 
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.Many of the diseases to which sheep are subject can be traced to want of due care in their management. The common practice of letting them range in marshy lands is one of the principal causes of disease. The feet of sheep are organized in such a manner as to be capable, when in a healthy state, of eliminating from the system a large amount of worn-out materials—excrementitious matter, which, if retained in the system, would be injurious. The direct application of cold tends to contract the mouths of excrementitious vessels, and the morbid matter accumulates. This is not all. There are in the system numerous outlets,—for example, the kidneys, lungs, surface, feet, &c. The health of the animal depends on all these functions being duly performed. If a certain function be interrupted for any length of time, it is sure to derange the system. Diseases of the feet are very common in wet situations, and are a source of great loss to the farming community. Hence it becomes a matter of great importance to know how to manage them so as to prevent diseases of the feet. Professor Simonds says, "No malady was probably so much feared by the agriculturist as the rot; and with reason, for it was most destructive to his hopes. It was commonly believed to be incurable, and therefore it was all important to "These facts are valuable, because they show that the cause of the disease is not local—that it is not produced by climate or temperature; for it is found that animals in any temperature become affected, and on any soil in certain seasons. A great deal had been written on rot in sheep, which it were to be wished had not been. Many talented individuals had devoted their time to its investigation, endeavoring to trace out a cause for it, as if it originated from one cause alone. But the facts here alluded to would show that it arose from more causes than one. He had mentioned the circumstance with regard to land sometimes producing rot, and sometimes not; but he would go a step further, and ask, Was there any particular period of the year when animals were subject to the attack? Undoubtedly there was. In the rainy season, the heat and moisture combined would produce a most luxuriant herbage; but that herbage would be deficient in nutriment, and danger would be run; the large quantity of watery matter in the food acting as a direct excitement to the abnormal functions of the digestive organs. Early disturbance of the liver led to the accumulation of fat, (state of plethora;) consequently, an animal being 'touched with the Referring to diseases of the liver, Professor S. remarked, that "the bile in rot, in consequence of the derangement of the liver being continued, lost the property of converting the chymous mass into nutritious matter, and the animal fell away in condition. Every part of the system was now supplied with impure blood, for we might as well expect pure water from a poisoned fountain as pure blood when the secretion of bile was unhealthy. This state of the liver and the system was associated with the existence of parasites in the liver. "Some persons suppose that these parasites, which, from their particular form, were called flukes, were the cause of the rot. They are only the effect; yet it is to be remembered that they multiply so rapidly that they become the cause of further diseased action. Sheep, in the earlier stages of the affection, before their biliary ducts become filled with flukes, may be restored; but, when the parasites existed in abundance, there was no chance of the animal's recovery. Those persons who supposed flukes to be the cause of rot had, perhaps, some reason for that opinion. Flukes are oviparous; their ova mingle with the biliary secretion, and thus find their way out of the intestinal canal into the soil; as in the feculent matter of rotten sheep may be found millions of flukes. A Mr. King, of Bath, (England,) had unhesitatingly given it as his opinion that flukes were the cause of rot; believing that, if sheep were pastured on land where the ova existed, they would be taken up with the food, enter into the ramifications of the biliary ducts, and thus contaminate the whole liver. There appeared some ground for this assertion, because very little indeed was known with reference to the duration of life in its latent form in the egg. How long the eggs of birds would remain without undergoing change, if ... He was not, then, to say that rot was in all cases a curable affection; but at the same time he was fully aware that many animals, that are now considered incurable, might be restored, if sufficient attention was given to them. About two years ago, he purchased seven or eight sheep, all of them giving indisputable proof of rot