PERSONAL HYGIENE AND CARE OF THE FEET.

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PERSONAL HYGIENE.

History shows that in almost every war many more men die of disease than from wounds received in battle. Much of this disease is preventable and is due either to the ignorance or carelessness of the person who has the disease or of other persons about him. It is a terrible truth that one man who violates any of the great rules of health may be the means of killing many more of his comrades than are killed by the bullets of the enemy.

It is therefore most important that every soldier should learn how to take care of his health when in the field and that he should also insist that his comrades do not violate any of the rules prescribed for this purpose.

A great many diseases are due to germs, which are either little animals or little plants so very small that they can only be seen by aid of the microscope. All diseases caused by germs are "catching." All other diseases are not "catching."

There are only five ways of catching disease:

(a) Getting certain germs on the body by touching some one or something which has them on it. Thus, one may catch venereal diseases, smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, chicken pox, mumps, bolls, body lice, ringworm, barber's itch, dhopie itch, and some other diseases. Wounds are infected in this manner.

(b) Breathing in certain germs which float in the air. In this way one may catch pneumonia, consumption, influenza, diphtheria, whooping cough, tonsilitis, spinal meningitis, measles, and certain other diseases.

(c) Taking certain germs in through the mouth in eating or drinking. Dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhea, and intestinal worms may be caught in this manner,

(d) Having certain germs injected into the body by the bites of insects, such as mosquitoes, fleas, and bedbugs. Malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, and bubonic plague may be caught in this way.

(e) Inheriting the germ from one's parents.

Persons may have these germs sometimes without apparently being sick with any disease. Such persons and persons who are sick with the diseases are a great source of danger to others about them. Germs which multiply in such persons are found in their urine and excretions from the bowels; in discharges from ulcers and abscesses; in the spit or particles coughed or sneezed into the air; in the perspiration or scales from the skin; and in the blood sucked up by biting insects.

Those who have taken care of their health and who have not become weakened by bad habits, exposure, and fatigue are not only less liable to catch disease, but are more apt to recover when taken sick.

Knowing all these things, the soldier can understand the reasons for the following rules and how important it is that they should be carried out by each and every person:

Stay away from persons having "catching" diseases.

It you have any disease, don't try to cure it yourself, but go to the surgeon. Insist that other soldiers do likewise.

Typhoid fever is one of the most dangerous and common camp diseases. Modern medicine has, however, discovered an effective preventative for this disease in the typhoid prophylactic, which renders the person immune from typhoid fever. The treatment consists in injecting into the arm a preventative serum. The injection is given three times at 10-day intervals.

Association with lewd women is dangerous. It may result in disabling you for life. It is the cause of a disease (syphilis) which may be transmitted by a parent to his children. Soldiers with venereal diseases should not use basins or toilet articles used by others, as the germs of these diseases if gotten into the eye very often cause blindness. Likewise, if they use the same drinking cup used by others they may give others the disease. They should promptly report their trouble to the surgeon, that they may receive the best medical advice and attention.

Should a soldier expose himself to infection by having intercourse with an unknown woman, he should report as soon as possible afterwards to the regimental infirmary for prophylactic treatment, which, if taken within a few hours after intercourse, will prevent to a large degree the liability of contracting any disease.

Cooked germs are dead and therefore harmless. Water, even when clear, may be alive with deadly germs. Therefore, when the conditions are such that the commanding officer orders all drinking water to be boiled, be careful to live up to this order.

Use the latrines and don't go elsewhere to relieve yourself. In open latrines cover your deposit with dirt, as it breeds files and may also be full of germs.

Flies carry germs from one place to another. Therefore see that your food and mess kit are protected from them.

All slops find scraps of food scattered about camp soon produce bad odors and draw flies. Therefore do your part toward keeping the camp free from disease by carefully depositing such refuse in the pits or cans used for this purpose.

Urinate only in the latrines, or in the cans set out for this purpose, never on the ground around camp, because it not only causes bad smells but urine sometimes contains the germs of "catching" diseases.

Soapy water thrown on the ground soon produces bad odors. Therefore in camps of several days' duration this water should be thrown in covered pits or in cans used for this purpose.

As certain mosquitoes can transmit malaria and yellow fever, use your mosquito bar for this reason as well as for personal comfort.

Keep your mouth clean by brushing your teeth once or twice a day. It helps to prevent the teeth from decaying. Decayed teeth cause toothache. They also lead one to swallow food without properly chewing it, and this leads to stomach troubles of various kinds. Food left around and between the teeth is bad for the teeth and forms good breeding places for germs.

Keep the skin clean. Through the pores of the skin the body gets rid of much waste and poisonous matter. Therefore remove this and keep the pores open by bathing once every day, if possible. If water is scarce, rub the body over with a wet towel. If no water is at hand, take a dry rub. Wash carefully the armpits, between the legs, and under the foreskin, as this will prevent chafing.

The skin protects the sensitive parts underneath from injury and helps to keep out germs. Therefore when blisters are formed don't tear off the skin. Insert a needle under the skin a little distance back from the blister and push it through to the opposite side. Press out the liquid through the holes thus formed. Heat the needle red hot first, with a match or candle, to kill the germs.

When the skin is broken (in cuts and wounds) keep the opening covered with a bandage to keep out germs and dirt; otherwise the sore may fester. Pus is always caused by germs.

Keep your hair short. Long hair and a long beard in the field generally means a dirty head and a dirty face and favors skin diseases, lice, and dandruff.

Don't let any part of the body become chilled, as this very often is the direct cause of diarrhea, dysentery, pneumonia, rheumatism, and other diseases.

Wet clothes may be worn while marching or exercising without bad results; but there is great danger if one rests in wet clothing, as the body may become chilled.

Don't sit or lie or sleep directly on damp ground, as this is sure to chill the body.

When hot or perspiring or when wearing damp clothes, don't remain where a breeze can strike you. You are sure to become chilled.

Every day, if possible, hang your blanket and clothing out to air in the sun; shake or beat them with a small stick. Germs and vermin don't like this treatment, but damp, musty clothing suits them very well. Wash your shirts, underwear, and socks frequently. The danger of blood poisoning from a wound is greatly increased if the bullet passes through dirty clothes.

Ditch your tent as soon as you can, particularly a shelter tent, even if you camp for one night only. Otherwise a little rain may ruin a whole night's rest.

Always prepare your bed before dark. Level off the ground and scrape out a little hollow for your hips. Get some straw or dry grass if possible. Green grass or branches from trees are better than nothing. Sleep on your poncho. This keeps the dampness from coming up from the ground and chilling the body. Every minute spent in making a good bed means about an hour's good rest later on.

