serious problem.

a. Ascarids, or common large round worms are the largest and most prevalent of the round worms. Adult worms are from 1 to 2 inches long.

(1) Habits. Knowledge of the life cycle of a round worm is of great importance for successful control of this troublesome parasite. This worm has a “direct” life cycle (fig. 47) (completing it in one species).

(a) Mature worms live in the upper part of the small intestines and feed by absorbing food from the intestinal contents through their own body walls.

(b) Eggs (ova) are deposited by female worms in the intestinal contents of the pigeon, and later pass out in the pigeon droppings. It has been estimated that female worms lay as many as 12,000 eggs a day. Feces from parasitized birds often contain countless numbers of ova.

(c) Freshly deposited worm eggs are much like freshly laid pigeon eggs, in that they must be incubated before they are ready to hatch. They need to remain in warm, moist litter or soil for 10 to 16 days before the worm larvae can develop. Severe freezing, excessively hot soil, and direct sunlight will destroy the eggs.

(d) When birds eat the incubated eggs, the worms hatch out in their intestines.

(e) The tiny larvae then “sew” themselves into the lining of the intestines and begin to grow.

(f) After a few days, the larvae crawl back into the intestinal canal where they mature in 30 to 40 days.

(2) Diagnosis. Ascarids injure birds in several ways.

(a) When the newly hatched worm “sews” itself into the intestinal lining the area around the puncture becomes inflamed because of mechanical injury, loss of blood, and introduced infection. This localized inflammation renders that part of the intestinal lining useless for digesting and absorbing food.

(b) The worm absorbs food from the intestinal contents which should go to the birds.

(c) In order to protect themselves and avoid being digested, the worms give off a substance that neutralizes digestive juices. This substance becomes mixed with intestinal contents and prevents proper digestion.

(d) Worms sometimes become so numerous that they actually clog the intestines. As many as 500 worms have been found in a single bird.

(e) Worm-infested birds show loss of condition and general unhealthiness. Diagnosis is made by finding worms or worm eggs in droppings or by autopsy on typical specimens.

(3) Treatment. The following drugs are only effective against mature worms and, at best, are only 80 percent efficient:

1-CC Oil of turpentine per bird.
½-CC Tetrachlorethylene per bird.
½-CC Carbon tetrachloride per bird.

(4) Prevention. This is relatively simple and practically 100 percent effective.

(a) Clean loft daily and provide fresh water.

(b) If aviary does not have a wire bottom spread clean sand about 1 or 2 inches deep over its floor once every two weeks.

(c) Replace moisture and shade by sunshine and dry conditions.

b. Strongyles are the most dangerous of the common round worms and one of the most common causes of death among poorly kept pigeons. The “strongyle” is a very small parasite which multiplies rapidly and is a vicious blood sucker. Adult worms are from ½ to ¾ inches long and about the same size as thin thread.

(1) Habits. This worm has a “direct” cycle; that gives the key to successful control (fig. 45).

(a) Adult strongyles live in the upper intestinal contents, but may be found as far up as the crop.

(b) Strongyles are ravenous blood suckers.

(c) Female worms deposit eggs in the intestinal contents which later pass out in the feces.

(d) Eggs incubate in about 1 day, if conditions are favorable.

(e) Young larvae hatch out and molt about 8 hours later. These larvae again molt in about 3 days and are then infective. Thus, about 5 days elapse from the time the eggs are voided by the bird and the time the young larval worms hatch, molt, and become infective.

(f) The infective larvae are eaten by the pigeons. Then they pass to the intestines where they mature.

(2) Diagnosis. (a) Strongyles injure the birds by lacerating the intestine and sucking blood. After the parasite moves on, the laceration still bleeds considerably before a blood clot forms. Each laceration results in an area of infection and inflammation.

(b) Constant movement of the worms over the inflamed intestine adds to the irritation.

(c) Severe, and sometimes rapid, loss of condition and accompanying anemia are usual symptoms. Diagnosis is confirmed by finding strongyles in the intestine upon autopsy of typical specimens.

(3) Treatment. Treatment is not satisfactory. One-half CC doses of tetrachlorethylene may be tried.