in its advanced stage. He intended them for experiment and dissection; but as he did not require all of them, and during the winter season only he could dissect, he kept some till summer. They were supplied with food of nutritious quality, free from moisture; they were also protected from all storms and changes of weather, being placed in a shed. The result was, that without any medicine, two of these rotten sheep quite recovered; and when he killed them, although he found that the liver had undergone some change, still the animals would have lived on for years. Rot, in its advanced stage, was a disease which might be considered as analogous to dropsy. A serous fluid accumulates in various parts of the body, chiefly beneath the cellular tissue; consequently, some called it the water rot, others the fluke rot; but these were merely indications of the same disease in different stages. If flukes were present, it was evident that, in order to strike at the root of the malady, they must get rid of these entozoa, and that could only be effected by bringing about a healthy condition of the system. Nothing that could be done by the application of medicine would act on them to affect their "The principles he wished to lay down were, to husband the animals' powers by placing them in a situation where they should not be exposed to the debilitating effects of cold storms; to supply them with nutritious food, and such as contained but a small quantity of water; and, as a stimulant to the digestive organs, to mix it with salt." The remarks of Professor S. are valuable to the American farmer. First, because they throw some light on the character of a disease but imperfectly understood; secondly, they recommend a safe, efficient, and common-sense method of treating it; and lastly, they recommend such preventive measures as, in this enlightened age, every farmer must acknowledge to be the better part of sheep doctoring. The reader will easily perceive the reason why the food of sheep is injurious when wet or saturated with its own natural juices, when he learns that the digestive process is greatly retarded, unless the masticated food be well saturated with the gastric fluid. If the gastric fluid cannot pervade it, then fermentation takes place; by which process the nutritive properties of the food are partly destroyed, and what remains cannot be taken up before it passes from the vinous into the acetous or putrefactive fermentation; the natural consequence is, that internal disease ensues, which often gravitates to the feet, thereby It is well known that many diseases are propagated and aggravated through the sexual congress; and no matter how healthy the dam is, or how much vital resistance she possesses,—if the male be weak and diseased, the offspring will be more or less diseased at birth. (See article Breeding.) Dr. Whitlaw observes, "The Deity has given power to man to ameliorate his condition, as may be truly seen by strict attention to the laws of nature. An attentive observer may soon perceive, that milk, butter, and meat, of animals that feed "A great portion of the mutton slaughtered is unfit for food, from the fact that their lungs are often in a state of decomposition, their livers much injured by insects, and their intestines in a state of ulceration, from eating poisonous herbs." LinnÆus says, "A dry place renders plants sapid; a succulent place, insipid; and a watery place, corrosive." One farmer, in the vicinity of Sherburne, (England,) had, during the space of a few weeks, lost nearly nine hundred sheep by the rot. The fear of purchasing diseased mutton is so prevalent in families, that the demand for mutton has become extremely limited. In the December number of the London Veterinarian we find an interesting communication from the pen of Mr. Tavistock, V. S., which will throw some light on the causes of disease in sheep. The substance of these remarks is as follows: "On a large farm, situated in the fertile valley of the Tavey, is kept a large flock of sheep, choice and well bred. It is deemed an excellent sheep farm, and for some years no sheep could be healthier than were his flock. About eighteen months ago, however, some ewes were now and then found dead. This was attributed to some of the many maladies sheep-flesh is 'heir to,' and thought no more about. Still it did not cease; another and another died, from time to time, until at length, it becoming a question of serious consequence, my attention was called to them. I made, as opportunities occurred, minute post mortem examinations. The sheep did "The part of the estate to which the sheep unfortunately had access, where the predisposing causes of disease prevailed, was an orchard, having a gradual slope of about three quarters of a mile in