Avoid the food and drink found for sale in the cheap stands about camp. The quality is generally bad, and it is often prepared in filthy places by very dirty persons.

The use of intoxicating liquor is particularly dangerous in the field. Its excessive use, even at long intervals, breaks down one's system. Drinking men are more apt to get sick and less liable to get well than are their more sober comrades. If alcohol is taken at all, it is best after the work of the day is over. It should never be taken when the body is exposed to severe cold, as it diminishes the resistance of the body. Hot tea or coffee is much preferable under these circumstances.

CARE OF THE FEET.

A soldier can not march with sore feet, and marching is the main part of an infantryman's daily duty in the field. All soldiers should be familiar with the proper methods of caring for the feet. Sore feet are generally due to carelessness, neglect, or ignorance on the part of the soldier.

The most important factor in the care of the feet and the marching ability of the soldier is the shoe. Civilian shoes, particularly light, patent leather, or low shoes, are sure to cause injury and in time will ruin a man's foot. Only the marching shoe issued by the Quartermaster Corps should be worn, and they must be properly fitted to the individual. It will not suffice to order a marching shoe of the same size as one's ordinary civilian shoes, for it must be remembered that a soldier may have to march many miles daily over rough roads and carrying a heavy pack. The pack itself causes the foot to spread out to a larger size, and the rough roads give so much exercise to the muscles of the feet that they swell greatly through the increased blood supply. (For directions as to measuring the foot for the marching shoe see General Order No. 26, War Department, 1912, a copy of which should be on hand in each company.)

Do not start out on a march wearing new shoes. This is a frequent cause of sore feet. New shoes should be properly broken in before beginning a march by wearing them for several hours daily for a week before the march, and they should be adapted to the contours of the feet by stretching them with shoe stretchers with adjustable knobs to take the pressure off painful corns and bunions. Such stretchers are issued by the Quartermaster Corps, and there should be one or more pair in every company of infantry. Should this be impracticable, then the following is suggested:

The soldier stands in his new shoes in about 2-1/2 inches of water for about five minutes until the leather is thoroughly pliable and moist; he should then walk for about an hour on a level surface, letting the shoes dry on his feet, to the irregularities of which the leather is thus molded in the same way as it was previously molded over the shoe last. On taking the shoes off a very little neat's-foot oil should be rubbed into the leather to prevent its hardening and cracking.

If it is desired to waterproof shoes at any time, a considerable amount of neat's-foot oil should be rubbed into the leather. Waterproof leather causes the feet of some men to perspire unduly and keeps them constantly soft.

Light woolen or heavy woolen socks will habitually be worn for marching. Cotton socks will not be worn unless specifically ordered by the surgeon. The socks will be large enough to permit free movement of the toes, but not so loose as to permit of wrinkling. Darned socks, or socks with holes in them, will not be worn in marching.

Until the feet have hardened they should be dusted with foot powder, which can be obtained at the regimental infirmary, before each day's march. Clean socks should be worn daily.

As soon as possible after reaching camp after a day of marching the feet should be washed with soap and water, and the soldier should put on a dry pair of socks and his extra pair of shoes from his surplus kit. If the skin is tender, or the feet perspire, wash with warm salt water or alum water, but do not soak the feet a long time, as this, although very comforting at the time, tends to keep them soft. Should blister's appear on the feet, prick and evacuate them by pricking at the lower edge with a pin which has been passed through the flame of a match and cover them with zinc oxide plaster applied hot. This plaster can be obtained on request at the regimental infirmary. If serious abrasions appear on the feet, or corns, bunions, and ingrowing nails cause trouble, have your name placed on sick report and apply to the surgeon for treatment. Cut the toe nails square (fairly close in the middle, but leaving the sides somewhat longer), as this prevents ingrowing nails.

force can no longer advance, it is much safer to throw up hasty intrenchments and await the arrival of reinforcements or darkness than it is to retreat. Retreating troops are the one that suffer the greatest. This lesson is taught by every great war. Therefore, always remember that the safest thing to do is to stick to firing line.

Troops on the firing line, when not actually engaged in firing at the enemy, busy themselves throwing up shelter trenches. It only requires a few minutes to construct a trench that gives great protection. Therefore, never get separated from your intrenching tool.

Concealment is no less important than protection. Therefore, when conditions permit, as is generally the case when on the defensive, every effort should be made to hide intrenchments by the use of sod, grass, weeds, bushes, etc.

In making an attack the infantry is always supported when possible by its own artillery, which continues to fire over its head until the infantry arrives very close to the enemy's trenches. This fire is helping you a great deal by keeping down the fire of the enemies infantry and artillery. Therefore, don't think you are being fired into by your own artillery because you hear their shells and shrapnel singing through the air or bursting a short distance in your front, but rather be thankful you are receiving their help up to the very last minute.

In the last rush which carries the enemy's position there is always much mixing of units. The firing line does not continue rushing madly as individuals after the enemy, but halts and fires on him until he gets out of good range. The pursuit is taken up by formed troops held in reserve or by the firing line only after its units are again gotten together.

As the fighting often lasts all day, and great suffering is caused from thirst, don't throwaway your canteen when the fight commences. It may also be impossible to get rations up to the line during the night. Therefore, it is advisable to hold onto at least one ration.

As the recent war has shown the possibility of hand-to-hand fighting, especially at night, each soldier should be schooled in the use of the bayonet.

The following has particular reference to the duties of platoon and squad leaders and to the team work of the platoon in combat:

Attacking troops must first gain fire superiority in order to reach the hostile position. By gaining fire superiority is meant making one's fire superior to that of the enemy in volume and accuracy, and it depends upon the number of rifles employed, the rate of fire, the character of the target, training and discipline, and fire direction and control. When the fire of the attackers becomes effective and superior to that of the defenders the latter are no longer able to effectively and coolly aim and fire at the former, and, as a consequence, the attackers are able to inaugurate a successful rush or advance which carries them nearer to the enemy's position.

When a trained organization has been committed to the attack, the gaining of fire superiority depends upon the way in which fire direction and fire control are exercised.

The captain directs the fire of the company. He indicates to the platoon commanders the target (enemy) which the company is to fire and advance upon, and tells each upon which part of this target he is to direct the fire of his platoon. When he desires the fire to be opened he gives the necessary commands or signals, including the range at which the sights lire to be set.