(4) Prevention. The same methods prescribed for ascarids apply to strongyles.

c. Other round worms attacking pigeons are numerous, but only capillary worms will be discussed here. These are very thin, hair-like worms sometimes found in the digestive tract of pigeons from the crop down through the intestine. Their life cycle is direct. No satisfactory drug has been found to rid pigeons of this worm. Fortunately, their life cycle is similar to that of ascarids, and the same preventive measures are effective.

d. Tape worms, which are occasionally seen in pigeons, acquire a length of 6 to 8 inches.

(1) Life cycle. Tape worms have what is called an indirect life cycle, that is they must pass through at least two different species to complete it (fig. 46).

(a) Adult tape worms are found in the small intestine. Their bodies are made up of a head and segments. The head is essentially an anchor that fastens the worm to the intestine of the bird. The body segments form at the head and mature as they grow further from the head.

(b) Each segment contains both male and female sex organs and, as it matures, becomes virtually a packet of tape worm eggs.

(c) Segments break off and pass out in the feces.

(d) The tape worm’s eggs are then eaten by a snail, slug, beetle, or other insect which becomes the “intermediate host.” Here the tape worm undergoes a certain amount of development.

(e) If the intermediate host is eaten by a pigeon, the young tape worm attaches itself to the bird’s intestine and soon grows to maturity.

(2) Diagnosis. Tape worms harm the host by injuring the intestine at the point where they bury their heads, by absorbing food, and by giving off antenzymes.

(3) Treatment. Unsatisfactory.

(4) Prevention. (a) Pigeons must be well-cared-for and fed so that they will not care to eat the intermediate hosts.

(b) The method of prevention prescribed for ascarids is also applicable for tape worms.

55. Treatment of Injuries

a. Cuts and wounds. Pigeons have marvelous powers of healing their own tissues, perhaps because of their high body temperature and rapid rate of body processes. The following are aids to healing.

(1) Clean solid or contaminated wounds with boric acid solution or some very mild antiseptic. Strong disinfectants burn the exposed tissues and delay wound healing.

(2) Stitch or suture large tears in the skin to make them relatively smaller. Avoid placing suture in such a way that a pocket is formed for this often results in an abscess formation. Use white silk or cotton thread.

(3) Remove excessively rough edges or hanging flaps of skin with sharp scissors.

b. Fractures. (1) Broken bones in the extremities of the legs usually respond readily to treatment; those involving the large bones present a more complicated problem.

(2) The type of fracture governs the seriousness of the injury.

(a) Simple fractures are those in which there is no break in the skin in the region of the fracture.

(b) Compound fractures are those in which there is a break in the skin over the bone injury.

(c) Partial fractures are those in which the bone is cracked but not completely separated.

(d) Complete fractures are those in which there is actual separation of the parts of bone.

(e) Comminuted fractures are those in which the bone is splintered or fragmented.

(3) Treatment of fractures is quite simple: bring broken parts into contact and immobilize them to avoid movement which might injure delicate healing tissues.

(a) Since bones heal in whatever position they are placed, it is necessary to splint the limb in as nearly normal a position as possible.

(b) Take care that the splint does not interfere with healing.

1. Do not bandage splint too tightly. The bandage must be snug to avoid movement of the parts, however, if it is too tight, the blood supply will be cut off and the limb will die. Splints applied before the injured limb has swollen must be closely observed for several hours, or until the swelling has reached its maximum so that circulation is not impeded.

2. Pad limb with cotton or gauze to protect it from the hard surfaces of the splint.

3. Dust powdered boric acid on the region of the fracture, particularly if the fracture is compound.

(c) Splints may be easily and satisfactorily fashioned from pieces of pliable tin. Cut and bend to fit contour of limb in normal resting position (fig. 47). Splints for fractures in the shank should extend down along the shank on one side, then bend to form a loop down around the foot and back up the opposite side of the limb. In a short time the bird learns that it can step on the limb without pain because the weight falls on the loop of the splint rather than on the foot.

(d) Splints should be left in place for 3 weeks before removing. Healing, if successful, will be sufficient to permit removal of splint at this time.

c. Torn crops. These may be successfully sutured if the edges are turned in so that the outside surfaces, not the lining, of the crop come in contact. The skin may then be sutured to help support the crop.

56. Medicines

The following items of medical supplies and equipment, in the quantities listed in existing instructions, should meet normal requirements.

? U.S. Government Printing Office: 1945—621966

Transcriber’s Note:

The spelling, punctuation and hyphenation are as the original, except for apparent typographical errors, which have been corrected.