extent, from the high ground to the bed of the river, ranging about east and west; the hills on each side being constituted of argillaceous strata of laminated slate, which, although having an angle of inclination favoring drainage on the slopes, yet in the valleys often became flat or horizontal, and on which also accumulated the clays, and masses of rock, in detached blocks, often to the depth of twenty feet—a state of things which gives the valley surface and soil a very rugged and unequal outline; the whole, at the same time, offering the greatest obstruction to regular drainage. "These are spots selected for orchard draining in England; the truth being lost sight of, that surfaces and soil for apple-tree growth require the most perfect admixture with atmospheric elements, and the freest outlet for the otherwise accumulating moisture, to prevent dampness and acidity, the result of the shade of the tree itself, produced by the fall of the leaf. "On this estate these things had never been dreamt of before planting the orchards. The apple-tree, in short, as soon "This state of things, brought into existence by this wretched and barbarous mode of planting orchard valleys, usually reaches its consummation in about thirty years, and sometimes much less, as in the valley under notice. Thus it is that such spots, often the richest in capabilities on the estate, (the deep soil being the waste and spoil of the higher ground and slopes,) become a bane to every form of useful vegetation; and, at the same time, are a hotbed of luxuriance to every thing that is poisonous, destructive, and deleterious to almost every form of animal life. And such an animal as the sheep, while feeding among such herbage, would inhale a sufficiency of noxious gases, especially in summer, through the nostrils alone, to produce disease even in a few hours, though the herbage devoured should lie harmless in the stomach. But with regard to the sheep in the present case, we fear they had no choice in the matter, and were driven by hunger to feed, being shut into these orchards; and thus not only ate the poisoned grasses, but with every mouthful swallowed a portion of the water-engendering mint, the acrid crowfoot, ranunculus leaves, &c., surrounding every blade of grass; while the other essential elements of vegetable poison, the most virulent forms of agarici and their spawn, with other destructive fungi, were swallowed as a sauce to the whole. It is probable that the gases which arose from this imperfectly drained estate played their part in the work of destruction; not only by coming in immediate contact with the blood through the medium of the air-cells in the lungs, but by mixing with the food in the process of digestion. This may appear a new idea to those who have never given the subject a thought; yet it is no less true. During the mastication of food, the saliva possesses the remarkable property of enclosing air within its globules. Professor Liebig tells us that "the saliva encloses air in the shape of froth, in a far higher degree than even soap-suds. This air, by means of the saliva, reaches the stomach with the food, and there its oxygen enters into combination, while its nitrogen is given out through the skin and lungs." This applies to pure air. Now, suppose the sheep are feeding in pastures notorious for giving out noxious gases, and at the same time the function of the skin or lungs is impaired; instead of the "nitrogen" or noxious gases being set free, they will accumulate in the alimentary canal and cellular tissues, to the certain destruction of the living integrity. Prof. L. further informs us that "the longer digestion continues,—that is, the greater resistance offered to the solvent action by the food,—the more saliva, and consequently the more air, enter the stomach." STAGGERS.This disease is known to have its origin in functional derangement of the stomach; and owing to the sympathy that exists between the brain and the latter, derangements are often overlooked, until they manifest themselves by the animal's appearing dull and stupid, and separating itself from the rest of the flock. An animal attacked with staggers is observed to go round in a giddy manner; the optic nerve becomes paralyzed, and the animal often appears blind. It sometimes continues to feed well until it dies. Indications of Cure.—First, to remove the cause. If it exist in a too generous supply of food, reduce the quantity. If, on the other hand, the animal be in poor condition, a generous supply of nutritious food must be allowed. Secondly, to impart healthy action to the digestive organs, and lubricate their surfaces. Having removed the cause, take Mix. Half a table-spoonful may be given daily in warm water, or it may be mixed in the food. Another.
