Charles Darwin

[1] To any one who has attentively read my 'Origin of Species' this Introduction will be superfluous. As I stated that work that I should soon publish the facts on which the conclusions given in it were founded, I here beg permission to remark that the great delay in publishing this first work has been caused by continued ill-health.

[2] M. Pouchet has recently ('Plurality of Races,' Eng. Translat., 1864, p. 83, &c.) insisted that variation under domestication throws no light on the natural modification of species. I cannot perceive the force of his arguments, or, to speak more accurately, of his assertions to this effect.

[3] LÉon Dufour in 'Annales des Scienc. Nat.' (3rd series, Zoolog.), tom. v. p. 6.

[4] In treating the several subjects included in the present and succeeding works I have continually been led to ask for information from many zoologists, botanists, geologists, breeders of animals, and horticulturists, and I have invariably received from them the most generous assistance. Without such aid I could have effected little. I have repeatedly applied for information and specimens to foreigners, and to British merchants and officers of the Government residing in distant lands, and, with the rarest exceptions, I have received prompt, open-handed, and valuable assistance. I cannot express too strongly my obligations to the many persons who have assisted me, and who, I am convinced, would be equally willing to assist others in any scientific investigation.

[5] Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' p. 123 to 133. Pictet's 'TraitÉ de Pal.,' 1853, tom. i. p. 202. De Blainville, in his 'OstÉographie, CanidÆ,' p. 142, has largely discussed the whole subject, and concludes that the extinct parent of all domesticated dogs came nearest to the wolf in organization, and to the jackal in habits.

[6] Pallas, I believe, originated this doctrine in 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, Part ii. Ehrenberg has advocated it, as may be seen in De Blainville's 'OstÉographie,' p. 79. It has been carried to an extreme extent by Col. Hamilton Smith in the 'Naturalist Library,' vol. ix. and x. Mr. W. C. Martin adopts it in his excellent 'History of the Dog,' 1845; as does Dr. Morton, as well as Nott and Gliddon, in the United States. Prof. Low, in his 'Domesticated Animals,' 1845, p. 666, comes to this same conclusion. No one has argued on this side with more clearness and force than the late James Wilson, of Edinburgh, in various papers read before the Highland Agricultural and Wernerian Societies. Isidore Geoffroy Saint Hilaire ('Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' 1860, tom. iii. p. 107), though he believes that most dogs have descended from the jackal, yet inclines to the belief that some are descended from the wolf. Prof. Gervais ('Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' 1855, tom. ii. p. 69), referring to the view that all the domestic races are the modified descendants of a single species, after a long discussion, says, "Cette opinion est, suivant nous du moins, la moins probable."

[7] Berjeau, 'The Varieties of the Dog; in old Sculptures and Pictures,' 1863. 'Der Hund,' von Dr. F. L. Walther, s. 48, Giessen, 1817: this author seems carefully to have studied all classical works on the subject. See also 'Volz, BeitrÄge zur Kultur-geschichte,' Leipzig, 1852, s. 115. 'Youatt on the Dog,' 1845, p. 6. A very full history is given by De Blainville in his 'OstÉographie, CanidÆ.'

[8] I have seen drawings of this dog from the tomb of the son of Esar Haddon, and clay models in the British Museum. Nott and Gliddon, in their 'Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 393, give a copy of these drawings. This dog has been called a Thibetan mastiff, but Mr. H. A. Oldfield, who is familiar with the so-called Thibet mastiff, and has examined the drawings in the British Museum, informs me that he considers them different.

[9] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' July 12th, 1831.

[10] 'Sporting in Algeria,' p. 51.

[11] Berjeau gives fac-similes of the Egyptian drawings. Mr. C. L. Martin, in his 'History of the Dog,' 1845, copies several figures from the Egyptian monuments, and speaks with much confidence with respect to their identity with still living dogs. Messrs. Nott and Gliddon ('Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 388) give still more numerous figures. Mr. Gliddon asserts that a curl-tailed greyhound, like that represented on the most ancient monuments, is common in Borneo; but the Rajah, Sir J. Brooke, informs me that no such dog exists there.

[12] These, and the following facts on the Danish remains, are taken from M. Morlot's most interesting memoir in 'Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat.,' tom. vi., 1860, pp. 281, 299, 320.

[13] 'Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten,' 1861, s. 117, 162.

[14] De Blainville, 'OstÉographie, CanidÆ.'

[15] Sir R. Schomburgk has given me information on this head. See also 'Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.,' vol. xiii., 1843, p. 65.

[16] 'Domestication of Animals:' Ethnological Soc., Dec. 22nd, 1863.

[17] 'Journal of Researches,' &c., 1845, p. 393. With respect to Canis antarcticus, see p. 193. For the case of the antelope, see 'Journal Royal Geograph. Soc.,' vol. xxiii. p. 94.

[18] The authorities for the foregoing statements are as follow:—Richardson, in 'Fauna Boreali-Americana,' 1829, pp. 64, 75; Dr. Kane, 'Arctic Explorations,' 1856, vol. i. pp. 398, 455; Dr. Hayes, 'Arctic Boat Journey,' 1860, p. 167. Franklin's 'Narrative,' vol. i. p. 269, gives the case of three whelps of a black wolf being carried away by the Indians. Parry, Richardson, and others, give accounts of wolves and dogs naturally crossing in the eastern parts of North America. Seeman, in his 'Voyage of H.M.S. Herald,' 1853, vol. ii. p. 26, says the wolf is often caught by the Esqimaux for the purpose of crossing with their dogs, and thus adding to their size and strength. M. Lamare-Picquot, in 'Bull. de la Soc. d'Acclimat.,' tom. vii., 1860, p. 148, gives a good account of the half-bred Esquimaux dogs.

[19] 'Fauna Boreali-Americana,' 1829, pp. 73, 78, 80. Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' p. 383. The naturalist and traveller Bartram is quoted by Hamilton Smith, in 'Nat. Hist. Lib.,' vol. x. p. 156. A Mexican domestic dog seems also to resemble a wild dog of the same country; but this may be the prairie-wolf. Another capable judge, Mr. J. K. Lord ('The Naturalist in Vancouver Island,' 1866, vol. ii. p. 218), says that the Indian dog of the Spokans, near the Rocky Mountains, "is beyond all question nothing more than a tamed Cayote or prairie-wolf," or Canis latrans.

[20] I quote this from Mr. R. Hill's excellent account of the Alco or domestic dog of Mexico, in Gosse's 'Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica,' 1851, p. 329.

[21] 'Naturgeschichte der Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 151.

[22] Quoted in Humboldt's 'Aspects of Nature' (Eng. transl.), vol. i. p. 108.

[23] Paget's 'Travels in Hungary and Transylvania,' vol. i. p. 501. Jeitteles, 'Fauna HungariÆ Superioris,' 1862, s. 13. See Pliny, 'Hist. of the World' (Eng. transl.), 8th book, ch. xl., about the Gauls crossing their dogs. See also 'Hist. Animal.' lib. viii. c. 28. For good evidence about wolves and dogs naturally crossing near the Pyrenees, see M. Mauduyt, 'Du Loup et de ses Races,' Poitiers, 1851; also Pallas, in 'Acta Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. p. 94.

[24] I give this on excellent authority, namely, Mr. Blyth (under the signature of Zoophilus), in the 'Indian Sporting Review,' Oct. 1856, p. 134. Mr. Blyth states that he was struck with the resemblance between a brush-tailed race of pariah-dogs, north-west of Cawnpore, and the Indian wolf. He gives corroborative evidence with respect to the dogs of the valley of the Nerbudda.

[25] For numerous and interesting details on the resemblance of dogs and jackals, see Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' 1860, tom. iii. p. 101. See also 'Hist. Nat. des MammifÈres,' par Prof. Gervais, 1855, tom. ii. p. 60.

[26] GÜldenstÄdt, 'Nov. Comment. Acad. Petrop.,' tom. xx., pro anno 1775, p. 449.

[27] Quoted by De Blainville in his 'OstÉographie, CanidÆ,' pp. 79, 98.

[28] See Pallas, in 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. p. 91. For Algeria, see Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 177. In both countries it is the male jackal which pairs with female domestic dogs.

[29] John Barbut's 'Description of the Coast of Guinea in 1746.'

[30] 'Travels in South Africa,' vol. ii. p. 272.

[31] Selwyn, Geology of Victoria; 'Journal of Geolog. Soc.,' vol. xiv., 1858, p. 536, and vol. xvi., 1860, p. 148; and Prof M^cCoy, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' (3rd series), vol. ix., 1862, p. 147. The Dingo differs from the dogs of the central Polynesian islands. Dieffenbach remarks ('Travels,' vol. ii. p. 45) that the native New Zealand dog also differs from the Dingo.

[32] 'Proceedings Zoolog. Soc.,' 1833, p. 112. See, also, on the taming of the common wolf, L. Lloyd, 'Scandinavian Adventures,' vol. i. p. 460, 1854. With respect to the jackal, see Prof. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' tom. ii. p. 61. With respect to the aguara of Paraguay, see Rengger's work.

[33] Roulin, in 'MÉm. prÉsent. par divers Savans,' tom. vi. p. 341.

[34] Martin, 'History of the Dog,' p. 14.

[35] Quoted by L. Lloyd in 'Field Sports of North of Europe,' vol. i. p. 387.

[36] Quatrefages, 'Soc. d'Acclimat.,' May 11th, 1863, p. 7.

[37] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xv., 1845, p. 140.

[38] Azara, 'Voyages dans l'AmÉr. MÉrid.,' tom. i. p. 381; his account is fully confirmed by Rengger. Quatrefages gives an account of a bitch brought from Jerusalem to France which burrowed a hole and littered in it. See 'Discours, Exposition des Races Canines,' 1865, p. 3.

[39] With respect to wolves burrowing holes, see Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana,' p. 64; and Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' b. i. s. 617.

[40] See Poeppig, 'Reise in Chile,' b. i. s. 290; Mr. G. Clarke, as above; and Rengger, s. 155.

[41] Dogs, 'Nat. Library,' vol. x. p. 121: an endemic South American dog seems also to have become feral in this island. See Gosse's 'Jamaica,' p. 340.

[42] Low, 'Domesticated Animals,' p. 650.

[43] 'The Naturalist Library,' Dogs, vol. x. pp. 4, 19.

[44] Quoted by Prof. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' tom. ii. p. 66.

