 
FOOTNOTES[1] See also Sulte (Benjamin), DÉcouverte du Mississippi en 1659. In Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Second Series, vol. ix., (1903), section i., pp. 3-44. Radisson's veracity is not unquestioned. [2] For an admirable account of the fur trade see The American Fur Trade of the Far West, by H. M. Chittenden. [3] See The American Beaver and his Works, by Lewis H. Morgan. [4] Gatschet says there is a word in the dialect of Isleta, N. M., SibÚlodd, meaning buffalo, and it is possible that a native name for the animal has been mixed up with the name of the first group of towns, written often Cevola. For a description of these towns, etc., see Coronado, by George Parker Winship, A. S. Barnes & Co. edition. [5] Voyages through North America, Alexander Mackenzie, vol. ii., p. 27, Barnes edition. [6] An excellent monograph on the American Bison, by J. A. Allen, edited by Dr. Elliott Coues, is contained in the Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of Colorado and Adjacent Territories, by F. V. Hayden, for 1875. See also works of W. T. Hornaday. [7] Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique. [8] Owned by the Buffalo Fine Arts Academy. [9] The Wild Northland, Sir William Francis Butler, K.C.B. [10] Pemmican, from the Cree language—pimmi, meat, and kon, fat. [11] The English Sportsman in the Western Prairies. [12] Buffalo Land, W. E. Webb. [13] Buffalo Land, p. 304. [14] Commerce of the Prairies. [15] The Canadian Red River Expedition of 1858, H. Y. Hind, p. 356. [16] Crayon Miscellany. A Tour on the Prairies. [17] Catlin's Eight Years, vol. i., pp. 25, 26. [18] A substitute word, compounded of the first two syllables of American and the first syllable of Indian, adopted by some leading ethnologists. [19] I am not now taking theories into account. The theory that man has evolved from a lower organism seems to be correct. Here reference is made only to absolute facts. [20] The domestication of the buffalo by some tribe referred to by Gomara is not sufficiently definite to be accepted, and, furthermore, if true, could have been only a limited case. In Arizona there is some indication that an animal like the vicuna was used, but it is very vague. [21] For a list of stocks and sub-stocks, and of tribes, classified according to language, see The North Americans of Yesterday, by F. S. Dellenbaugh, Appendix, p. 461. By means of these lists the proper places of the majority of tribes can be readily found. [22] There was also a Dakota sub-tribe called Blackfeet. In their own language they were Sihasapa—a branch of the Tetons. [23] Throughout the South-west, in the Colorado and Rio Grande River basins, certain tribes of similar culture and village habits once lived. These seem to have been of different stocks, exactly as the village building tribes of to-day are. Some were probably Shoshonean, some Piman, others were allied to the TaÑoan and Keresan, while still others were of stocks now extinct. For all these the term Puebloan is convenient. [24] North of the Colorado River are innumerable house ruins ascribed by the present Pai Utes (Shoshonean) to the Shinumo. They also call the Mokis, Shinumo, hence Powell applied this term to the whole group. The probability is that the Shinumo were all Shoshonean. [25] A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, by Daniel Williams Harmon. A. S. Barnes & Co. [26] The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth. Harper & Bros. [27] The Middle Five. [28] For the story of this exploration see The Romance of the Colorado River, by F. S. Dellenbaugh, and for further information on the natives of the Wilderness, see The North Americans of Yesterday, same author, and The Indian of To-day, by George Bird Grinnell. [29] Journal of Jacob Fowler, edited by Elliott Coues. [30] See Voyages to the Arctic, by Alexander Mackenzie, vol. i., p. xxxviii., and other early travellers in the West. [31] Catlin estimated 16,000,000. [32] A valuable, handy volume on the early doings of the Spaniards is Pioneer Spaniards in North America, by William Henry Johnson. See also The Discovery of America, by John Fiske. [33] See Relation of Alvar NuÑez Cabeza de Vaca, translation by Buckingham Smith. Contributions to the History of the South-western Portion of the U. S., by A. F. Bandelier. "Alvar NuÑez Cabeza de Vaca," by Brownie Ponton and Bates H. McFarland, in the Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Society (January, 1898). [34] Buckingham Smith, p. 102. [35] CastaÑeda asserts that Marcos was sixty leagues from the towns when he received news of the death of Estevan, and that he did not go a step nearer. See The Journey of Coronado, by George Parker Winship, p. 8. Barnes & Co. edition. [36] See the narratives of CastaÑeda and Jaramillo in The Journey of Coronado, by George Parker Winship. Barnes & Co. edition. [37] For an account of the explorations of the Colorado, see The