When the fire fight has once started it becomes to a great extent a fight of a number of platoons. The platoon is the largest organization which can be controlled by a single leader in action. The platoon commander (lieutenant or sergeant) controls its fire in order to gain the maximum fire effect and to avoid wasting ammunition. He must try his best to make the fire of his platoon effective, to get it forward, and to support neighboring platoons in their effort to advance. At the same time he must hold himself subject to his captain's directions. He should take advantage of every chance to carry his platoon forward unless otherwise ordered. In all this he is assisted by his platoon guide (sergeant) and by his corporals.

At the commencement of an engagement the platoon commander will give the objective (part of the enemy's line or aiming target) at which his platoon is to direct its fire. Noncommissioned officers must be sure that they see and understand the objective, and that all the men in their squads do likewise. Fire is then directed at this objective without further command until the platoon commander gives a new objective.

Men should be instructed to aim at that part of the target assigned to their platoon which corresponds with their own position in their own platoon, so that there will be no portion of the target which is not covered by fire. A portion of the enemy's line not covered by fire means that that portion is able to coolly aim and fire at their opponents.

In an engagement the voice can seldom be heard over a few feet, and the platoon commander will generally have to convey his orders by signals. A corporal may be able to shout orders to his squad, and orders may be repeated along a skirmish line by shouting. Care should be taken that orders intended for one platoon only are not thus conveyed to another platoon.

A short blast on the whistle, given by the platoon commander, means "Attention to Orders." All noncommissioned officers at once suspend firing and glance toward the platoon commander to see if the latter has any signals or orders for them. If not, they resume firing. A long blast on the whistle means "Suspend Firing." When a noncommissioned officer hears this signal from his platoon commander he should at once shout "Suspend Firing." Upon receiving a signal, the noncommissioned officer for whom it is intended should at once repeat it back, to be sure that it is correctly understood.

When a leader in command of a platoon or squad receives an order or signal to rush, he should cause his men to suspend firing and to hold themselves flat but ready for a sprinter's start. He selects the point, as far as possible with reference to cover, to which he intends to carry his unit forward. He then gives the command "RUSH," springs forward, and running at full speed about three paces ahead of his men, leads them in the rush. Arriving at the position he has selected, he throws himself prone, and the men drop on either side of him. All crawl forward to good firing positions, considering the cover also, and the leader gives the necessary orders for resuming the fire. The latter will include giving the range again, the length of the rush being subtracted from the sight setting ordered at the last position.

As a rule, rushes should be started by a unit on one flank, and should be followed in succession by the other units to the opposite flank. Each succeeding unit should halt on the line established by the unit which first rushed. When a unit is about to rush, leaders in charge of adjacent units should caution their men to be careful not to fire into the rushing unit as it bounds forward.

When one unit suspends fire for the purpose of rushing, adjacent leaders should arrange to have a portion of their men turn their fire on the target of the rushing unit, to the end that there may be no portion of the enemy's line not under fire and able to fire coolly on the rushing unit.

Rushes should be made for as long a distance as possible, due regard being had for the wind of the men and not to get beyond supporting distance of the other units. Long rushes facilitate an advance, and quickly place a skirmish line close to the enemy's position, where its fire will have more effect. An attacking line suffers less from casualties at short ranges than it does at mid range.

Every advantage should be taken to utilize the cover available. The best kind of cover is that which, while it masks the skirmishers from the sight and fire of the enemy, affords favorable conditions for firing and for readily advancing. In order to allow men to regain their wind, or should the fire of the enemy be so effective as to prevent a further advance without reinforcement, advantage may be taken to lie close in cover, or hasty fire trenches may be thrown up in order to allow the line to maintain its position. "To go back under fire is to die."

When a platoon is firing, all noncommissioned officers watch every opportunity to make the fire more effective. The platoon guide should constantly watch the men to see that they do not become excited, fire too hastily or without aim, that their sights are set at the correct range, that they are obviously firing at the designated target, and that they assume steady firing positions and take advantage of cover. In performing these duties it may be necessary for the guides to be constantly crawling along the line. A corporal in like manner supervises his squad, firing with it when he is not actively engaged in controlling it.

Bayonets are fixed preparatory to a charge. This command is usually given by the bugle. Only one or two men in each squad should fix their bayonets at the same time, in order that there may be no marked pause or diminution in the fire at this critical stage of the engagement.

In order to be effective in combat, the platoon must be thoroughly trained to work as a team. Each noncommissioned officer must be conversant with the signals and commands and the proper methods for instantly putting into effect the orders of his platoon commander. Each private must be trained until he instinctively does the right thing in each phase of the action.

Section 3. Patrolling.

The designation of a patrol indicates the nature of the duty for which it is detailed, as, for example, visiting, reconnoitering, exploring, flanking, combat, harassing, pursuing, etc. An Infantry patrol consists, as a rule, of from 3 to 16 men.

Reconnoitering patrols are habitually small and seek safety in concealment or flight, fighting only when their mission demands it. The most skillful reconnaissance is where patrols accomplish their mission and return without being discovered by the enemy. When resistance is expected stronger detachments are required. These cover themselves with small patrols of two to four men, the remainder acting as support.

The commander determines the number and strength of patrols and when they are to be sent out. It is a cardinal principle to send out patrols of such strength only as will accomplish the object.

The officer sending out the patrol verifies the detail, designates a second in command, and gives the necessary instruction. The orders or instructions for a patrol, or for any detachment going on reconnoissance, must state clearly where the enemy is or is supposed to be, what information is desired, what features are of special importance, the general direction to be followed, whether friendly patrols are liable to be encountered, and where messages are to be sent or the patrol is to report. Important and comprehensive instructions should be in writing, but precautions against capture of papers must be taken. An officer sending out a patrol must be certain that his orders are understood. Detailed instructions are, as a rule, avoided. When necessary the time of return is stated.

The patrol leader should be selected with care. He should have good judgment, courage, be able to read maps, make sketches, and send clear and concise messages. In addition to his ordinary equipment, he should have a map of the country, a watch, field glass, compass, whistle, message blanks, and pencils.

The leader of a patrol should carefully inspect it before starting out and see that each member is in good physical condition, has serviceable shoes, a full canteen, one ration, a first-aid packet, and that his rifle and ammunition are in good condition. He will see that the equipment is arranged so as not to rattle; that nothing bright is exposed so as to glitter in the sunlight; that nothing is taken along that will give information to the enemy should any member fall into his hands, as, for example, copies of orders, maps with position of troops marked thereon, letters, newspapers, or collar ornaments. Blanket rolls should generally be left behind, in order that the patrol may travel as light as possible.