[45] J. Hunter shows that the long period of seventy-three days given by Buffon is easily explained by the bitch having received the dog many times during a period of sixteen days ('Phil. Transact.,' 1787, p. 253). Hunter found that the gestation of a mongrel from wolf and dog ('Phil. Transact.,' 1759, p. 160) apparently was sixty-three days, for she received the dog more than once. The period of a mongrel dog and jackal was fifty-nine days. Fred. Cuvier found the period of gestation of the wolf to be ('Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.,' tom. iv. p. 8) two months and a few days, which agrees with the dog. Isid. G. St. Hilaire, who has discussed the whole subject, and from whom I quote Bellingeri, states ('Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 112) that in the Jardin des Plantes the period of the jackal has been found to be from sixty to sixty-three days, exactly as with the dog.

[46] See Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 112, on the odour of jackals. Col. Ham. Smith, in 'Nat. Hist. Lib.,' vol. x. p. 289.

[47] Quoted by Quatrefages in 'Bull. Soc. d'Acclimat.,' May 11th, 1863.

[48] 'Journal de la Physiologie,' tom. ii. p. 385.

[49] See Mr. R. Hill's excellent account of this breed in Gosse's 'Jamaica,' p. 338; Rengger's 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 153. With respect to Spitz dogs, see Bechstein's 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1801, b. i. s. 638. With respect to Dr. Hodgkin's statement made before Brit. Assoc., see 'The Zoologist,' vol. iv., for 1845-46, p. 1097.

[50] 'Acta Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. pp. 84, 100.

[51] M. Broca has shown ('Journal de Physiologie,' tom. ii. p. 353) that Buffon's experiments have been often misrepresented. Broca has collected (pp. 390-395) many facts on the fertility of crossed dogs, wolves, and jackals.

[52] 'De la LongÉvitÉ Humaine,' par M. Flourens, 1855, p. 143. Mr. Blyth says ('Indian Sporting Review,' vol. ii. p. 137) that he has seen in India several hybrids from the pariah-dog and jackal; and between one of these hybrids and a terrier. The experiments of Hunter on the jackal are well known. See also Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii, p. 217, who speaks of the hybrid offspring of the jackal as perfectly fertile for three generations.

[53] On authority of F. Cuvier, quoted in Bronn's 'Geschichte der Natur,' B. ii. s. 164.

[54] W. C. L. Martin, 'History of the Dog,' 1845, p. 203. Mr. Philip P. King, after ample opportunities of observation, informs me that the Dingo and European dogs often cross in Australia.

[55] RÜppel, 'Neue Wirbelthiere von Abyssinien,' 1835-40; 'Mammif.,' s. 39, pl. xiv. There is a specimen of this fine animal in the British Museum.

[56] Even Pallas admits this: see 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, p. 93.

[57] Quoted by I. Geoffroy, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 453.

[58] F. Cuvier, in 'Annales du MusÉum,' tom. xviii. p. 337; Godron, 'De l'EspÈce,' tom. i. p. 342; and Col. Ham. Smith, in 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. ix. p. 101.

[59] Isid. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. des Anomalies,' 1832, tom. i. p. 660. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des MammifÈres,' tom. ii., 1855, p. 66. De Blainville ('OstÉographie, CanidÆ,' p. 137) has also seen an extra molar on both sides.

[60] 'OstÉographie, CanidÆ,' p. 137.

[61] WÜrzburger, 'Medecin, Zeitschrift,' 1860, B. i. s. 265.

[62] Mr. Yarell, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Oct. 8th, 1833. Mr. Waterhouse showed me a skull of one of these dogs, which had only a single molar on each side and some imperfect incisors.

[63] Quoted in 'The Veterinary,' London, vol. viii. p. 415.

[64] 'Hist Nat. GÉnÉral,' tom. iii. p. 448.

[65] W. Scrope, 'Art of Deer-Stalking,' p. 354.

[66] Quoted by Col. Ham. Smith in 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. x. p. 79.

[67] De Blainville, 'OstÉographie, CanidÆ,' p. 134. F. Cuvier, 'Annales du MusÉum,' tom. xviii. p. 342. In regard to mastiffs, see Col. Ham. Smith, 'Nat Lib.,' vol. x. p. 218. For the Thibet mastiff, see Mr. Hodgson in 'Journal of As. Soc. of Bengal,' vol. i., 1832, p. 342.

[68] 'The Dog,' 1845, p. 186. With respect to diseases, Youatt asserts (p. 167) that the Italian greyhound is "strongly subject" to polypi in the matrix or vagina. The spaniel and pug (p. 182) are most liable to bronchocele. The liability to distemper (p. 232) is extremely different in different breeds. On the distemper, see also Col. Hutchinson on 'Dog Breaking,' 1850, p. 279.

[69] See Youatt on the Dog, p. 15; 'The Veterinary,' London, vol. xi. p. 235.

[70] 'Journal of As. Soc. of Bengal,' vol. iii. p. 19.

[71] 'Travels,' vol. ii. p. 15.

[72] Hodgson, in 'Journal of As. Soc. of Bengal,' vol. i. p. 342.

[73] 'Field Sports of the North of Europe,' vol. ii. p. 165.

[74] 'Hist. Nat. des Mammif., 1855, tom. ii. pp. 66, 67.

[75] 'History of Quadrupeds,' 1793, vol. i. p. 238.

[76] 'Oriental Field Sports,' quoted by Youatt, 'The Dog,' p. 15.

[77] Quoted by Mr. Galton, 'Domestication of Animals,' p. 13.

[78] 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 450.

[79] Mr. Greenhow on the Canadian Dog, in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. vi., 1833, p. 511.

[80] See Mr. C. O. Groom-Napier on the webbing of the hind feet of Otter-hounds, in 'Land and Water,' Oct. 13th, 1866, p. 270.

[81] 'Fauna Boreali-Americana,' 1829, p. 62.

[82] 'The Horse in all his Varieties,' &c., 1829, pp. 230, 234.

[83] 'The Dog,' 1845, pp. 31, 35; with respect to King Charles's spaniel, p. 45; for the setter, p. 90.

[84] In the 'Encyclop. of Rural Sports,' p. 557.

[85] 'The Farrier,' 1828, vol. i. p. 337.

[86] See Col. Hamilton Smith on the antiquity of the Pointer, in 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. x. p. 195.

[87] The Newfoundland dog is believed to have originated from a cross between the Esquimaux dog and a large French hound. See Dr. Hodgkin, 'Brit. Assoc.,' 1844; Bechstein's 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' Band i. s. 574; 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. x. p. 132; also Mr. Jukes' 'Excursion in and about Newfoundland.'

[88] De Blainville, 'OstÉographie, Felis,' p. 65, on the character of F. caligulata; pp. 85, 89, 90, 175, on the other mummied species. He quotes Ehrenberg on F. maniculata being mummied.

[89] Asiatic Soc. of Calcutta; Curator's Report, Aug. 1856. The passage from Sir W. Jardine is quoted from this Report. Mr. Blyth, who has especially attended to the wild and domestic cats of India, has given in this Report a very interesting discussion on their origin.

[90] 'Fauna HungariÆ Sup.,' 1862, s. 12.

[91] Isid. Geoffrey Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.,' tom. iii. p. 177.

[92] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1863, p. 184.

[93] 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 212.

[94] 'Mem. prÉsentÉs par divers Savans: Acad. Roy. des Sciences,' tom. vi. p. 346. Gomara first noticed this fact in 1554.

[95] 'Narrative of Voyages,' vol. ii. p. 180.

[96] J. Crawfurd, 'Descript. Dict. of the Indian Islands,' p. 255. The Madagascar cat is said to have a twisted tail: see Desmarest, in 'Encyclop. Nat. Mamm.,' 1820, p. 233, for some of the other breeds.

[97] Admiral LutkÉ's Voyage, vol. iii. p. 308.

[98] 'Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle, Mammalia,' p. 20. Dieffenbach, 'Travels in New Zealand,' vol. ii. p. 185. Ch. St. John, 'Wild Sports of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 49.

[99] Quoted by Isid. Geoffroy, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 427.

[100] RÜtimeyer, 'Fauna der Pfalbauten,' 1861, s. 122.

[101] See Youatt on the Horse: J. Lawrence on the Horse, 1829: W. C. L. Martin, 'History of the Horse,' 1845: Col. Ham. Smith, in 'Naturalist's Library, Horses,' 1841, vol. xii.: Prof. Veith, 'Die Naturgesch. HaussÄugethiere,' 1856.

[102] Crawfurd, 'Descript. Dict. of Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 153. "There are many different breeds, every island having at least one peculiar to it." Thus in Sumatra there are at least two breeds; in Achin and Batubara one; in Java several breeds; one in Bali, Lomboc, Sumbawa (one of the best breeds), Tambora, Bima, Gunung-api, Celebes, Sumba, and Philippines. Other breeds are specified by Zollinger in the 'Journal of the Indian Archipelago,' vol. v. p. 343, &c.

[103] 'The Horse,' &c., by John Lawrence, 1829, p. 14.

[104] 'The Veterinary,' London, vol. v. p. 543.

[105] Proc. Veterinary Assoc., in 'The Veterinary,' vol. xiii. p. 42.

[106] 'Bulletin de la Soc. GÉolog.,' tom. xxii., 1866, p. 22.

[107] Mr. Percival, of the Enniskillen Dragoons, in 'The Veterinary,' vol. i. p. 224: see Azara, 'Des QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 313. The French translator of Azara refers to other cases mentioned by Huzard as occurring in Spain.

[108] Godron, 'De l'EspÈce,' tom i. p. 378.

[109] 'Ueber die Eigenschaften,' &c., 1828, s. 10.

[110] 'Domesticated Animals of the British Islands,' pp. 527, 532. In all the veterinary treatises and papers which I have read, the writers insist in the strongest terms on the inheritance by the horse of all good and bad tendencies and qualities. Perhaps the principle of inheritance is not really stronger in the horse than in any other animal; but, from its value, the tendency has been more carefully observed.

[111] Andrew Knight crossed breeds so different in size as a dray-horse and Norwegian pony: see A. Walker on 'Intermarriage,' 1838, p. 205.

[112] 'Naturalist's Library,' Horses, vol. xii. p. 208.

[113] Gervais, 'Hist Nat. Mamm.,' tom. ii. p. 143. Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' p. 383.

[114] 'Kenntniss der fossilen Pferde,' 1863, s. 131.

[115] Mr. W. C. L. Martin ('The Horse,' 1845, p. 34), in arguing against the belief that the wild Eastern horses are merely feral, has remarked on the improbability of man in ancient times having extirpated a species in a region where it can now exist in numbers.