Mix, and give as above. If the bowels are inactive, give a wine-glass of linseed oil. The animal should be kept free from all annoyance by dogs, &c.; for fear indirectly influences the stomach through the pneumogastric nerves, by which the secretion of the gastric juice is arrested, and an immediate check is thus given
FOOT ROT.When a sheep is observed to be lame, and, upon examination, matter can be discovered, then pare away the hoof, and make a slight puncture, so that the matter may escape; then wash the foot with the following antiseptic lotion:—
Suppose that, on examination, the feet have a fetid odor; then apply the following:—
Mix, and apply daily. At the same time, put the sheep in a dry place, and give a dose of the following every morning:—
Mix. A handful to be given in the food twice a day. Remarks.—Foot rot is generally considered a local disease; yet should it be neglected, or maltreated, the general system will share in the local derangement. ROT.The progress of this disease is generally very slow, and a person unaccustomed to the management of sheep would find some difficulty in recognizing it. A practical eye would distinguish it, even at a distance. The disease is known by one or more of the following symptoms: The animal often remains behind the flock, shaking its head, with its ears depressed; it allows itself to be seized, without any resistance. The eye is dull and watery; the eyelids are swollen; the lips, gums, and palate have a pale tint; the skin, which is of a yellowish white, appears puffed, and retains the impression; the wool loses its brightness, and is easily torn off; the urine is high colored, and the excrement soft. As the disease progresses, there is loss of appetite, great thirst, general emaciation, &c. The indications are, to improve the secretions, vitalize the blood, and sustain the living powers. For which purpose, take
Mix. Feed to each animal a handful per day, unless rumination shall have ceased; then omit the oatmeal, and give a tea-spoonful of the mixed ingredients, in half a pint of hyssop, or horsemint tea. Continue as occasion may require. The food should be boiled, if possible. The best kind, especially in the latter stages of rot, is, equal parts of linseed and ground corn. If the urine is high colored, and the animal is thirsty, give an occasional drink of
When cold, strain. Dose, one pint. To be repeated, if necessary.
EPILEPSY.This is somewhat different from staggers, as the animal does not remain quietly on the ground, but it suffers from convulsions, it kicks, rolls its eyes, grinds its teeth, &c. The duration of the fit varies much, sometimes it terminates at the expiration of a few minutes; at other times, a quarter of an hour elapses before it is perfectly conscious. In this malady, there is a loss of equilibrium between the nervous and muscular systems, which may arise from hydatids in the brain, offering mechanical obstructions to the conducting power of the nerves. This malady may attack animals in apparently good health. We frequently see children attacked with epilepsy (fits) without any apparent cause, and when they are in good flesh. The symptoms are not considered dangerous, except by their frequent repetition. The following may be given with a view of equalizing the circulation and nervous action:—
Mix, while hot. Repeat the dose every other day. Make some change in the food. Thus, if the animal has been fed on green fodder for any length of time, let it have a few meals of shorts, meal, linseed, &c. The water must be of the best quality.
Mix thoroughly, and divide into eight equal parts. A powder to be given every morning.
RED WATER.This is nothing more nor less than a symptom of deranged function. The cure consists in restoring healthy action to all parts of the animal organization. For example, high-colored urine shows that there is too much action on the internal surfaces, and too little on the external. This at once points to the propriety of keeping the sheep in a warm situation, in order to invite action to the skin. Compound for Red Water.
Mix. To be divided into ten parts, one of which may be given every morning. CACHEXY, |
| Powdered balmony, (snakehead,) | 1 ounce. |
| Powdered marshmallows, | 1 ounce. |
| Powdered common salt, | 1 table-spoonful. |
| Linseed meal, | 1 pound. |
Mix. Divide into ten powders.
FOOTNOTES:
LOSS OF APPETITE.
This is generally owing to a morbid state of the digestive organs. All that is necessary in such case is, to restore the lost tone by the exhibition of bitter tonics. A bountiful supply of camomile tea will generally prove sufficient. If, however, the bowels are inactive, add to the above a small portion of extract of butternut. The food should be slightly salted.
FOUNDERING, (RHEUMATISM)
In this malady, the animal becomes slow in its movements; its walk is characterized by rigidity of the muscular
Causes.—Exposure to sudden changes in temperature, feeding on wet lands, &c.
Indications of Cure.—To equalize the circulation, invite and maintain action to the external surface, and remove the cause. To fulfil the latter indication, remove the animal to a dry, warm situation.