The leader then gives his patrol information and instructions. These embrace instructions from higher authority; his detailed plans; information of the country and enemy; the countersign, if any; the point where the patrol will assemble if scattered. He will see that the men understand the prescribed signals.

It must always be remembered that it makes no difference how valuable may be the information that the patrol gets, it is worthless if not sent back in time to be of service. Herein is where most patrols full. This applies particularly to the information obtained by patrols acting as a point or flankers of advance, rear, and flank guards. Whenever the patrol gets any information, the leader must think whether the commanding officer would change his plans or issue new orders if he had the information. If he would, the information should be sent back at once. If the distance is great or the inhabitants are hostile, it is well to send two men with the message. These men should not travel side by side, but as a patrol of two men. If the information is very important, and the danger of capture is considerable, the message should be sent by two parties, each traveling by a different route.

A message from a patrol should always show (a) the place from which it is sent; (b) the time it is sent (date, hour, and minute); (c) to whom it is sent; (d) the message itself; (e) what the patrol intends doing after sending the message; (f) the name of the sender. Under (d) care must be taken to separate what has actually been seen by the patrol from information received from other sources. Care must also be taken not to exaggerate what is seen, but to report only the exact facts.

In their conduct patrols exercise the greatest vigilance to prevent discovery. No formal formation is or should be prescribed. Under the leader's guidance it moves so as to guard against surprise, usually with point and flankers. To extend the sphere of its observation, still smaller patrols (one or two men) may be sent out for short distances, communication with the leader being maintained by signals. Whatever the formation adopted, it should favor the escape of at least one man in case of surprise.

In patrols of two to five men the commander generally leads. In this formation few signals are necessary, the men simply regulating their movements by his.

In questioning civilians caution is observed not to disclose information that may be of value to the enemy. Strangers are not allowed to precede the patrol. Patrol lenders are authorized to seize telegrams and mail matter, and to arrest individuals, reporting the facts as soon as possible.

Patrols should observe everything for signs of the enemy. Even apparent trifles may be of great value. The finding of a collar ornament showing a man's regiment may enable the chief of staff to determine that the enemy has been reenforced.

Patrols should not travel on the main roads if they can observe them and at the same time make the necessary progress by moving some distance to the side of the roads.

Unless in case of attack or of great personal danger, no member of the patrol should fire on hostile troops without orders from the patrol leader. When sent out to gain information, patrols should avoid fighting unless it is absolutely necessary in order to carry out their orders.

Villages and inclosures involving danger of surprise are entered with precaution, and for brief periods only. Halts are made at points affording good view, and the country is studied in all directions, landmarks to the rear being impressed on the minds of the men so that the way back can be readily found; the leader consults his map and locates himself thereon.

When a patrol is scattered it reassembles at some place previously selected; if checked in one direction, it takes another; if cut off, it returns by a detour or forces its way through. As a last resort, it scatters so that at least one man may return with information. Patrols nearing their own lines should march at a walk unless pressed by the enemy.

Occasionally it is advisable fur the leader to conceal his patrol and continue the reconnoissance with one or two companions.

Patrols far from their commands or in contact with the enemy often remain out overnight. In such cases they seek a place of concealment, proceeding thereto after nightfall or under cover.

When the enemy is encountered it is very necessary to locate his main force. Information is particularly desired of his strength, whether he has infantry, cavalry, and artillery, the route and direction of his march, or the location of his camp and line of outposts.

Dust clouds indicate moving bodies. Infantry raises a low, thick cloud; cavalry a high thin cloud; artillery and wagons a broken cloud. The kind of troops, direction of march, and approximate strength may thus sometimes be roughly estimated. If from some position a body of troops can be seen marching along in column, the exact time in minutes and seconds it requires for them to pas a certain point should be noted, together with the formation they are in, thus: Infantry, column of squads, three minutes and twelve seconds; cavalry, columns of twos at a trot, one minute and twenty seconds; wagons, four-mule, five minutes. From this information the strength can be determined by the following rule:

Assuming that infantry in column of squads occupy half a yard per man, cavalry in column of fours 1 yard per man, and artillery and wagons in single column 20 yards per gun, caisson, or wagon, a given point would be passed in one minute by about--

	175	infantry.
	110	infantry cavalry at a walk.
	200	infantry cavalry at a trot.
	5	infantry guns, caissons, or wagons.

For troops in column of twos, take one-half of the above estimate.

Patrols should always observe the country marched over, with a view to making a report on the same. The following information is always of value:

Roads.--Direction; kind, whether dirt, gravel, macadam, etc.; width, whether suitable for column of squads, etc.; border, whether fenced with stone, barbed, wire, rails, etc.; steepness in crossing hills and valleys; where they pass through defiles and along commanding heights. etc.; crossroads.

Surrounding country.--Whether generally open and passable for infantry, cavalry, and artillery, or whether broken and impassable, due to fences, woods, crops, ravines, etc.

Railroads.--Single or double track, narrow or broad gauge, tunnels, bridges, cuts, direction, stations, etc.

Bridges.--Material, wood, stone, steel, etc.: length and breadth; number and kind of piers or supports.

Rivers.--Direction; width, depth; kind of bottom, such as mud, sand, rocky, etc.: banks, steep or gentle, open or wooded; rapidity of current; variations in depth at different times as indicated by driftwood and high-water marks; islands; heights in vicinity commanding streams.

Woods.--Extent and shape; kind of trees; free from underbrush or not; clearings, roads, swamps, ravines, etc.

Telegraph lines.--Number of wires, along ronds or railroads, stations, etc.

Villages.--Size, kind of houses, nature of streets, means of defense, etc.

Hills and ridges.--Whether slopes are gentle or steep; whether top is narrow or wide; whether ground is broken or smooth, wooded or clear; whether difficult or easy to cross, etc.; whether commanded by other hills.

Defiles.--Their direction, length, and width; whether surrounding heights are passable for infantry and artillery; kind of country at each opening of the defile, etc.

Ravines, ditches, etc.--Width and depth; banks, whether passable for infantry, cavalry, and wagons; whether suitable for trenches, or for movement of troops therein, etc.

In general, every soldier should be constantly on the lookout to obtain information that might be of some military value. Remember that information of the enemy and of the country is worthless unless made known to the proper officials in time to be of use.

Every soldier should be able to find his way in a strange country; should know how to use a compass; should know how to locate the North Star; should be able to travel across country, keeping a given direction, both by day and by night, and by observing landmarks he should be able to return to the starting point either over the same route or by a more circuitous one. This can easily be learned by a little practice.