[116] 'Transact. Maryland Academy,' vol. i. part i. p. 28.

[117] Mr. Mackinnon on 'The Falkland Islands,' p. 25. The average height of the Falkland horses is said to be 14 hands 2 inches. See also my 'Journal of Researches.'

[118] Pallas, 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1777, part ii. p. 265. With respect to the tarpans scraping away the snow, see Col. Hamilton Smith in 'Nat. Lib.,' vol. xii. p. 165.

[119] Franklin's 'Narrative,' vol. i. p. 87; note by Sir J. Richardson.

[120] Mr. J. H. Moor, 'Notices of the Indian Archipelago:' Singapore, 1837, p. 189. A pony from Java was sent ('AthenÆum,' 1842, p. 718) to the Queen only 28 inches in height. For the Loo Choo Islands, see Beechey's 'Voyage,' 4th edit., vol. i. p. 499.

[121] J. Crawford, 'History of the Horse;' 'Journal of Royal United Service Institution,' vol. iv.

[122] 'Essays on Natural History,' 2nd series, p. 161.

[123] 'QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 333.

[124] Prof. Low, 'Domesticated Animals,' p. 546. With respect to the writer in India, see 'India Sporting Review,' vol. ii. p. 181. As Lawrence has remarked ('The Horse,' p. 9), "perhaps no instance has ever occurred of a three-part bred horse (i.e. a horse, one of whose grand-parents was of impure blood) saving his distance in running two miles with thoroughbred racers." Some few instances are on record of seven-eighths racers having been successful.

[125] Prof. Gervais (in his 'Hist. Nat. Mamm.,' tom. ii. p. 144) has collected many facts on this head. For instance, Solomon (Kings, b. i. ch. x. v. 28) bought horses in Egypt at a high price.

[126] 'The Field,' July 13th, 1861, p. 42.

[127] E. Vernon Harcourt, 'Sporting in Algeria,' p. 26.

[128] I state this from my own observations made during several years on the colours of horses. I have seen cream-coloured, light-dun and mouse-dun horses dappled, which I mention because it has been stated (Martin, 'History of the Horse,' p. 134) that duns are never dappled. Martin (p. 205) refers to dappled asses. In 'The Farrier' (London, 1828, pp. 453, 455) there are some good remarks on the dappling of horses; and likewise in Col. Hamilton Smith on 'The Horse.'

[129] Some details are given in 'The Farrier,' 1828, pp. 452, 455. One of the least ponies I ever saw, of the colour of a mouse, had a conspicuous spinal stripe. A small Indian chesnut pony had the same stripe, as had a remarkably heavy chesnut cart-horse. Race-horses often have the spinal stripe.

[130] I have received information, through the kindness of the Consul-General, Mr. J. R. Crowe, from Prof. Boeck, Rasck, and Esmarck, on the colours of the Norwegian ponies. See, also, 'The Field,' 1861, p. 431.

[131] Col. Ham. Smith, 'Nat. Lib.,' vol. xii. p. 275.

[132] Mr. G. Clark, in 'Annal and Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd series, vol. ii., 1848, p. 363. Mr. Wallace informs me that he saw in Java a dun and clay-coloured horse with spinal and leg stripes.

[133] See, also, on this point, 'The Field,' July 27th, 1861, p. 91.

[134] 'The Field,' 1861, pp. 431, 493, 545.

[135] 'Ueber die Eigenschaften,' &c, 1828, s. 13, 14.

[136] 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. xii. (1841), pp. 109, 156 to 163, 280, 281. Cream-colour, passing into Isabella (i.e. the colour of the dirty linen of Queen Isabella), seems to have been common in ancient times. See also Pallas's account of the wild horses of the East, who speaks of dun and brown as the prevalent colours.

[137] Azara, 'QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 307; for the colour of mules, see p. 350. In North America, Catlin (vol. ii. p. 57) describes the wild horses, believed to have descended from the Spanish horses of Mexico, as of all colours, black, grey, roan, and roan pied with sorrel. F. Michaux ('Travels in North America,' Eng. translat., p. 235) describes two wild horses from Mexico as roan. In the Falkland Islands, where the horse has been feral only between 60 and 70 years, I was told that roans and iron-greys were the prevalent colours. These several facts show that horses do not generally revert to any uniform colour.

[138] Dr. Sclater, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1862, p. 164.

[139] W. C. Martin, 'History of the Horse,' 1845, p. 207.

[140] Col. Sykes' Cat. of Mammalia, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' July 12th, 1831. Williamson, 'Oriental Field Sports,' vol. ii., quoted by Martin, p. 206.

[141] Blyth, in 'Charlesworth's Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. iv., 1840, p. 83. I have also been assured by a breeder that this is the case.

[142] One case is given by Martin, 'The Horse,' p. 205.

[143] 'Journal As. Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xxviii. 1860, p. 231. Martin on the Horse, p. 205.

[144] Hermann von Nathusius, 'Die Racen des Schweines,' Berlin, 1860; and 'Vorstudien fur Geschichte,' &c., 'SchweineschÄdel,' Berlin, 1864. RÜtimeyer, 'Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten,' Basel, 1861.

[145] Nathusius, 'Die Racen des Schweines,' Berlin, 1860. An excellent appendix is given with references to published and trustworthy drawings of the breeds of each country.

[146] For Europe, see Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1801, b. i., s. 505. Several accounts have been published on the fertility of the offspring from wild and tame swine. See Burdach's 'Physiology,' and Godron, 'De l'EspÈce,' tom. i. p. 370. For Africa, 'Bull. de la Soc. d'Acclimat.,' tom. iv. p. 389. For India, see Nathusius, 'SchweineschÄdel,' s. 148.

[147] Sir W. Elliot, Catalogue of Mammalia, 'Madras Journal of Lit. and Science,' vol. x. p. 219.

[148] 'Pfahlbauten,' s. 163 et passim.

[149] See RÜtimeyer's Neue Beitrage, ... Torfschweine, Verh. Naturfor. Gesell. in Basel, iv. i., 1865, s. 139.

[150] Stan. Julien, quoted by De Blainville, 'OstÉographie,' p. 163.

[151] Richardson, 'Pigs, their Origin,' &c., p. 26.

[152] 'Die Racen des Schweines,' s. 47, 64.

[153] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861, p. 263.

[154] Sclater, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Feb. 26th, 1861.

[155] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1862, p. 13.

[156] 'Journal of Voyages and Travels from 1821 to 1829,' vol. i. p. 300.

[157] Rev. G. Low, 'Fauna Orcadensis,' p. 10. See also Dr. Hibbert's account of the pig of the Shetland Islands.

[158] 'Die Racen des Schweines,' s. 70.

[159] These woodcuts are copied from engravings given in Mr. S. Sidney's excellent edition of 'The Pig,' by Youatt, 1860. See pp. 1, 16, 19.

[160] 'SchweineschÄdel,' s. 74, 135.

[161] Nathusius, 'Die Racen des Schweines,' s. 71.

[162] 'Die Racen des Schweines,' s. 47. 'SchweineschÄdel,' s. 104. Compare, also, the figures of the old Irish and the improved Irish breeds in Richardson on 'The Pig,' 1847.

[163] Quoted by Isid. Geoffroy, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 441.

[164] S. Sidney, 'The Pig,' p. 61.

[165] 'SchweineschÄdel,' s. 2, 20.

[166] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1837, p. 23. I have not given the caudal vertebrÆ, as Mr. Eyton says some might possibly have been lost. I have added together the dorsal and lumbar vertebrÆ, owing to Prof. Owen's remarks ('Journal Linn. Soc.,' vol. ii. p. 28) on the difference between dorsal and lumbar vertebrÆ depending only on the development of the ribs. Nevertheless the difference in the number of the ribs in pigs deserves notice.

[167] 'Edinburgh New Philosoph. Journal,' April 1863. See also De Blainville's 'OstÉographie,' p. 128, for various authorities on this subject.

[168] Eudes-Deslongchamps, 'MÉmoires de la Soc. Linn. de Normandie,' vol. vii., 1842, p. 41. Richardson, 'Pigs, their Origin, &c.,' 1847, p. 30. Nathusius, 'Die Racen des Schweines,' 1860, s. 54.

[169] D. Johnson's 'Sketches of Indian Field Sports,' p. 272. Mr. Crawfurd informs me that the same fact holds good with the wild pigs of the Malay peninsula.

[170] For Turkish pigs, see Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 391. For those of Westphalia, see Richardson's 'Pigs, their Origin,' &c., 1847, p. 41.

[171] With respect to the several foregoing and following statements on feral pigs, see Roulin, in 'MÉm. prÉsentÉs par divers Savans À l'Acad.,' &c., Paris, tom. vi., 1835, p. 326. It should be observed that his account does not apply to truly feral pigs; but to pigs long introduced into the country and living in a half-wild state. For the truly feral pigs of Jamaica, see Gosse's 'Sojourn in Jamaica,' 1851, p. 386; and Col. Hamilton Smith, in 'Nat. Library,' vol. ix. p. 93. With respect to Africa, see Livingstone's 'Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, p. 153. The most precise statement with respect to the tusks of the West Indian feral boars is by P. Labat (quoted by Roulin); but this author attributes the state of these pigs to descent from a domestic stock which he saw in Spain. Admiral Sulivan, R.N., had ample opportunities of observing the wild pigs on Eagle Islet in the Falklands; and he informs me that they resembled wild boars with bristly ridged backs and large tusks. The pigs which have run wild in the province of Buenos Ayres (Rengger, 'SÄugethiere,' s. 331) have not reverted to the wild type. De Blainville ('OstÉographie,' p. 132) refers to two skulls of domestic pigs sent from Patagonia by Al. d'Orbigny, and he states that they have the occipital elevation of the wild European boar, but that the head altogether is "plus courte et plus ramassÉe." He refers, also, to the skin of a feral pig from North America, and says, "il ressemble tout À fait À un petit sanglier, mais il est presque tout noir, et peut-Être un peu plus ramassÉ dans ses formes."

[172] Gosse's 'Jamaica,' p. 386, with a quotation from Williamson's 'Oriental Field Sports.' Also Col. Hamilton Smith, in 'Naturalist's Library,' vol. ix. p. 94.

[173] S. Sidney's edition of 'Youatt on the Pig,' 1860, pp. 7, 26, 27, 29, 30.

[174] 'SchweineschÄdel,' s. 140.