The following antispasmodic and diaphoretic will complete the cure: Powdered lady's slipper, (cypripedium,) 1 tea-spoonful. To be given every morning in a pint of warm pennyroyal tea.
If the malady does not yield in a few days, take
| Powdered sassafras bark, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
| Boiling water, | 1 pint. |
| Honey, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
Mix, and repeat the dose every other morning.
TICKS.
Ticks, or, in short, any kind of insects, may be destroyed by dropping on them a few drops of an infusion or tincture of lobelia seeds.
SCAB, OR ITCH.
Scab, itch, erysipelas, &c., all come under the head of cutaneous diseases, and require nearly the same general treatment. The following compound may be depended on as
| Sulphur, | 2 ounces. |
| Powdered sassafras, | 1 ounce. |
Honey, sufficient to amalgamate the above. Dose, a table-spoonful every morning. To prevent the sheep from rubbing themselves, apply
| Pyroligneous acid, | 1 gill. |
| Water, | 1 quart. |
Mix, and wet the parts with a sponge.
Remarks.—In reference to the scab, Dr. Gunther says, "Of all the preservatives which have been proposed, inoculation is the best. It has two advantages: first, the disease so occasioned is much more mitigated, and very rarely proves fatal; in the next place, an entire flock may get well from it in the space of fifteen days, whilst the natural form of the disorder requires care and attention for at least six months. It has been ascertained that the latter kills
Whenever the scab makes its appearance, the whole flock should be examined, and every one having the least abrasion eruption of the skin should be put under medical treatment.
In most cases, itch is the result of infection. A single sheep infected with it is sufficient to infect a whole flock. If a few applications of the pyroligneous wash, aided by the medicine, are not sufficient to remove the malady, then recourse must be had to the following:—
| Fir balsam, | half a pint. |
| Sulphur, | 1 ounce. |
Mix. Anoint the sores daily.
FOOTNOTES:
DIARRHŒA.
This is not always to be considered as a disease, but in many cases it proves salutary operation of nature; therefore it should not be too suddenly checked.
We commence the treatment by feeding on boiled meal. We then give mucilaginous drink made from marshmallows, slippery elm, or poplar bark. If, at the end of two days, symptoms of amendment have not made their appearance, the following draught must be given:—
Make a strong infusion of raspberry leaves, to a pint of which add a tea-spoonful of tincture of capsicum, (hot drops,) and one of charcoal. To be repeated every morning, until healthy action is established.
DYSENTERY.
This malady may be treated in the same manner as diarrhoea. Should blood and slime be voided in large quantities, the excrement emit a fetid odor, and the animal waste rapidly, then, in addition to the mucilaginous drink, administer the following:—
| Powdered charcoal, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
| Powdered golden seal, | half a tea-spoonful. |
To be given, in hardhack tea, as occasion may require.
A small quantity of charcoal, given three times a day, with boiled food, will frequently cure the disease, alone.
1st. Diarrhoea most frequently attacks weak animals; whereas dysentery ofttimes attacks animals in good condition.
2d. Dysentery generally attacks sheep in the hot months; on the other hand, diarrhoea terminates at the commencement of the hot season.
3d. In diarrhoea, there are scarcely any feverish symptoms, and no straining before evacuation, as in dysentery.
4th. In diarrhoea, the excrement is loose, but in other respects natural, without any blood or slime; whereas in dysentery the fÆces consist of hard lumps, blood, and slime.
5th. There is not that degree of fetor in the fÆces, in diarrhoea, which takes place in dysentery.
6th. In dysentery, the appetite is totally gone; in diarrhoea, it is generally better than usual.
7th. Diarrhoea is not contagious; dysentery is supposed to be highly so.
8th. In dysentery, the animal wastes rapidly; but by diarrhoea, only a temporary stop is put to thriving, after which it makes rapid advances to strength, vigor, and proportion.