It adds a great deal to the value of a soldier if he knows how to use a map to find his way. If he knows how to make a rough sketch of the country, showing the position of roads, streams, woods, railroads, bridges, houses, villages, fields, fences, hills, etc., he has added to his value as a soldier very much, indeed, because a rough sketch of a country will give more and better information at a glance than can be obtained by reading many pages of written description.

Patrolling is one of the most important duties a soldier can learn. Any enlisted man who understands thoroughly his duties as a member of a patrol will understand also most of his duties when with advance or rear guards or when on outpost duty. Patrolling can not be learned merely by reading books nor by work indoors. Thoroughness comes only by actually going out in the country and acting as a patrol.

In carrying out this idea the following scheme is recommended:

Let four or more men and a noncommissioned officer act as a patrol. They assemble at a certain time, at a convenient point on some country road. An officer, whom we will call Captain A, acts as the director; the noncommissioned officer, whom we will call Sergeant B, acts as patrol leader; and the others (Privates C, D, E, etc.) act as members of Sergeant B's patrol.

Assume that the company (battalion. etc.) has just made camp in this vicinity find that the inhabitants are friendly (or hostile).

Captain A indicates to the rest of the men where the camp is situated and points out where the various sentinels are posted. (This in itself affords an opportunity for much discussion and for teaching many valuable lessons.)

Captain A then calls up Sergeant B and tells him--

(a) Just what information Captain A has of the enemy, and also any information of the country or of friendly troops in the vicinity that might be of service to Sergeant B.

(b) How many men he shall take for the patrol (this is another problem for Captain A to solve). Any men present not used as part of the patrol go along with Captain A as observers.

(c) How far he shall go and what country he shall cover with the patrol.

(d) Just what information it is particularly desired he shall obtain.

(e) Where he shall send his messages and when he shall return.

Example 1:

"Sergeant B, it has just been reported to me that a company of hostile infantry was in camp last night at X, about 5 miles from here on this road. Take 5 men and proceed toward X and find out whether the enemy is still there, and if not, when he left and where he went. Send messages to me here, and return by 8 o'clock this evening."

Example 2:

"Sergeant B, I think I heard the firing of field guns over in that direction a short while ago. Take 6 men and proceed to that high hill you see over there about 4 miles away. Send a message to me here when you reach there. You may go farther if you then think it advisable, but return before daylight. I desire particularly to know if there are any hostile troops in this vicinity, especially artillery. I shall send Sergeant X with 3 men to observe the country from that hill you see over there farther to the south. He will remain there till dark. Send messages to me here. If the company is not here on your return you will find a note for you underneath this rail."

Example 3:

"Sergeant B, this friendly country boy has just reported that four hostile cavalrymen stopped about half an hour ago at his father's house, which he says is about 2 miles up this road. One of the men seemed to be very sick. You will select eight men from your section and endeavor to capture these men. If they have disappeared you will reconnoiter in that vicinity until dark. This boy will accompany you as a guide. I desire particularly to learn the position, strength, and composition of any hostile troops in this vicinity. Send reports to me here. Return before daylight."

Example 4:

"Sergeant B, here is a map of the country in this vicinity on a scale of 1 inch to the mile. Here is where we are camped [indicating position on map]. I have just learned that foraging parties of the enemy are collecting supplies over here at X [indicating point on map], which is 10 miles off in that direction [pointing across country toward X]. It is reported that this bridge over this stream [indicating same on the map] which is about 3 miles down this road [indicating road and direction on the ground], has been destroyed. You will take three men from your platoon and verify this report. You will also reconnoiter the stream for a distance of 1 mile both above and below the bridge for fords suitable for infantry. Messages will reach me here. Return by 8 o'clock to-night."

Sergeant B then inspects his men and gives them their instructions. The patrol is then formed and moves out exactly as it would under actual war conditions.

Captain A may halt (and assemble if desirable) the patrol at intervals in order to discuss the formation used and the movement of any members of the patrol, their route, use of cover, etc., with the reasons therefor, and compare the same with suggested modifications of the formations, etc. After the discussion, the patrol is again set in motion. Captain A may accompany any part of the patrol. From time to time he presents certain situations to some member of the patrol, being very careful to assume only such situations as might naturally occur.

Thus, take Example 1:

Captain A is with Sergeant B, who, with Private C, is marching along the road as the point of the patrol. The other members of the patrol are distributed to suit the nature of the country over which the patrol is marching. The point has just reached a ridge beyond which the country is open and cultivated for about half a mile. Beyond this the road enters a woods. Captain A now says: "Sergeant B, from this point you see two soldiers in khaki on the road there at the beginning of that cornfield about 200 yards from the woods [points out same]. They are moving in this direction. About 200 yards to the right of these find somewhat farther to their rear you see two more men moving along that rail fence."

Sergeant B now does exactly as he would do in actual war. How does he signal to his patrol? Does he assemble his men? If so, how and where? Does he send a message back to camp; and if so, by whom, and is it written or verbal? (If written, Sergeant B actually writes it and delivers it to Private ----, with the necessary instructions. If verbal, it is actually given to Private ---- with instructions.) Captain A must in this case make notes of what the message was. In either case, Private ---- ceases to be a member of the patrol and joins Captain A as an observer. He should, however, at some later time be required to repeat his message to Captain A, on the assumption that he had reached camp with the same. The message, whether oral or written, should be thoroughly analyzed and discussed. Was it proper to send a message at this time? Does Sergeant B intend to remain in observation; if so, how long? (Captain A can give such information from time to time concerning the hostile patrol as Sergeant B might reasonably be supposed to learn in view of his dispositions. In order that Captain A may present natural assumptions, it is very essential that in his own mind he should, at the outset, assume a situation for the hostile forces and that he should consider himself as in command of all hostile troops. In this particular case he should assume himself to be in command of the hostile patrol, acting under certain specified orders similar to examples given, and he should conduct this patrol in his own mind in accordance with these orders, giving Sergeant B only such information as he might reasonably be expected to obtain in view of whatever action Sergeant B takes.) Will Sergeant B attempt to capture this patrol? If so, how? Will he avoid fighting and attempt to pass it unobserved; and if so, how and why?

In this manner the exercise is continued. Care must be taken not to have the patrol leader or members state what they would do, but they must actually do it. Explanations and discussions may take place later.

In a similar manner the director may inform Sergeant B (or any member of the patrol) that this hostile patrol is followed by a squad (on the assumption that it is the leading unit of an advance guard), and the exercise is then continued along these lines.

The following are examples of assumption that might be made and carried out:

(a) That the patrol is unexpectedly fired upon.

(b) That one or more of the patrol is wounded.

(c) That a prisoner is captured (let an observer act as prisoner).