[175] 'Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten,' 1861, s. 109, 149, 222. See also Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, in 'MÉm. du Mus. d'Hist. Nat.,' tom. x. p. 172; and his son Isidore, in 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 69. Vasey, in his 'Delineations of the Ox Tribe,' 1851, p. 127, says the zebu has four, and the common ox five, sacral vertebrÆ. Mr. Hodgson found the ribs either thirteen or fourteen in number; see a note in 'Indian Field,' 1858, p. 62.

[176] 'The Indian Field,' 1858, p. 74, where Mr. Blyth gives his authorities with respect to the feral humped cattle. Pickering, also, in his 'Races of Man,' 1850, p. 274, notices the peculiar character of the grunt-like voice of the humped cattle.

[177] Mr. H. E. Marquand, in 'The Times,' June 23rd, 1856.

[178] Vasey, 'Delineations of the Ox-Tribe,' p. 124. Brace's 'Hungary,' 1851, p. 94. The Hungarian cattle descend, according to RÜtimeyer ('Zahmen. Europ. Rindes,' 1866, s. 13), from Bos primigenius.

[179] Moll and Gayot, 'La Connaissance GÉn. du Boeuf,' Paris, 1860. Fig 82 is that of the Podolian breed.

[180] A translation appeared in three parts in the 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd series, vol. iv., 1849.

[181] See, also, RÜtimeyer's 'Beitrage pal. Gesch. der Wiederkauer,' Basel, 1865, s. 54.

[182] Pictet's 'PalÉontologie,' tom. i. p. 365 (2nd edit.). With respect to B. trochoceros, see RÜtimeyer's 'Zahmen Europ. Rindes,' 1866, s. 26.

[183] Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' 1846, p. 510.

[184] 'British Pleistocene Mammalia,' by W. B. Dawkins and W. A. Sandford, 1866. p. xv.

[185] W. R. Wilde, 'An Essay on the Animal Remains, &c., Royal Irish Academy,' 1860, p. 29. Also 'Proc. of R. Irish Academy,' 1858, p. 48.

[186] 'Lecture: Royal Institution of G. Britain,' May 2nd, 1856, p. 4. 'British Fossil Mammals,' p. 513.

[187] Nilsson, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 1849, vol. iv. p. 354.

[188] See W. R. Wilde, ut supra; and Mr. Blyth, in 'Proc. Irish Academy,' March 5th, 1864.

[189] Laing's 'Tour in Norway,' p. 110.

[190] Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 96.

[191] Idem, tom. iii. pp. 82, 91.

[192] 'QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 360.

[193] Walther, 'Das Rindvieh,' 1817, s. 30.

[194] I am much indebted to the present Earl of Tankerville for information about his wild cattle; and for the skull which was sent to Prof. RÜtimeyer. The fullest account of the Chillingham cattle is given by Mr. Hindmarsh, together with a letter by the late Lord Tankerville, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii., 1839, p. 274. See Bewick, 'Quadrupeds,' 2nd edit., 1791, p. 35, note. With respect to those of Duke of Queensberry, see Pennant's 'Tour in Scotland,' p. 109. For those of Chartley, see Low's 'Domesticated Animals of Britain,' 1845, p. 238. For those of Gisburne, see Bewick's 'Quadrupeds, and Encyclop. of Rural Sports,' p. 101.

[195] Boethius was born in 1470; 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii., 1839, p. 281; and vol. iv. 1849, p. 424.

[196] Youatt on Cattle, 1834, p. 48: See also p. 242, on short-horn cattle. Bell, in his 'British Quadrupeds,' p. 423, states that, after long attending to the subject, he has found that white cattle invariably have coloured ears.

[197] Azara, 'Des QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 361. Azara quotes Buffon for the feral cattle of Africa. For Texas, see 'Times,' Feb. 18th, 1846.

[198] Anson's Voyage. See Kerr and Porter's 'Collection,' vol. xii. p. 103.

[199] See also Mr. Mackinnon's pamphlet on the Falkland Islands, p. 24.

[200] 'The Age of the Ox, Sheep, Pig,' &c., by Prof. James Simonds, published by order of the Royal Agricult. Soc.

[201] 'Ann. Agricult. France,' April 1897. as quoted in 'The Veterinary,' vol. xii. p. 725. I quote Tessier's observations from Youatt on Cattle, p. 527.

[202] 'The Veterinary,' vol. viii. p. 681, and vol. x. p. 268. Low's 'Domest. Animals of Great Britain,' p. 297.

[203] Mr. Ogleby, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1836, p. 138, and 1840, p. 4.

[204] Leguat's Voyage, quoted by Vasey in his 'Delineations of the Ox-tribe,' p. 132.

[205] 'Travels in South Africa,' pp. 317, 336.

[206] 'MÉm. de l'Institut prÉsent. par divers Savans,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 333. For Brazil, see 'Comptes Rendus,' June 15th, 1846. See Azara, 'QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. pp. 359, 361.

[207] 'SchweineschÄdel,' 1864, s. 104. Nathusius states that the form of skull characteristic of the niata cattle occasionally appears in European cattle; but he is mistaken, as we shall hereafter see, in supposing that these cattle do not form a distinct race. Prof. Wyman, of Cambridge, United States, informs me that the common cod-fish presents a similar monstrosity, called by the fishermen the "bulldog cod." Prof. Wyman also concluded, after making numerous inquiries in La Plata, that the niata cattle transmit their peculiarities or form a race.

[208] Ueber Art des Zahmen Europ. Rindes, 1866, s. 28.

[209] 'Descriptive Cat. of Ost. Collect. of College of Surgeons,' 1853, p. 624. Vasey, in his 'Delineations of the Ox-tribe,' has given a figure of this skull; and I sent a photograph of it to Prof. RÜtimeyer.

[210] Loudon's 'Magazine of Nat. Hist.,' vol. i., 1829, p. 113. Separate figures are given of the animal, its hoofs, eye, and dewlap.

[211] Low, 'Domesticated Animals of the British Isles,' p. 264.

[212] 'MÉm. de l'Institut prÉsent. par divers Savans,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 332.

[213] Idem, pp. 304, 368, &c.

[214] Youatt on Cattle, p. 193. A full account of this bull is taken from Marshall.

[215] Youatt on Cattle, p. 116. Lord Spencer has written on this same subject.

[216] Blyth on the genus Ovis, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. vii., 1841, p. 261: with respect to the parentage of the breeds, see Mr. Blyth's excellent articles in 'Land and Water,' 1867, pp. 134, 156. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des MammifÈres,' 1855, tom. ii. p. 191.

[217] Dr. L. Fitzinger, 'Ueber die Racen des Zahmen Schafes,' 1860, s. 86.

[218] J. Anderson, 'Recreations in Agriculture and Natural History,' vol. ii. p. 164.

[219] 'Pfahlbauten,' s. 127, 193.

[220] Youatt on Sheep, p. 120.

[221] 'Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xvi. pp. 1007, 1016.

[222] Youatt on Sheep, pp. 142-169.

[223] 'Journal Asiat. Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xvi., 1847, p. 1015.

[224] 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 435.

[225] Youatt on Sheep, p. 138.

[226] 'Journal Asiat. Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xvi., 1847, pp. 1015, 1016.

[227] 'Racen des Zahmen Schafes,' s. 77.

[228] 'Rural Economy of Norfolk,' vol. ii. p. 136.

[229] Youatt on Sheep, p. 312. On same subject, see excellent remarks in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1858, p. 868. For experiments in crossing Cheviot sheep with Leicesters, see Youatt, p. 325.

[230] Youatt on Sheep, note, p. 491.

[231] 'The Veterinary,' vol. x. p. 217.

[232] A translation of his paper is given in 'Bull. Soc. Imp. d'Acclimat.,' tom. ix., 1862, p. 723.

[233] Erman's 'Travels in Siberia' (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 228. For Pallas on the fat-tailed sheep, I quote from Anderson's account of the 'Sheep of Russia,' 1794, p. 34. With respect to the Crimean sheep, see Pallas' 'Travels' (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. p. 454. For the Karakool sheep, see Burnes' 'Travels in Bokhara,' vol. iii. p. 151.

[234] See Report of the Directors of the Sierra Leone Company, as quoted in White's 'Gradation of Man,' p. 95. With respect to the change which sheep undergo in the West Indies, see also Dr. Davy, in 'Edin. New. Phil. Journal,' Jan. 1852. For the statement made by Roulin, see 'MÉm. de l'Institut prÉsent. par divers Savans,' tom. vi., 1835, p. 347.

[235] Youatt on Sheep, p. 69, where Lord Somerville is quoted. See p. 117, on the presence of wool under the hair. With respect to the fleeces of Australian sheep, p. 185. On selection counteracting any tendency to change, see pp. 70, 117, 120, 168.

[236] Audubon and Bachman, 'The Quadrupeds of North America,' 1846, vol. v. p. 365.

[237] 'Journal of R. Agricult. Soc. of England,' vol. xx., part ii. W. C. Spooner on Cross-Breeding.

[238] 'Philosoph. Transactions,' London, 1813, p. 88.

[239] Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉnÉrale,' tom. iii. p. 87. Mr. Blyth ('Land and Water,' 1867, p. 37) has arrived at a similar conclusion, but he thinks that certain Eastern races may perhaps be in part descended from the Asiatic markhor.

[240] RÜtimeyer, 'Pfahlbauten,' s. 127.

[241] Godron, 'De l'EspÈce,' tom. i. p. 402.

[242] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. ii. (2nd series), 1848, p. 363.

[243] 'De l'EspÈce,' tom. i. p. 406. Mr. Clark also refers to differences in the shape of the mammÆ. Godron states that in the Nubian race the scrotum is divided into two lobes; and Mr. Clark gives a ludicrous proof of this fact, for he saw in the Mauritius a male goat of the Muscat breed purchased at a high price for a female in full milk. These differences in the scrotum are probably not due to descent from distinct species; for Mr. Clark states that this part varies much in form.

[244] Mr. Clark, 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. ii. (2nd series), 1848, p. 361.

[245] Desmarest, 'Encyclop. MÉthod. Mammalogie,' p. 480.

[246] 'Journal of Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xvi., 1847, pp. 1020, 1025.

[247] M. P. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des MammifÈres, tom. i., 1854, p. 288.

[248] U. Aldrovandi, 'De Quadrupedibus digitatis,' 1637, p. 383. For Confucius and G. Markham, see a writer who has studied the subject, in 'Cottage Gardener,' Jan. 22nd, 1861, p. 250.