Romance of the Colorado River, by F. S. Dellenbaugh. Topographical description, Chapter III. [38] An indication that Corazones was farther north than the region of the pass of Mulatos, and therefore that Cabeza's route was also farther north than Bandelier believes. It would also indicate that Estevan led the way back over their old trail. [40] Cicuye is identified with the present ruins of Pecos near Santa FÉ, but like most of the accepted identifications it is not correct. Cicuye was farther south. See also Bandelier on the Ruins of the Pueblo of Pecos, papers of the ArchÆological Institute of America, American Series I. [41] Some years ago, in a Bulletin of the American Geographical Society (1897), I published my views on this subject. Since then I have succeeded in making the matter somewhat clearer, especially as to the site of Tiguex, and gave my ideas before the meeting of the International Congress of Americanists, 13th Session, New York, 1902. Simpson, before me, located Tiguex below the mouth of the Puerco, and it can be nowhere else. [42] Also given "Ruiz" and "Ruyz." [43] The site assigned for Tiguex by Bandelier is at Bernalillo, but I consider it an impossible location. [44] Benavides, in his residence in the country, went over the same route as Espejo, and his itinerary tallies with Espejo's from Tiguex to Acoma. Thus Tiguex falls below the Puerco by evidence separated by more than forty years. [45] It has been stated by some historians that Santa FÉ was founded in 1582, but it is a mistake. [46] See Robert Greenhow's admirable History of Oregon and California, and the history by H. H. Bancroft, for details on California. [47] San Diego, 1769; San Luis Rey de Francia, 1798; San Juan Capistrano, 1776; San Gabriel, 1771; San Fernando, 1797; Santa Barbara, 1786; La Purissima Concepcion, 1787; San Luis Obispo, 1772; San Miguel, 1797; Soledad, 1791; San Antonio de Padua, 1771; San Carlos de Monterey, 1770; San Juan Bautista, 1797; Santa Cruz, 1794; Santa Clara, 1777; San Francisco, 1776; San JosÉ, 1797. In the next century three more were added: Santa Inez, 1804; San Rafael, 1817; San Francisco de Solano de Sonoma, 1820. [48] See Garces, by Elliott Coues. [49] Some years ago, Col. John Reid found on his farm, six miles west of Lexington, Mo., and two miles from the river, a silver-plated halberd, together with some old French and Spanish coins. The articles were six feet below the surface, and were exposed by the cutting of a creek. Later owned by Mr. Jo. A. Wilson of Lexington. This halberd does not indicate Coronado's presence, but it is interesting in this connection. The French coins would suggest a later time—dates not known. [50] Travels in the Interior of America, John Bradbury, edition of 1817, p. 12. [51] See La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West, by Francis Parkman. [52] See The Expedition of Pedro de Villazur, by A. F. Bandelier, Papers of the ArchÆological Institute of America, American Series V. [53] Sieur de la Verendrye and His Sons, etc., by Rev. E. D. Neill, in Contributions, Montana Historical Society, vol. i., p. 267. See also Report on Canadian Archives, Douglas Brymner, and Thwaite's Rocky Mountain Exploration, p. 27 et seq. [54] Among the papers of James Stuart, who was long resident in that region, was found a memorandum referring to some monument "twenty feet in diameter—on river bluffs—round and run to point—spaces between boulders filled with green grass and weeds." Contributions, Historical Society of Montana, vol. i., p. 272. [55] See Greenhow's History of Oregon and California, p. 140, et seq., second ed. [56] Travels throughout the Interior Parts of North America in 1766-8, by Jonathan Carver. The descriptions of native tribes contained in this book are, according to Greenhow, not original, but mainly translations from Lahontan. Greenhow, p. 144. second ed. [57] The Wild Northland, Sir William Francis Butler. Barnes edition. [58] Journal of Voyages and Travels, Daniel Williams Harmon. Barnes & Co. edition. [59] Voyages through North America, Alexander Mackenzie. Barnes & Co. edition. [60] Fur-trading establishments were called forts or houses, the latter term being more particularly used in the more northern regions, though fort was employed there also. An excellent impression of the life at one of these posts may be obtained from Stewart Edward White's novel, Conjuror's House. [61] Several expeditions, indeed, had been proposed: George Rogers Clark in 1783; John Ledyard from Paris to Kamtchatka, thence to Nootka Sound, thence across the continent to the United States, 1784; and Michaux referred to in the next chapter. These amounted to nothing. [62] He was made a captain at twenty-three. [63] At eight years Lewis was a "coon" hunter. [64] See: Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites; Lewis and Clark, Biddle edition, edited by Elliott Coues; Lewis and Clark's Journals, Biddle edition, reprint, Barnes & Co.; The Trail of Lewis and Clark, O. D. Wheeler. [65] Journal of Voyages, Barnes edition, p. 106. [66] $2500 were appropriated by Congress for the Lewis and Clark expedition. [67] This was La Roque of the N.