(d) That a friendly inhabitant gives certain information.

(e) That a dust cloud is seen in the distance over the trees.

(f) That a column of troops can be seen marching along a distant road.

(g) That an abandoned camp is discovered and certain signs noted.

(h) That the patrol is attacked by a superior force and compelled to scatter.

There is practically no end to the number of reasonable assumptions that may be made.

Company officers may use this method of instructing non-commissioned officers in patrolling, advance and rear guard duty, outposts, and in squad leading, in writing messages, in selecting positions for trenches, and in constructing and concealing same. This form of instruction is called "a tactical walk." It is very greatly used by all foreign armies. Exercises along the same general lines are conducted for field and staff officers and even general officers, and are called "tactical rides" and "strategical rides," depending upon their object.

After some proficiency has been attained as a result of these tactical walks, the greatest interest and enthusiasm can be awakened in this work by sending out two patrols the same day, one to operate against the other. Each should wear a distinctive uniform. The strength of each patrol, its starting point, route to be followed, and its orders should all be unknown to the other patrol. If blank ammunition is used, an officer should supervise its issue and carefully inspect to see that no man carries any ball cartridges. One umpire should accompany the commander of each party. Each umpire should be fully informed of the strength, orders, and route of both patrols. He must, however, carefully avoid giving suggestions or offering any information to the commander. Observers in these small maneuver problems are generally in the way and none should be permitted to be along.

These small maneuvers may be gradually developed by having one side establish al outpost or fight a delaying action, etc.

It should always be remembered that there is no hard and fast rule prescribing how a patrol of three, five, or any number of men should march. The same is equally true of advance guards, and applies also to the establishment of outposts. It is simply a question of common sense based on military knowledge. Don't try to remember any diagrams in a book. Think only of what you have been ordered to do and how best you can handle your men to accomplish your mission, and at the same time save the men from any unnecessary hardships. Never use two or more men to do what one can do just as well, and don't let your men get beyond your control.

In addition to the signals prescribed in the Infantry Drill Regulations, the following should be clearly understood by the members of a patrol.

Enemy in sight in small numbers, hold rifle above the head horizontally; enemy in force, same proceeding, raising and lowering the rifle several times; take cover, a downward motion of the hand.

Other signals may be agreed upon, but they must be familiar to the men; complicated signals are avoided. Signals must be used cautiously so as not to convey information to the enemy.

Section 4. Advance Guards.

The advance guard is a detachment of the main body which precedes and covers it on the march. The primary duty of an advance guard is to insure the safe and uninterrupted march of the main body. Specifically its duties are:

1. To guard against surprise and furnish information by reconnoitering.

2. To push back small parties of the enemy and prevent their observing, firing upon, or delaying the main body.

3. To check the enemy's advance in force long enough to permit the main body to prepare for action.

4. When the enemy is encountered on the defensive, to seize a good position and locate his lines, care being taken not to bring on a general engagement unless the advance guard commander is empowered to do so.

5. To remove obstacles, repair the road, and favor in every way the steady march of the column.

The strength of the advance guard will vary with the proximity of the enemy and character of the country; for a regiment it will generally consist of from two companies to a battalion, for a battalion of one company; for a company of from a squad to a platoon. The advance guard commander is responsible for the proper performance of the duties with which it is charged and for its conduct and formation.

The advance guard provides for its security and gains information by throwing out to the front and flanks smaller bodies. Each part must keep in touch with the unit from which it is sent out. An advance guard is generally divided into a reserve and a support; where it consists of less than a battalion, the reserve is generally omitted.

The support sends forward an advance party, which, in turn, sends forward a point. In small advance guards the point precedes the advance party about 150 yards, the advance party the support about 300 yards, and the support the main body about 400 yards. Where advance guards are large enough to require a reserve these distances are increased about one-fourth, the reserve following the support, the main body following the reserve at a distance varying from 500 to 800 yards.

Unless the country to the flanks is distinctly visible from the roads for a distance of what may be said to be effective rifle fire, approximately 1,000 yards, flanking patrols of two or three men each should be sent out from the advance party, and, when in proximity of the enemy, in addition from the support. When the nature of the country is such that patrols may move across country without undue effort and fatigue these patrols should march at a distance of from 200 to 300 yards from the flank of the body from which detached. For the examination of any object, such as a wood, buildings, etc., examining patrols should be sent out from the main body. The usual method of protecting the flanks, particularly when the country is at all cut up or difficult, is to send out patrols from time to time to some point from which a good outlook can be obtained, or which will afford protection to the enemy. These patrols remain in observation until the advance guard has passed, when they rejoin the nearest subdivision, as quickly as possible working their way to that to which they belong during the halts. By sending out a succession of small patrols in this manner the flanks are protected. Should the advance party become depleted, it must be reenforced from the support.

A battalion acting as advance guard would have two companies in reserve and two in support. The support would send forward as advance party two platoons, the advance party in turn sending forward as point one squad. A company acting as advance guard would have no reserve and would send forward as advance party one platoon.

Cases may arise when the best means of covering the head and flanks of the column will be by a line of skirmishers extended at intervals of from 5 to 50 yards, as, for instance, when passing through high corn, underbrush, etc.

It must always be remembered that the principal duty of the advance guard is to secure the uninterrupted march of the main body. If the point is fired upon, it should at once deploy and endeavor to advance fighting. The flankers should assist in this and endeavor to locate the enemy's flank should there be such resistance that advance was impossible. Each succeeding body should march promptly forward, and in turn be placed in action, with the idea of clearing the way for the advance of the main body. Should this be impossible, the commander of the entire body must determine what measures he will take.

Section 5. Rear guards.

A rear guard is a detachment detailed to protect the main body from attack in rear. In a retreat it checks pursuit and enables the main body to increase the distance between it and the enemy and to re-form if disorganized. The general formation is that of an advance guard reversed.

Its commander should take advantage of every favorable opportunity to delay the pursuers by obstructing the road or by taking up specially favorable positions from which to force the enemy to deploy. In this latter case care must be taken not to become so closely engaged as to render withdrawal unnecessarily difficult. The position taken should be selected with reference to ease of withdrawal and ability to bring the enemy under fire at long ranges.

Section 6. Flank guards.

A flank guard is a detachment detailed to cover the flank of a column marching past, or across the front of, an enemy. It may be placed in position to protect the passage, or it may be so marched as to cover the passage. The object of the flank guard is to hold the enemy in check long enough to enable the main body to pass, or, like the advance guard, to enable the main body to deploy. Like all other detachments, it should be no larger than is necessary, and should not be detailed except when its protection is required.