[249] Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' p. 212.

[250] Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' 1801, b. i. p. 1133. I have received similar accounts with respect to England and Scotland.

[251] 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' by E. S. Delamer, 1854, p. 133. Sir J. Sebright ('Observations on Instinct,' 1836, p. 10) speaks most strongly on the difficulty. But this difficulty is not invariable, as I have received two accounts of perfect success in taming and breeding from the wild rabbit. See also Dr. P. Broca, in 'Journal de la Physiologie' tom. ii. p. 368.

Transcriber's Note: this note and the previous one were interchanged; corrected by Errata page.

[252] Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des MammifÈres,' tom. i. p. 292.

[253] See Dr. P. Broca's interesting memoir on this subject in Brown-Sequard's 'Journ. de Phys.' vol. ii. p. 367.

[254] They are briefly described in the 'Journal of Horticulture,' May 7th, 1861, p. 108.

[255] 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 380.

[256] 'Journal of Horticulture,' May 28th, 1861, p. 169.

[257] 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 327. With respect to the ears, see Delamer on 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' 1854, p. 141; also 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 499, and ditto for 1854, p. 586.

[258] Delamer, 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' p. 136. See also 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 375.

[259] 'An Account of the different Kinds of Sheep in the Russian Dominions,' 1794, p. 39.

[260] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' June 23rd, 1857, p. 159.

[261] 'Cottage Gardener,' 1857, p. 141.

[262] 'Journal of Horticulture,' April 9th, 1861, p. 35.

[263] Mr. Bartlett, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861. p. 40.

[264] 'Phenomenon in Himalayan Rabbits,' in 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1865, Jan. 27th, p. 102.

[265] G. R. Waterhouse, 'Natural History of Mammalia: Rodents,' 1846, pp. 52, 60, 105.

[266] Delamer on 'Pigeons and Rabbits,' p. 114.

[267] Gosse's 'Sojourn in Jamaica,' 1851, p. 441, as described by an excellent observer, Mr. R. Hill. This is the only known case in which rabbits have become feral in a hot country. They can be kept, however, at Loanda (see Livingstone's 'Travels,' p. 407). In parts of India, as I am informed by Mr. Blyth, they breed well.

[268] Darwin's 'Journal of Researches,' p. 193; and 'Zoology of the Voyage of the Beagle: Mammalia,' p. 92.

[269] Kerr's 'Collection of Voyages,' vol. ii. p. 177; p. 205 for Cada Mosto. According to a work published in Lisbon in 1717, entitled 'Historia Insulana,' written by a Jesuit, the rabbits were turned out in 1420. Some authors believe that the island was discovered in 1413.

[270] Something of the same kind has occurred on the island of Lipari, where, according to Spallanzani ('Voyage dans les deux Siciles,' quoted by Godron sur l'EspÈce, p. 364), a countryman turned out some rabbits which multiplied prodigiously, but, says Spallanzani, "les lapins de l'ile de Lipari sont plus petits que ceux qu'on ÉlÈve en domesticitÉ."

[271] Waterhouse, 'Nat. Hist. Mammalia,' vol. ii. p. 36.

[272] These rabbits have run wild for a considerable time in Sandon Park, and in other places in Staffordshire and Shropshire. They originated, as I have been informed by the gamekeeper, from variously-coloured domestic rabbits which had been turned out. They vary in colour; but many are symmetrically coloured, being white with a streak along the spine, and with the ears and certain marks about the head of a blackish-grey tint. They have rather longer bodies than common rabbits.

[273] See Prof. Owen's remarks on this subject in his paper on the 'Zoological Significance of the Brain, &c., of Man, &c.,' read before Brit. Association, 1862; with respect to Birds, see 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Jan. 11th, 1848, p. 8.

[274] This standard is apparently considerably too low, for Dr. Crisp ('Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861, p. 80) gives 210 grains as the actual weight of the brain of a hare which weighed 7lbs., and 125 grains as the weight of the brain of a rabbit which weighed 3 lbs. 5 oz., that is, the same weight as the rabbit No. 1 in my list. Now the contents of the skull of rabbit No. 1 in shot is in my table 972 grains; and according to Dr. Crisp's ratio of 125 to 210, the skull of the hare ought to have contained 1632 grains of shot, instead of only (in the largest hare in my table) 1455 grains.

[275] The Hon. C. Murray has sent me some very valuable specimens from Persia; and H.M. Consul, Mr. Keith Abbott, has given me information on the pigeons of the same country. I am deeply indebted to Sir Walter Elliot for an immense collection of skins from Madras, with much information regarding them. Mr. Blyth has freely communicated to me his stores of knowledge on this and all other related subjects. The Rajah Sir James Brooke sent me specimens from Borneo, as has H.M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, from Amoy in China, and Dr. Daniell from the west coast of Africa.

[276] Mr. B. P. Brent, well known for his various contributions to poultry literature, has aided me in every way during several years; so has Mr. Tegetmeier, with unwearied kindness. This latter gentleman, who is well known for his works on poultry, and who has largely bred pigeons, has looked over this and the following chapters. Mr. Bult formerly showed me his unrivalled collection of Pouters, and gave me specimens. I had access to Mr. Wicking's collection, which contained a greater assortment of many kinds than could anywhere else be seen; and he has always aided me with specimens and information given in the freest manner. Mr. Haynes and Mr. Corker have given me specimens of their magnificent Carriers. To Mr. Harrison Weir I am likewise indebted. Nor must I by any means pass over the assistance received from Mr. J. M. Eaton, Mr. Baker, Mr. Evans, and Mr. J. Baily, jun., of Mount-street—to the latter gentleman I have been indebted for some valuable specimens. To all these gentlemen I beg permission to return my sincere and cordial thanks.

[277] 'Les Pigeons de VoliÈre et de Colombier,' Paris, 1824. During forty-five years the sole occupation of M. CorbiÉ was the care of the pigeons belonging to the Duchess of Berry.

[278] 'Coup d'Oeil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons,' par Prince C. L. Bonaparte, Paris, 1855. This author makes 288 species, ranked under 85 genera.

[279] As I so often refer to the size of the C. livia, or rock-pigeon, it may be convenient to give the mean between the measurements of two wild birds, kindly sent me by Dr. Edmondstone from the Shetland Islands:—

[280] This drawing was made from a dead bird. The six following figures were drawn with great care by Mr. Luke Wells from living birds selected by Mr. Tegetmeier. It may be confidently asserted that the characters of the six breeds which have been figured are not in the least exaggerated.

[281] 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht:' Weimar, 1837, pl. 11 and 12.

[282] Boitard and CorbiÉ, 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 177, pl. 6.

[283] 'Die Taubenzucht,' Ulm, 1824, s. 42.

[284] This treatise was written by Sayzid Mohammed Musari, who died in 1770: I owe to the great kindness of Sir W. Elliot a translation of this curious treatise.

[285] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 573.

[286] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 105.

[287] This gland occurs in most birds; but Nitzsch (in his 'Pterylographie,' 1840, p. 55) states that it is absent in two species of Columba, in several species of Psittacus, in some species of Otis, and in most or all birds of the Ostrich family. It can hardly be an accidental coincidence that the two species of Columba, which are destitute of an oil-gland, have an unusual number of tail-feathers, namely 16, and in this respect resemble Fantails.

[288] See the two excellent editions published by Mr. J. M. Eaton in 1852 and 1858, entitled 'A Treatise on Fancy Pigeons.'

[289] English translation, by F. Gladwin, 4th edition, vol. i. The habit of the Lotan is also described in the Persian treatise before alluded to, published about 100 years ago: at this date the Lotans were generally white and crested as at present. Mr. Blyth describes these birds in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xiv., 1847, p. 104: he says that they "may be seen at any of the Calcutta bird-dealers."

[290] 'Journal of Horticulture,' Oct. 22, 1861, p. 76.

[291] See the account of the House-tumblers kept at Glasgow, in the 'Cottage Gardener,' 1858, p. 285. Also Mr. Brent's paper, 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1861, p. 76.

[292] J. M. Eaton's 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1852, p. 9.

[293] J. M. Eaton's Treatise, edit. 1858, p. 76.

[294] Neumeister,'Taubenzucht,' Tab. 4, fig. i.

[295] Riedel, 'Die Taubenzucht,' 1824, s. 26. Bechstein, 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iv. s. 36, 1795.

[296] Willoughby's 'Ornithology,' edited by Ray.

[297] J. M. Eaton's edition (1858) of Moore, p. 98.

[298] Pigeon Patu Plongeur. 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 165.

[299] 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' Band iv. s. 47.

[300] Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 20th, 1863, p. 58.

[301] 'Coup-d'oeil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons,' par C. L. Bonaparte; Comptes Rendus, 1854-55. Mr. Blyth, in 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 41, mentions, as a very singular fact, "that of the two species of Ectopistes, which are nearly allied to each other, one should have fourteen tail-feathers, while the other, the passenger pigeon of North America, should possess but the usual number—twelve."

[302] Described and figured in the 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 82.

[303] 'The Pigeon Book,' by Mr. B. P. Brent, 1859, p. 41.

[304] 'Die StaarhÄlsige Taube, Das Ganze, &c.,' s. 21, tab. i. fig. 4.

[305] 'A Treatise on the Almond Tumbler,' by J. M. Eaton, 1852, p. 8, et passim.

[306] A Treatise, &c, p. 10.

[307] Boitard and CorbiÉ, 'Les Pigeons,' &c. 1824, p. 173.

[308] 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.

[309] Prof. A. Newton ('Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 716) remarks that he knows no species which presents any remarkable sexual distinction; but it is stated ('Naturalist's Library, Birds,' vol. ix. p. 117) that the excrescence at the base of the beak in the Carpophaga oceanica is sexual: this, if correct, is an interesting point of analogy with the male Carrier, which has the wattle at the base of its beak so much more developed than in the female. Mr. Wallace informs me that in the sub-family of the TreronidÆ the sexes often differ in vividness of colour.

[310] I am not sure that I have designated the different kinds of vertebrÆ correctly: but I observe that different anatomists follow in this respect different rules, and, as I use the same terms in the comparison of all the skeletons, this, I hope, will not signify.

[311] J. M. Eaton's Treatise, edit. 1858, p. 78.

[312] In an analogous, but converse, manner, certain natural groups of the ColumbidÆ, from being more terrestrial in their habits than other allied groups, have larger feet. See Prince Bonaparte's 'Coup-d'oeil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons.'