-W. Co. [68] Pike was later captain, then major, then general. He was killed at York, Upper Canada, in the War of 1812. He was about the age of Meriwether Lewis. [69] Charles Joseph Latrobe, a companion of Washington Irving on the plains. He wrote The Rambler in North America. [70] About this time the Marquis Casa Calvo had given an American, Dunbar, permission to explore the Red River and Wichita country. [71] Coues suggests that Pike was really bound for Santa FÉ and fully intended to allow himself to be captured. It is possible that he had some secret compact with General Wilkinson and Aaron Burr. [72] I find that the majority of men object to having an over-abundance of provisions, even of the staple sort. It seems often to be considered a sort of cowardice to provide for unforeseen food emergencies, yet these are the very ones which wreck expeditions. Some one compact staple should always be carried in extravagant quantity, and there are ways of doing it. [73] See the frontispiece. They came down into the valley behind the left-hand peak. The exact route from Wet Mountain valley to the Rio Grande is uncertain, also the pass. See Coues on these points. [74] Coues pertinently asks, if Pike thought himself on Red River, why did he cross it into acknowledged Spanish territory and there build his fort. Robinson also knew he was near Santa FÉ. [75] For the full account see Bradbury, Travels, etc., original edition, page 17, footnote. [76] For full details of this undertaking see Washington Irving's Astoria. [77] See New Light on the Early History of the Greater North-West, by Dr. Elliott Coues. [78] I have not seen the original journal of Hunt. Irving, not knowing the country, does not always make the trail perfectly clear. [79] Life in the Far West. G. F. A. Ruxton. [80] Recently a manuscript diary of Robert Stuart's was discovered, and a typewritten copy of it has been added to the New York Public Library. [81] Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains in 1819-20, compiled by Edwin James from the notes of Major Long, Mr. Say, and other gentlemen of the party. [82] James took the place of Dr. Baldwin, who had become ill and remained behind at the village of Franklin, where he died on August 31, 1819. Dr. James came out in the spring of 1820 with Major Long. [83] Dr. Coues states in his Pike's Journal that the proper name for this stream, as applied by FrÉmont, is Fontaine qui Bouit, but as it was named before FrÉmont's time from the celebrated "boiling" springs, Dr. Coues's statement is an error. [84] The Journal of Jacob Fowler, edited by Elliott Coues, with notes. [85] The Life and Adventures of James P. Beckwourth, written from his own dictation by T. D. Bonner. Chittenden says he became Beckwourth only when this book was written—before that being plain Beckwith, but men are often called for years by wrong names, and Beckwourth is no more distinguished than Beckwith. [86] Inman, The Santa FÉ Trail, says the Bents, Carson, and Maxwell, whom he knew, spoke well of Beckwourth. He also says his honesty was unquestioned, and that he was a born leader. [87] For further details of this part of Pattie's journey see The Romance of the Colorado River, by F. S. Dellenbaugh. [88] The Personal Narrative of James O. Pattie of Kentucky, edited by Timothy Flint. [89] Ashley went through Red Canyon and another party later through the Canyon of Lodore. Below this there is no record of successful passage till 1869. [90] Chittenden thinks Smith later changed the name Adams to Virgin after Thomas Virgin of his party. It may, however, be a corruption of Le Verkin, a name which survives in one of the branches. [91] There are several biographies of Carson. [92] Burdette's Life of Kit Carson. [93] Commerce of the Prairies. [94] Gregg, Commerce of the Prairies. [95] Reminiscences of a Ranger. [96] History of the American Fur Trade—an admirable work. He criticises Bancroft for speaking of Irving's book as The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, but this was the title of the edition of 1849. [97] Early California Reminiscences, by General John Bidwell, in Out West Magazine, March, 1904, p. 286. [98] Travels in the Interior of North America, by Maximilian, Prince of Wied, translated from the German by H. Evans Lloyd. [99] See Catlin's Eight Years. [100] In the works of H. H. Bancroft may be found lists of books on the Wilderness. [101] How Marcus Whitman Saved Oregon, by O. W. Nixon. It is now stated that the importance ascribed to Whitman's labours is exaggerated, and that he had little to do with "saving" Oregon. [102] The method of expressing astonishment was to cover the mouth with one hand. [103] Travels in the Great Western