When a flank guard consists of a regiment or less, its distance from the main body should not exceed a mile and a half. Practicable communication must exist between it and the main body. The flank guard is marched as a separate command; that is, with advance or rear guards, or both, as circumstances demand, and with patrolling on the exposed flank.

Section 7. Outposts.

Troops not on the march provide for their security by outposts. The general duties of an outpost are reconnoissance, observation, and resistance.

The specific duties are:

1. To protect the main body, so that the troops may rest undisturbed.

2. In case of attack, to check the enemy long enough to enable the main body to make the necessary dispositions.

During an advance the outposts are usually detailed from the advance guard. During the retreat the outpost for the night usually forms the rear guard the next day. If the command remains in bivouac, the new outpost generally goes on duty at daybreak.

The vigilance of outpost troops must be unceasing, but they should avoid bringing on combats or unnecessarily alarming the command. Firing disturbs the rest of troops and, if frequently indulged in, ceases to be a warning.

No trumpet signals except "to arms" or "to horse" are sounded, and all unnecessary noises must be avoided.

As a rule an outpost will not exceed one-sixth the strength of a command. For a single company a few sentinels and patrols will suffice; for a larger command a more elaborate system must be devised. The troops composing the outpost are generally divided into a reserve and several supports.

At a proper distance in front of the camp of the main body a line which offers a good defensive position is selected. This is called the line of resistance, and should he so located that an advancing enemy will be held in check beyond effective rifle range in case of a small force, artillery range in case of a large force, of the main body until the latter can deploy. The reserve is stationed at some point in rear of this line, where it can be moved quickly to reinforce any point as needed. The line of resistance is divided into sections, the limits of each of which are clearly defined. A support is assigned to each section, which are numbered from right to left, and occupies a position on or near the line, having special regard to covering avenues of approach. The position occupied should always be intrenched. The reserve and supports proceed to their respective positions by the shortest routes, providing for their own protection by sending out covering detachments.

Generally speaking, about one-half the Infantry of the advance guard should be in the supports. As each support arrives at its position it sends out observation groups, varying in size from four men to a platoon, to watch the country in the direction of the enemy. These groups are called outguards. For convenience they are classified as pickets, sentry squads, and cossack posts, and should be sufficient in number to cover the front of the section occupied by the support and connect with the neighboring supports.

A picket is a group consisting of two or more squads, ordinarily not exceeding half a company, posted in the line of outposts to cover a given sector. It furnishes patrols and one or more sentinels, sentry squads, or cossack posts for observation. Pickets are placed at the more important points in the line of outguards, such as road forks. The strength of each depends upon the number of small groups required to observe properly its sector.

A sentry squad is a squad (eight men) posted in observation at an indicated point. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the remaining men resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of sentinels. In some cases it may be required to furnish a patrol.

A cossack post consists of four men. It is an observation group similar to a sentry squad, but employs a single sentinel.

As a rule not more than one-third of the support should be on outguard duty. As soon as they are sent out to their postions the support commander selects a defensive position on the line of resistance; gives instruction for intrenching same; establishes a sentinel to watch for and transmit signals from outguards; sends out patrols to reconnoiter the country to the front of his section and, if on the flank of the line, the flank; and then proceeds to make a careful reconnoissance of the section assigned him, rectifying the position of outguards if necessary, seeing that they understand their instructions in case of attack or when strangers approach their posts, and pointing out their lines of retreat in case they are compelled to fall back on the support.

When the outguards are established, the members of the support may stack arms and remove equipment except cartridge belts. No fires will be built or smoking permitted unless specially authorized, or no loud talking or other noise. All patrolling to the front will be done, as a rule, from the support. The support commander should locate the position of the adjacent supports und make arrangements with the commanders for the joint defense of the line of resistance. At nights all roads and trails should be carefully covered and the country to the front and between adjacent outguards well patrolled.

The line occupied by the outguards is called the line of observation. Outguards move to their positions providing for their own protection and so us to conceal the movement from the enemy. These positions are intrenched and are numbered from right to left in each support.

The duties of the outguard are to observe the enemy, to guard the outpost from surprise, and to make a preliminary resistance to the enemy's advance. The strength of the outguard will vary according to its object. When an important road which at night will afford a line of advance, or a bridge is to be covered, or when several posts are established from an outguard it should be of considerable strength, two squads or a platoon. When mere observation and alarm are all that is required four men will suffice. A squall is a good unit to use as an outguard; this will allow one double sentry post of three reliefs and one man in addition to the commander, who may be used for messenger service. The outguard should be carefully concealed.

The utmost quiet should be observed, and there should be no cooking or smoking. The intervals between outguards will depend upon the situation and the terrain. The line of observation is not necessarily continuous, but all avenues of approach must be carefully guarded. The distance of the outguard from the support likewise is governed by the terrain, but in general may be said to be from 300 to 400 yards. In thick country or at night outguards patrol along the line of observation between posts. Communication between outguards and the support is by signal and messenger, in special cases by wire. Members of the outguard retain possession of their weapons and do not remove their equipment.

Sentinels from the outguard are posted so as to avoid observation, but so that they may have a clear lookout and be able to see, if possible, by day, the sentinels of the adjacent outguards. Double sentinels are always posted near enough to each other to communicate easily in ordinary voice. Sentinels are generally on post two hours out of six. For every sentinel and every patrol there should be three reliefs, and outguards should be of a strength sufficient to allow this. The position of a sentinel should be selected with reference to observation. It may be advantageous to place a sentinel in a tree. Sentinels furnished by cossack posts or sentry squads are kept near their group. Those furnished by their pickets may be kept as far sa 100 yards away.

Reliefs, visiting patrols, and inspecting officers approach sentinels from the rear.

A sentinel on the line of observation should always have the following instructions: The names of villages, streams, and prominent features in sight and where the roads lead. The number (if any) of his post, and the number of his and of the adjoining outguards; the position of the support; the line of retreat to be followed if the outguard is compelled to fall back; the position of advance detachments and whether friendly patrols are operating in front; to watch to the front and flanks without intermission and devote special attention to unusual or suspicious occurrences; if he sees indications of the enemy, to at once notify his immediate superior; in case of imminent danger, or when an attack is made, to give the alarm by firing rapidly; by day to pass in or out officers, noncommissioned officers, and detachments recognized as part of the outposts, and officers known to have authority to do so; to detain all others and notify the outguard commander; at night, when persons approach his post, to come to a ready, halt them, and notify the outguard commander; the latter challenges, ascertains their identity, and acts accordingly. When individuals fail to halt, or otherwise disobey, to fire upon them after a second warning, or sooner if they attempt to attack or escape; to require deserters to lay down their arms, and remain until a patrol is sent out to bring them in; to order deserters pursued by the enemy to drop their arms and to give an alarm; if they fail to obey they are fired upon; to require bearers of flags of truce and their escorts to halt and to face outward; to permit them to hold no conversation and to see that they are then blindfolded and disposed of in accordance with instructions from the support commander; if they fall to obey to fire upon them; at night, to remain practically stationary, moving about for purposes of observation only; not to sit or lie down unless authorized to do so; in the daytime, to make use of natural or artificial cover and assume such positions as to give him the best field of view; to inform passing patrols of what he has seen; to carry his weapon habitually loaded and locked and at will.