[313] It perhaps deserves notice that besides these five birds two of the eight were barbs, which, as I have shown, must be classed in the same group with the long-beaked carriers and runts. Barbs may properly be called short-beaked carriers. It would, therefore, appear as if, during the reduction of their beaks, their wings had retained a little of that excess of length which is characteristic of their nearest relations and progenitors.

[314] Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn. des Pigeons et des GallinacÉs,' tom. i., 1813, p. 170.

[315] This term was used by John Hunter for such differences in structure between the males and females, as are not directly connected with the act of reproduction, as the tail of the peacock, the horns of deer, &c.

[316] Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn. des Pigeons,' &c., tom. i. p. 191.

[317] I have heard through Sir C. Lyell from Miss Buckley, that some half-bred carriers kept during many years near London regularly settled by day on some adjoining trees, and, after being disturbed in their loft by their young being taken, roosted on them at night.

[318] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd ser., vol. xx., 1857, p. 509; and in a late volume of the Journal of the Asiatic Society.

[319] In works written on the pigeon by fanciers I have sometimes observed the mistaken belief expressed that the species which naturalists call ground-pigeons (in contradistinction to arboreal pigeons) do not perch and build on trees. In these same works wild species resembling the chief domestic races are often said to exist in various parts of the world, but such species are quite unknown to naturalists.

[320] Sir E. Schomburgk, in 'Journal R. Geograph. Soc.,' vol. xiii., 1844, p. 32.

[321] Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' 1848, pp. 63, 66.

[322] Proc. Zoolog. Soc., 1859, p. 400.

[323] Temminck, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn. des Pigeons,' tom. i.; also 'Les Pigeons,' par Mad. Knip and Temminck. Bonaparte however, in his 'Coup-d'oeil,' believes that two closely allied species are confounded together under this name. The C. leucocephala of the West Indies is stated by Temminck to be a rock-pigeon; but I am informed by Mr. Gosse that this is an error.

[324] 'Handbuch der Naturgesch. Vogel Deutschlands.'

[325] 'Tagebuch Reise nach FÄro,' 1830, s. 62.

[326] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 102. This excellent paper on pigeons is well worth consulting.

[327] 'Natural History of Ireland,' Birds, vol. ii. (1850), p. 11. For Graba, see previous reference.

[328] 'Coup-d'oeil sur l'Ordre des Pigeons,' Comptes Rendus, 1854-55.

[329] 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' Band iv., 1795, s. 14.

[330] 'History of British Birds,' vol. i. pp. 275-284. Mr. Andrew Duncan tamed a rock-pigeon in the Shetland Islands. Mr. James Barclay, and Mr. Smith of Uyea Sound, both say that the wild rock-pigeon can be easily tamed; and the former gentleman asserts that the tamed birds breed four times a year. Dr. Lawrence Edmondstone informs me that a wild rock-pigeon came and settled in his dovecot in Balta Sound in the Shetland Islands, and bred with his pigeons; he has also given me other instances of the wild rock-pigeon having been taken young and breeding in captivity.

[331] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 103, and vol. for 1857, p. 512.

[332] Domestic pigeons of the common kind are mentioned as being pretty numerous in John Barbut's 'Description of the Coast of Guinea' (p. 215), published in 1746; they are said, in accordance with the name which they bear, to have been imported.

[333] With respect to feral pigeons—for Juan Fernandez, see Bertero in 'Annal. des Sc. Nat.,' tom. xxi. p. 351. For Norfolk Island, see Rev. E. S. Dixon in the 'Dovecote,' 1851, p. 14, on the authority of Mr. Gould. For Ascension I rely on MS. information given me by Mr. Layard. For the banks of the Hudson, see Blyth in 'Annals of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xx., 1857, p. 511. For Scotland, see Macgillivray, 'British Birds,' vol. i. p. 275; also Thompson's 'Nat. History of Ireland, Birds,' vol. ii. p. 11. For ducks, see Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' 1847, p. 122. For the feral hybrids of the common and musk-ducks, see Audubon's 'American Ornithology,' and Selys-Longchamp's 'Hybrides dans la Famille des Anatides.' For the goose, Isidore Geoffrey St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 498. For guinea-fowls, see Gosse's 'Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica,' p. 124; and his 'Birds of Jamaica' for fuller particulars. I saw the wild guinea-fowl in Ascension. For the peacock, see 'A Week at Port Royal,' by a competent authority, Mr. R. Hill, p. 42. For the turkey I rely on oral information; I ascertained that they were not Curassows. With respect to fowls I will give the references in the next chapter.

[334] I have drawn out a long table of the various crosses made by fanciers between the several domestic breeds, but I do not think it worth publishing. I have myself made for this special purpose many crosses, and all were perfectly fertile. I have united in one bird five of the most distinct races, and with patience I might undoubtedly have thus united all. The case of five distinct breeds being blended together with unimpaired fertility is important, because GÄrtner has shown that it is a very general, though not, as he thought, universal rule, that complex crosses between several species are excessively sterile. I have met with only two or three cases of reported sterility in the offspring of certain races when crossed. Von Pistor ('Das Ganze der Feld-taubenzucht,' 1831, s. 15) asserts that the mongrels from barbs and fantails are sterile: I have proved this to be erroneous, not only by crossing these hybrids with several other hybrids of the same parentage, but by the more severe test of pairing brother and sister hybrids inter se, and they were perfectly fertile. Temminck has stated ('Hist. Nat. GÉn. des Pigeons,' tom. i. p. 197) that the turbit or owl will not cross readily with other breeds: but my turbits crossed, when left free, with almond tumblers and with trumpeters; the same thing has occurred (Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'The Dovecot,' p. 107) between turbits and dovecots and nuns. I have crossed turbits with barbs, as has M. Boitard (p. 34), who says the hybrids were very fertile. Hybrids from a turbit and fantail have been known to breed inter se (Riedel, Taubenzucht, s. 25, and Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutsch.' B. iv. s. 44). Turbits (Riedel, s. 26) have been crossed with pouters and with jacobins, and with a hybrid jacobin-trumpeter (Riedel, s. 27). The latter author has, however, made some vague statements (s. 22) on the sterility of turbits when crossed with certain other crossed breeds. But I have little doubt that the Rev. E. S. Dixon's explanation of such statements is correct, viz. that individual birds both with turbits and other breeds are occasionally sterile.

[335] 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,' s. 18.

[336] 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 35.

[337] Domestic pigeons pair readily with the allied C. oenas (Bechstein, 'Naturgesch. Deutschlands,' B. iv. s. 3); and Mr. Brent has made the same cross several times in England, but the young were very apt to die at about ten days old; one hybrid which he reared (from C. oenas and a male Antwerp carrier) paired with a dragon, but never laid eggs. Bechstein further states (s. 26) that the domestic pigeon will cross with C. palumbus, Turtur risoria, and T. vulgaris, but nothing is said of the fertility of the hybrids, and this would have been mentioned had the fact been ascertained. In the Zoological Gardens (MS. report to me from Mr. James Hunt) a male hybrid from Turtur vulgaris and a domestic pigeon "paired with several different species of pigeons and doves, but none of the eggs were good." Hybrids from C. oenas and gymnophthalmos were sterile. In Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. vii. 1834, p. 154, it is said that a male hybrid (from Turtur vulgaris male, and the cream-coloured T. risoria female) paired during two years with a female T. risoria, and the latter laid many eggs, but all were sterile. MM. Boitard and CorbiÉ ('Les Pigeons,' p. 235) state that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves are invariably sterile both inter se and with either pure parent. The experiment was tried by M. CorbiÉ "avec une espÈce d'obstination;" and likewise by M. Manduyt, and by M. Vieillot. Temminck also found the hybrids from these two species quite barren. Therefore, when Bechstein ('Naturgesch. Vogel. Deutschlands,' B. 4, s. 101) asserts that the hybrids from these two turtle-doves propagate inter se equally well with pure species, and when a writer in the 'Field' newspaper (in a letter dated Nov. 10th, 1858) makes a similar assertion, it would appear that there must be some mistake; though what the mistake is I know not, as Bechstein at least must have known the white variety of T. risoria: it would be an unparalleled fact if the same two species sometimes produced extremely fertile, and sometimes extremely barren, offspring. In the MS. report from the Zoological Gardens it is said that hybrids from Turtur vulgaris and suratensis, and from T. vulgaris and Ectopistes migratorius, were sterile. Two of the latter male hybrids paired with their pure parents, viz. Turtur vulgaris and the Ectopistes, and likewise with T. risoria and with Columba oenas, and many eggs were produced, but all were barren. At Paris, hybrids have been raised (Isid. Geoffrey Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉnÉrale,' tom. iii. p. 180) from Turtur auritus with T. cambayensis and with T. suratensis; but nothing is said of their fertility. At the Zoological Gardens of London the Goura coronata and victoriÆ produced a hybrid, which paired with the pure G. coronata, and laid several eggs, but these proved barren. In 1860 Columba gymnophthalmos and maculosa produced hybrids in these same gardens.

[338] There is one exception to the rule, namely in a sub-variety of the swallow of German origin, which is figured by Neumeister, and was shown to me by Mr. Wicking. This bird is blue, but has not the black wing-bars; for our object, however, in tracing the descent of the chief races, this exception signifies the less as the swallow approaches closely in structure to C. livia. In many sub-varieties, the black bars are replaced by bars of various colours. The figures given by Neumeister are sufficient to show that, if the wings alone are blue, the black wing-bars appear.

[339] I have observed blue birds with all the above-mentioned marks in the following races, which seemed to be perfectly pure, and were shown at various exhibitions. Pouters, with the double black wing-bars, with white croup, dark bar to end of tail, and white edging to outer tail-feathers. Turbits, with all these same characters. Fantails, with the same; but the croup in some was bluish or pure blue: Mr. Wicking bred blue fantails from two black birds. Carriers (including the Bagadotten of Neumeister), with all the marks: two birds which I examined had white, and two had blue croups; the white edging to the outer tail-feathers was not present in all. Mr. Corker, a great breeder, assures me that, if black carriers are matched for many successive generations, the offspring become first ash-coloured, and then blue with black wing-bars. Runts of the elongated breed had the same marks, but the croup was pale blue; the outer tail-feathers had white edges. Neumeister figures the great Florence Runt of a blue colour with black bars. Jacobins are very rarely blue, but I have received authentic accounts of at least two instances of the blue variety with black bars having appeared in England: blue jacobins were bred by Mr. Brent from two black birds. I have seen common tumblers, both Indian and English, and short-faced tumblers, of a blue colour, with black wing-bars, with the black bar at the end of the tail, and with the outer tail-feathers edged with white; the croup in all was blue, or extremely pale blue, never absolutely white. Blue barbs and trumpeters seem to be excessively rare; but Neumeister, who may be implicitly trusted, figures blue varieties of both, with black wing-bars. Mr. Brent informs me that he has seen a blue barb; and Mr. H. Weir, as I am informed by Mr. Tegetmeier, once bred a silver (which means very pale blue) barb from two yellow birds.