Prairies, etc., by Thomas J. Farnham. [104] Life in the Far West, by George Frederick Ruxton. [105] Though beaver trapping was no longer profitable, yet the fur business was still carried on, and, as Chittenden points out, is to-day greater than ever. Furs now come from a much wider range, however. [106] Books about the Mormons are full of prejudice one way or the other. The most valuable account I know is The Story of the Mormons, by William A. Linn. [107] The reader may conclude from my remarks on alcoholic beverages that I am a Prohibitionist or a teetotaler, yet such is not the case. But the manner in which whiskey was furnished to the natives, and the way in which it debauches the frontier towns, are a disgrace to humanity. [108] For location of forts and trading posts see Chittenden, History of the American Fur Trade, Part III., with an excellent map. [109] Captivity of the Oatman Girls, R. B. Stratton. [110] Jacob Hamblin; A Narrative of His Personal Experience, Fifth Book of the Faith Promoting Series, by James A. Little. Juvenile Instructor Office, Salt Lake City, 1881. [111] The Mormons also settled in southern California, and Major Bell declared "they were the very best fellows" he ever had to do with. In 1859 they were recalled to Utah by Brigham Young, who for the time being concentrated his people in the territory over which they had control. [112] Provo to Golden. [113] Being desirous of securing details of Johnson's operations, and finding that he was still living in California, I wrote to him about a year ago requesting information particularly on certain main facts. Instead of giving it to me, he replied that he would soon publish a book in which I would find all the points, and referred me to that. He died soon after, and I have not been able to get track of the book. [114] For a list of the canyons in their sequence, with declivity, altitudes, height of walls, etc., see Appendix, The Romance of the Colorado River, by F. S. Dellenbaugh. [115] After this was written Sumner died—in 1907. The Romance of the A Complete Account of the Discovery and of the Explorations from 1540 to the Present Time, with Particular Reference to the two Voyages of Powell through the Line of the Great Canyons By Frederick S. Dellenbaugh 8o, with 200 Illustrations, net, $3.50. By mail, $3.75 "As graphic and as interesting as a novel.... Of especial value to the average reader is the multiplicity of pictures. They occur on almost every page, and while the text is always clear, these pictures give, from a single glance, an idea of the vastness of the canyons and their remarkable formation, which it would be beyond the power of pen to describe. And the color reproduction of the water-color drawing that Thomas Moran made of the entrance to Bright Angel Trail gives some faint idea of the glories of color which have made the Grand Canyon the wonder and the admiration of the world."—The Cleveland Leader. 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"Mr. Dellenbaugh's book is the most satisfactory volume that the new study has evoked. It is full of facts which are agreeably but forcibly presented. Without seeking controversy it takes bold positions and works from their standpoint, and it is graced by a wealth of illustration."—Transcript, Portland, Me. "The first great merit of the book is that it is strictly impartial, written from a viewpoint midway between that of the white man who has rarely treated the Indian or his history justly, and that which the Indian himself would be supposed to take were he to write his history. And the author's treatment of the red man it must be admitted is just."—Grand Rapids Herald. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS New York London A Canyon Voyage The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the Green-Colorado River from Wyoming and the Explorations on Land in the Years 1871 and 1872. By Frederick S. 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In the Romance of the Colorado, Mr. Dellenbaugh gave a brief description of this expedition in order to make his history of the remarkable river complete, but now feeling the desirability of a fuller record in the interest of Western United States history, he tells, in A Canyon Voyage, the whole experience. SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAR G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS New York London The Ohio River A Course of Empire By Archer Butler Hulbert Associate Professor of American History, Marietta College. Author of "Historic Highways of America," etc. Large Octavo with 100 Full-Page Illustrations and a Map. Net, $3.50. By express, prepaid, $3.75 An interesting description from a fresh point of view of the international struggle which ended with the English conquest of the Ohio Basin, and includes many interesting details of the pioneer movement on the Ohio. 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