Outpost patrols are divided into those which operate beyond the lines and those whose duty lies principally within the lines. The former, called reconnoitering patrols, scout in the direction of the enemy; the latter, called visiting patrols, maintain communication between the parts of the outpost and supervise the performance of duty on the line of observation. Reconnoissance should be continuous. Though scouts and detachments of cavalry remain in contact with the enemy, or at least push forward to a considerable distance, more detailed reconnoissance by infantry patrols in the foreground must not be neglected. Reconnoitering patrols are composed of at least two men and a skillful leader, who, in important cases, would be an officer. They obtain information, ascertain the presence of the enemy, or discover his approach. All patrols, when they cross the line of observation, inform the nearest sentinel of the direction in which they are to advance; on their return they similarly report what they have seen of the enemy; signals are agreed upon so that they can be recognized when returning. Any ground near the line of observation which might afford cover for troops, or for scouts or spies, and the approach to which can not be observed by sentinels, is searched frequently by patrols. Definite information concerning the enemy is reported at once. Patrols fire only in self-defense or to give the alarm. Supports on the flank of an outpost position patrol the country on the exposed flank. Visiting patrols and reliefs should not march in the open, and thereby expose the position of sentinels.

During a march in the vicinity of the enemy when halts are made, special measures for protection are taken. When the halt is for a short period, less than half an hour, the advance party and support remain at ease, the point and flankers move to positions from which they can obtain a good lookout, and additional patrols may be sent out from advance parties and supports. Where the halt is for a period exceeding half an hour a march outpost should be formed. With an advance guard consisting of a battalion, 2 companies in the reserve, 2 in the support, the latter having as advance party one-half a company, a typical march outpost would be formed as follows: The advance party would send one platoon, four or five hundred yards to the right as outguard No. 1, the remaining platoon constituting outguard No. 2. A platoon from the head of the support would be sent a similar distance to the left as outguard No. 3. The balance of the support would constitute the support of the march outpost, the reserve of the advance guard acting as reserve. On signal being given to resume the march, the various units would close in, and as soon as the advance party had assembled the march would be taken up.

Soldiers should remember that only by acting vigorously on the offensive can an army hope to gain the victory. The defensive may delay or stop the enemy, but it can never destroy him. "Troops dig because they are forced to halt; they do not halt to dig."

Trenches will frequently be constructed, without being used, and soldiers must expect this as a feature of campaigning and accept cheerfully what at times may appear as unnecessary labor.

When intrenching under fire cover is first secured in the lying position, each man scooping out a depression for his body and throwing the earth to the front. In this position no excavation can be conveniently made for the legs, but if time permits the original excavation is enlarged and deepened until it is possible to assume a sitting position, with the legs crossed and the shoulder to the parapet. In such a position a man presents a smaller target to shrapnel bullets than in the lying trench and can fire more comfortably and with less exposure than in the kneeling trench. From the sitting position the excavation may be continued until a standing trench is secured.

The accompanying plate shows some of the more common forms of trenches in profile. Figure 1 is the simplest form of standing trench. Figure 2 shows the same trench deepened in rear, so as to allow men to walk along in the rear (deeper) portion of the trench without exposing their heads above the parapet. Figure 3 shows a cover and firing trench, with a chamber in which men can find shelter when under heavy artillery fire. When the excavated earth is easily removed figure 4 shows a good profile. The enemy's infantry, as well as his artillery, will generally have great difficulty in seeing this type of trench.

The mound or bank of earth thrown up for shelter in front of a trench is called the parapet. It should be at least 30 inches thick on top, and the front should slope gradually, as shown in the plate, so that shells will tend to glance from it, rather than penetrate and explode. The top should be covered with sod, grass, or leaves, so as to hide the newly turned earth, which could be easily seen and aimed at by the enemy. There should be no rocks, loose stones, or pebbles on top, which might be struck by the bullets, splintering and flying, thus adding greatly to the number of dangerous projectiles, and often deflecting bullets downward into the trench. A stone wall is a very dangerous thing to be behind in a fight.

The portion of the ground in rear of the parapet and between the parapet and the trench not covered by the parapet is to rest the elbows on when firing, the rifle being rested on top of the parapet.

To obtain head cover in a trench fill a gunny sack or other bag with sand or soil and place it on top of the parapet, aiming around the right-hand side of it, or dig a small lateral trench in the parapet large enough to hold the rifle. Roof it over with boards, small logs, or brush, and heap dirt on top, aiming through the small trench or resulting loophole.

Figure 5 shows the plan of a section of a rifle trench.[7] Between the portions occupied by each squad there is often placed a mound of earth as high as the top of the parapet and projecting back into the trench. This is called a traverse and protects the occupants of the trench from fire from a flank. Bullets from this direction hit a traverse, instead of flying down into the trench and wounding several men.

[Footnote 7: The traverse should be at least 6 feet wide instead of 3 feet, as shown in figure 5.]

Trenches are seldom continuous, but are made in sections placed at the most advantageous points, as shown in figure 6. A company or battalion may occupy a single section. The firing trenches have cover trenches in rear of them, where the supports can rest undisturbed by the hostile fire until they are needed in the firing trench to repel a serious assault or to take part in a counter attack. Passages consisting of deep communicating trenches facilitate passage from the cover trenches to the firing trenches when under fire. These communicating trenches are usually zigzag or traversed to prevent their being swept by hostile fire.

When troops are likely to remain in trenches for a considerable time drainage should be arranged for, and latrines and dressing stations should be constructed in trenches. Water should be brought into the trenches and holes excavated in the front wall of the trench for extra ammunition.

In digging trenches men usually work in reliefs, one relief digging while the others rest, the proportion of shovelers to pick men being about 3 to 1. If a plow can be obtained to turn the sod, it will greatly facilitate the initial work of digging.