[340] Mr. Blyth informs me that all the domestic races in India have the croup blue; but this is not invariable, for I possess a very pale blue Simmali pigeon with the croup perfectly white, sent to me by Sir W. Elliot from Madras. A slaty-blue and chequered Nakshi pigeon has some white feathers on the croup alone. In some other Indian pigeons there were a few white feathers confined to the croup, and I have noticed the same fact in a carrier from Persia. The Java fantail (imported into Amoy, and thence sent me) has a perfectly white croup.

[341] 'Les Pigeons,' &c., p. 37.

[342] 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1858, p. 145.

[343] J. Moore's 'Columbarium,' 1735, in J. M. Eaton's edition, 1852, p. 71.

[344] I could give numerous examples; two will suffice. A mongrel, whose four grandparents were a white turbit, white trumpeter, white fantail, and blue pouter, was white all over, except a very few feathers about the head and on the wings, but the whole tail and tail-coverts were dark bluish-grey. Another mongrel, whose four grandparents were a red runt, white trumpeter, white fantail, and the same blue pouter, was pure white all over, except the tail and upper tail-coverts, which were pale fawn, and except the faintest trace of double wing-bars of the same pale fawn tint.

[345] It deserves notice, as bearing on the general subject of variation, that not only C. livia presents several wild forms, regarded by some naturalists as species and by others as sub-species or as mere varieties, but that the species of several allied genera are in the same predicament. This is the case, as Mr. Blyth has remarked to me, with Treron, Palumbus, and Turtur.

[346] 'Denkmaler,' Abth. ii. Bl. 70.

[347] The 'Dovecote,' by the Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1851, pp. 11-13. Adolphe Pictet (in his 'Les Origines Indo-EuropÉennes,' 1859, p. 399) states that there are in the ancient Sanscrit language between 25 and 30 names for the pigeon, and other 15 or 16 Persian names; none of these are common to the European languages. This fact indicates the antiquity of the domestication in the East of the pigeon.

[348] English translation, 1601, book x. ch. xxxvii.

[349] 'Ayeen Akbery,' translated by F. Gladvin, 4to. edit., vol. i. p. 270.

[350] J. M. Eaton, 'Treatise on the Almond Tumbler,' 1851; Preface, p. vi.

[351] As in the following discussion I often speak of the present time, I should state that this chapter was completed in the year 1858.

[352] 'Ornithologie,' 1600, vol. ii. p. 360.

[353] 'A Treatise on Domestic Pigeons,' dedicated to Mr. Mayor, 1765. Preface, p. xiv.

[354] Mr. Blyth has given a translation of part of the 'Ayeen Akbery' in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xix., 1847, p. 104.

[355] 'L'Hist. de la Nature des Oiseaux,' p. 314.

[356] 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1852, p. 64.

[357] J. M. Eaton's 'Treatise on the Breeding and Managing of the Almond Tumbler,' 1851. Compare p. v. of Preface, p. 9, and p. 32.

[358] 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1852, p. 41.

[359] Eaton's 'Treatise on Pigeons,' 1858, p. 86.

[360] See Neumeister's figure of the Florence runt, tab. 13, in 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht.'

[361] I have drawn up this brief synopsis from various sources, but chiefly from information given me by Mr. Tegetmeier. This gentleman has kindly looked through the whole of this chapter; and from his well-known knowledge, the statements here given may be fully trusted. Mr. Tegetmeier has likewise assisted me in every possible way in obtaining for me information and specimens. I must not let this opportunity pass without expressing my cordial thanks to Mr. B. P. Brent, a well-known writer on poultry, for indefatigable assistance and the gift of many specimens.

[362] The best account of Sultans is by Miss Watts in 'The Poultry Yard,' 1856, p. 79. I owe to Mr. Brent's kindness the examination of some specimens of this breed.

[363] A good description with figures is given of this sub-breed in the 'Journal of Horticulture,' June 10th, 1862, p. 206.

[364] A description, with figures, is given of this breed in 'Journal of Horticulture,' June 3rd, 1862, p. 186. Some writers describe the comb as two-horned.

[365] Mr. Crawfurd, 'Descript. Dict. of the Indian Islands,' p. 113. Bantams are mentioned in an ancient native Japanese EncyclopÆdia, as I am informed, by Mr. Birch of the British Museum.

[366] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' 1848.

[367] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' 1848.

[368] Ferguson's 'Illustrated Series of Rare and Prize Poultry,' 1854, p. vi., Preface.

[369] Rev. E. S. Dixon, in his 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 203, gives an account of Columella's work.

[370] Mr. Crawfurd 'On the Relation of the Domesticated Animals to Civilization,' separately printed, p. 6; first read before the Brit. Assoc. at Oxford, 1860.

[371] 'QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 324.

[372] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc' 1832, p. 151.

[373] I have examined the feathers of some hybrids raised in the Zoological Gardens between the male G. Sonneratii and a red game-hen, and these feathers exhibited the true character of those of G. Sonneratii, except that the horny laminÆ were much smaller.

[374] See also an excellent letter on the Poultry of India, by Mr. Blyth, in 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1851, p. 619.

[375] Mr. S. J. Salter, in 'Natural History Review,' April, 1863, p. 276.

[376] See also Mr. Layard's paper in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd Series, vol. xiv. p. 62.

[377] See also Mr. Crawfurd's 'Descriptive Dict. of the Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 113.

[378] Described by Mr. G. R. Gray, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1849, p. 62.

[379] The passage from Marsden is given by Mr. Dixon in his 'Poultry Book,' p. 176. No ornithologist now ranks this bird as a distinct species.

[380] 'Coup-d'oeil gÉnÉral sur l'Inde ArchipÉlagique,' tom. iii. (1849), p. 177; see also Mr. Blyth in 'Indian Sporting Review,' vol. ii. p. 5, 1856.

[381] Mr. Blyth, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd ser., vol. i. (1848), p. 455.

[382] Crawfurd, 'Desc. Dict. of Indian Islands,' 1856, p. 112.

[383] In Burmah, as I hear from Mr. Blyth, the wild and tame poultry constantly cross together, and irregular transitional forms may be seen.

[384] Idem, p. 113.

[385] Mr. Jerdon, in the 'Madras Journ. of Lit. and Science,' vol. xxii. p. 2, speaking of G. bankiva, says, "unquestionably the origin of most of the varieties of our common fowls." For Mr. Blyth, see his excellent article in 'Gardener's Chron.' 1851, p. 619; and in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. xx., 1847, p. 388.

[386] 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1851, p. 619.

[387] I have consulted an eminent authority, Mr. Sclater, on this subject, and he thinks that I have not expressed myself too strongly. I am aware that one ancient author, Acosta, speaks of fowls as having inhabited S. America at the period of its discovery; and more recently, about 1795, Olivier de Serres speaks of wild fowls in the forests of Guiana; these were probably feral birds. Dr. Daniell tells me, he believes that fowls have become wild on the west coast of Equatorial Africa; they may, however, not be true fowls, but gallinaceous birds belonging to the genus Phasidus. The old voyager Barbut says that poultry are not natural to Guinea. Capt. W. Allen ('Narrative of Niger Expedition,' 1848, vol. ii. p. 42) describes wild fowls on Ilha dos Rollas, an island near St. Thomas's, on the west coast of Africa: the natives informed him that they had escaped from a vessel wrecked there many years ago; they were extremely wild, and had "a cry quite different to that of the domestic fowl," and their appearance was somewhat changed. Hence it is not a little doubtful, notwithstanding the statement of the natives, whether these birds really were fowls. That the fowl has become feral on several islands is certain. Mr. Fry, a very capable judge, informed Mr. Layard, in a letter, that the fowls which have run wild on Ascension "had nearly all got back to their primitive colours, red and black cocks, and smoky-grey hens." But unfortunately we do not know the colour of the poultry which were turned out. Fowls have become feral on the Nicobar Islands (Blyth in the 'Indian Field,' 1858, p. 62), and in the Ladrones (Anson's Voyage). Those found in the Pellew Islands (Crawfurd) are believed to be feral; and lastly, it is asserted that they have become feral in New Zealand, but whether this is correct I know not.

[388] Mr. Hewitt, in 'The Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 248.

[389] 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 14th, 1862, p. 325.

[390] 'Die HÜhner und Pfauenzucht.' Ulm, 1827, s. 17. For Mr. Hewitt's statement with respect to the white Silk fowl, see the 'Poultry Book,' by W. B. Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 222. I am indebted to Mr. Orton for a letter on the same subject.

[391] Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' pp. 253, 324, 335. For game fowls, see Ferguson on 'Prize Poultry,' p. 260.

[392] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 71.

[393] Dr. Pickering, in his 'Races of Man,' 1850, p. 374, says that the head and neck of a fowl is carried in a Tribute-procession to Thoutmousis III. (1445 B.C.); but Mr. Birch of the British Museum doubts whether the figure can be identified as the head of a fowl. Some caution is necessary with reference to the absence of figures of the fowl on the ancient Egyptian monuments, on account of the strong and widely prevalent prejudice against this bird. I am informed by the Rev. S. Erhardt that on the east coast of Africa, from 4° to 6° south of the equator, most of the pagan tribes at the present day hold the fowl in aversion. The natives of the Pellew Islands would not eat the fowl, nor will the Indians in some parts of S. America. For the ancient history of the fowl, see also Volz, 'Beitrage zur Culturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 77; and Isid. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. GÉn.,' tom. iii. p. 61. Mr. Crawfurd has given an admirable history of the fowl in his paper 'On the Relation of Domesticated Animals to Civilisation,' read before the Brit. Assoc. at Oxford in 1860, and since printed separately. I quote from him on the Greek poet Theognis, and on the Harpy Tomb described by Sir C. Fellowes. I quote from a letter of Mr. Blyth's with respect to the Institutes of Manu.

[394] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' 1847, p. 185; for passages translated from Columella, see p. 312. For Golden Hamburghs, see Albin's 'Natural History of Birds,' 3 vols., with plates, 1731-38.

[395] 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' p. 152.

[396] Ferguson on 'Rare Prize Poultry,' p. 297. This writer, I am informed, cannot generally be trusted. He gives, however, figures and much information on eggs. See pp. 34 and 235 on the eggs of the Game fowl.

[397] See 'Poultry Book,' by Mr. Tegetmeier, 1866, pp. 81 and 78.

[398] 'The Cottage Gardener,' Oct. 1855, p. 13. On the thinness of the eggs of Game-fowls, see Mowbray on Poultry, 7th edit., p. 13.

[399] My information, which is very far from perfect, on chickens in the down, is derived chiefly from Mr. Dixon's 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry.' Mr. B. P. Brent has also communicated to me many facts by letter, as has Mr. Tegetmeier. I will in each case mark my authority by the name within brackets. For the chickens of white Silk-fowls, see Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 221.

[400] As I hear from Mr. Tegetmeier; see also 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1856, p. 366. On the late development of the crest, see 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. ii. p. 132.

[401] On these points, see 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii. p. 166; and Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, pp. 105 and 121.

[402] Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' p. 273.

[403] Ferguson on Rare and Prize Poultry, p. 261.

[404] Mowbray on Poultry, 7th edit. 1834, p. 13.

[405] See the full description of the varieties of the Game-breed, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 131. For Cuckoo Dorkings, p. 97.

[406] Mr. Hewitt in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, pp. 246 and 156. For hen-tailed game-cocks, see p. 131.

[407] 'The Field,' April 20th, 1861. The writer says he has seen half-a-dozen cocks thus sacrificed.

[408] 'Proceedings of Zoolog. Soc.' March, 1861, p. 102. The engraving of the hen-tailed cock just alluded to was exhibited at the Society.

[409] 'The Field,' April 20th, 1861.

[410] I am much indebted to Mr. Brent for an account, with sketches, of all the variations of the comb known to him, and likewise with respect to the tail, as presently to be given.

[411] The 'Poultry Book,' by Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 234.

[412] 'Die HÜhner und Pfauenzucht,' 1827, s. 11.

[413] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. i. p. 595. Mr. Brent has informed me of the same fact. With respect to the position of the spurs in Dorkings, see 'Cottage Gardener,' Sept. 18th, 1860, p. 380.

[414] Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' p. 320.

[415] Mr. Tegetmeier informs me that Game hens have been found so combative, that it is now generally the practice to exhibit each hen in a separate pen.

[416] 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 339, 407.

[417] On the Ornithology of Ceylon in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. History,' 2nd series, vol. xiv. (1854), p. 63.

[418] I quote Blumenbach on the authority of Mr. Tegetmeier, who gives in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Nov. 25th, 1856, a very interesting account of the skulls of Polish fowls. Mr. Tegetmeier, not knowing of Bechstein's account, disputed the accuracy of Blumenbach's statement. For Bechstein, see 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 399, note. I may add that at the first exhibition of poultry at the Zoological Gardens, in May, 1845, I saw some fowls, called Friezland fowls, of which the hens were crested, and the cocks were furnished with a comb.

[419] 'Cottage Gardener,' Jan. 3rd, 1860, p. 218.

[420] Mr. Williams, in a paper read before the Dublin Nat. Hist. Soc., quoted in 'Cottage Gardener,' 1856, p. 161.

[421] 'De l'EspÈce,' 1859, p. 442. For the occurrence of black-boned fowls in South America, see Roulin, in 'MÉm. de l'Acad. des Sciences,' tom. vi. p. 351; and Azara, 'QuadrupÈdes du Paraguay,' tom. ii. p. 324. A frizzled fowl sent to me from Madras had black bones.

[422] Mr. Hewitt, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 231.

[423] Dr. Broca, in Brown-Sequard's 'Journal de Phys.,' tom. ii. p. 361.

[424] Dixon's 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 325.

[425] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. i. p. 485. Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 41. On Cochins grazing, idem, p. 46.

[426] Ferguson on 'Prize Poultry,' p. 187.

[427] Col. Sykes in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1832, p. 151. Dr. Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' vol. i. p. 314.

[428] See Mr. Tegetmeier's account, with woodcuts, of the skull of Polish fowls, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' Nov. 25th, 1856. For other references, see Isid. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 'Hist. GÉn. des Anomalies,' tom. i. p. 287. M. C. Dareste suspects ('Recherches sur les Condicions de la Vie,' &c., Lille, 1863, p. 36) that the protuberance is not formed by the frontal bones, but by the ossification of the dura mater.

[429] 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' Band iii. (1793), s. 400.

[430] The 'Field,' May 11th, 1861. I have received communications to a similar effect from Messrs. Brent and Tegetmeier.

[431] It appears that I have not correctly designated the several groups of vertebrÆ, for a great authority, Mr. W. K. Parker ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.,' vol. v. p. 198), specifies 16 cervical, 4 dorsal, 15 lumbar, and 6 caudal vertebrÆ in this genus. But I have used the same terms in all the following descriptions.

[432] Macgillivray, 'British Birds,' vol. i. p. 25.

[433] It may be well to explain how the calculation has been made for the third column. In G. bankiva the leg-bones are to the wing-bones as 86 : 54, or as (neglecting decimals) 100 : 62;—in Cochins as 311 : 162, or as 100 : 52;—in Dorkings as 557 : 248, or as 100 : 44; and so on for the other breeds. We thus get the series of 62, 52, 44 for the relative-weights of the wing-bones in G. bankiva, Cochins, Dorkings, &c. And now taking 100, instead of 62, for the weight of the wing-bones in G. bankiva, we get, by another rule of three, 83 as the weight of the wing-bones in Cochins; 70 in the Dorkings; and so on for the remainder of the third column in the table.

[434] Mr. Blyth (in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 2nd series, vol. i., 1848, p. 456) gives 3¼ lb. as the weight of a full-grown male G. bankiva; but from what I have seen of the skins and skeletons of various breeds, I cannot believe that my two specimens of G. bankiva could have weighed so much.

[435] The third column is calculated on the same principle as explained in the previous foot-note, p. 271.

[436] 'Poultry Chronicle' (1854), vol. ii. p.91, and vol. i. p. 330.

[437] Dr. Turral, in 'Bull. Soc. d'Acclimat.,' tom. vii., 1860, p. 541.

[438] Willughby's 'Ornithology,' by Ray, p. 381. This breed is also figured by Albin, in 1734, in his 'Nat. Hist. of Birds,' vol. ii. p. 86.

[439] F. Cuvier, in 'Annales du MusÉum,' tom. ix. p. 128, says that moulting and incubation alone stop these ducks laying. Mr. B. P. Brent makes a similar remark in the 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 512.

[440] Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry' (1848), p. 117. Mr. B. P. Brent, in 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 512.

[441] Crawfurd on the 'Relation of Domesticated Animals to Civilisation,' read before the Brit. Assoc. at Oxford, 1860.

[442] Dureau de la Malle, in 'Annales des Sciences Nat.,' tom. xvii. p. 164; and tom. xxi. p. 55. Rev. E. S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 118. Tame ducks were not known in Aristotle's time, as remarked by Volz, in his 'BeitrÄge zur Kulturgeschichte,' 1852, s. 78.

[443] I quote this account from 'Die Enten, Schwanen-zucht,' Ulm, 1828, s. 143. See Audubon's 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. p. 168, on the taming of ducks on the Mississippi. For the same fact in England, see Mr. Waterton, in Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' vol. viii., 1835, p. 542; and Mr. St. John, 'Wild Sports and Nat. Hist. of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 129.

[444] Mr. E. Hewitt, in 'Journal of Horticulture,' 1862, p. 773; and 1863, p. 39.

[445] I have met with several statements on the fertility of the several breeds when crossed. Mr. Yarrell assured me that Call and common ducks are perfectly fertile together. I crossed Hook-billed and common ducks, and a Penguin and Labrador, and the crossed ducks were quite fertile, though they were not bred inter se, so that the experiment was not fully tried. Some half-bred Penguins and Labradors were again crossed with Penguins, and subsequently bred by me inter se, and they were extremely fertile.

[446] 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 512.

[447] 'Journal of the Indian Archipelago,' vol. v. p. 334.

[448] 'The Zoologist,' vols. vii., viii. (1849-1850), p. 2353.

[449] 'Poultry Chronicle,' 1855, vol. iii. p. 512.

[450] 'Poultry Chronicle,' vol. iii., 1855, p. 312. With respect to Rouens, see ditto, vol. i., 1854, p. 167.

[451] Col. Hawker's 'Instructions to young Sportsmen,' quoted by Mr. Dixon in his 'Ornamental Poultry,' p. 125.

[452] 'Cottage Gardener,' April 9th, 1861.

[453] These hybrids have been described by M. Selys-Longchamps in the 'Bulletins (tom. xii. No. 10) Acad. Roy. de Bruxelles.'

[454] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,' 1861, p. 261.

[455] 'Ceylon,' by Sir J. E. Tennent, 1859, vol. i. p. 485; also J. Crawfurd on the 'Relation of Domest. Animals to Civilisation,' read before Brit. Assoc., 1860. See also 'Ornamental Poultry,' by Rev. E. S. Dixon, 1848, p. 132. The goose figured on the Egyptian monuments seems to have been the Red goose of Egypt.

[456] Macgillivray's 'British Birds,' vol. iv. p. 593.

[457] Mr. A. Strickland ('Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,' 3rd Series, vol. iii. 1859, p. 122) reared some young wild geese, and found them in habits and in all characters identical with the domestic goose.

[458] See also Hunter's 'Essays,' edited by Owen, vol. ii. p. 322.

[459] Yarrell's 'British Birds,' vol. iii. p. 142. He refers to the Laplanders domesticating the goose.

[460] L. Lloyd, 'Scandinavian Adventures,' 1854, vol. ii. p. 413, says that the wild goose lays from five to eight eggs, which is a much fewer number than that laid by our domestic goose.

[461] The Rev. L. Jenyns seems first to have made this observation in his 'British Animals.' See also Yarrell, and Dixon in his 'Ornamental Poultry' (p. 139), and 'Gardener's Chronicle,' 1857, p. 45.

[462] Mr. Bartlett exhibited the head and neck of a bird thus characterised at the Zoological Soc., Feb. 1860.