CONSTIPATION, OR STRETCHES.
By these terms are implied a preternatural or morbid detention and hardening of the excrement; a disease to which all animals are subject, unless proper attention be paid to their management. It mostly arises from want of exercise, feeding on frosted oats, indigestible matter of every kind, impure water, &c. Costiveness is often the case of flatulent and spasmodic colic, and often of inflammation of the bowels.
Mr. Morrill says, "I have always found that the quantity of medicine necessary to act as an opiate on this dry mass
Let us see what Professor J. A. Gallup says, in his Institutes of Medicine, vol. ii. p. 187. "The practice of giving opiates to mitigate pain, &c., is greatly to be deprecated; it is not only unjustifiable, but should be esteemed unpardonable. It is probable that, for forty years past, opium and its preparations have done seven times the injury that they have rendered benefit"—killed seven where they have saved one! Page 298, he calls opium the "most destructive of all narcotics," and wishes he could "speak through a lengthened trumpet, that he might tingle the ears" of those who use and prescribe it. All the opiates used by the allopathists contain more or less of this poisonous drug. Opiates given with a view of softening mass alluded to will certainly disappoint those who administer them; for, under the use of such "palliatives," the digestive powers fail, and a general state of feebleness and inactivity ensues, which exhausts the vital energies.
It will be found in stretches, that other organs, as well as the "manyplus," are not performing their part in the business of physiological or healthy action, and they must be excited to perform their work; for example, if the food remains in either of the stomachs in the form of a hard mass, then the surface of the body is evaporating too much moisture from the general system; the skin should be better toned. Pure air is one of the best and most valuable of nature's tonics. Let the flock have pure air to breathe, and sufficient room to use their limbs, with proper diet, and there will be little occasion for medicine.
Treatment.—The disease is to be obviated by proper attention to diet, exercise, and ventilation; and when these fail, to have recourse to bitter laxatives, injections, and aperients. The use of salts and castor oil creates a necessity for their repetition, for they overwork the mucous surfaces, and their
The derangement must be treated according to its indications, thus:—
Suppose the digestive organs to be deranged, and rumination to have ceased; then take a tea-spoonful of extract of butternut, and dissolve it in a pint of thoroughwort tea, and give it at a dose. Use an injection of soap-suds, if necessary.
Suppose the excrement to be hard, coated with slime, and there be danger of inflammation in the mucous surfaces; then give a wine-glass of linseed oil,
It is scarcely ever necessary to repeat the dose, provided the animal is allowed a few scalded shorts.
If the liver is supposed to be inactive, give, daily, a tea-spoonful of golden seal in the food.
If the animal void worms with the fÆces, then give a tea made from cedar boughs, or buds, to which add a small quantity of salt.
FOOTNOTES:
SCOURS.
In scours, the surface evaporates too little of the moisture, and should be relaxed by diffusible stimulants in the form of ginger tea. The treatment that we have found the most successful is as follows: take four ounces raw linseed oil, two ounces of lime water; mix. Let this quantity be given to a sheep on the first appearance of the above disease; half the quantity will suffice for a lamb. Give about a wine-glass full of ginger tea at intervals of four hours, or mix a small quantity of ginger in the food. Let the animal be fed on gruel, or mashes of ground meal. If the above treatment fails to arrest the disease, add half a tea-spoonful of powdered
DIZZINESS.
Mr. Gunther says, "Sheep are often observed to describe eccentric circles for whole hours, then step forwards a pace, then again stop, and turn round again. The older the disease, the more the animal turns, until at length it does it even in a trot. The appetite goes on diminishing, emaciation becomes more and more perceptible, and the state of exhaustion terminates in death. On opening the skull, there are met, either beneath the bones of the cranium, or beneath the dura mater,
"The animal very often does not turn, which happens when the worm is placed on the median line; then the affected animal carries the head down, and though it seems to move rapidly, it does not change place. When the hydatid is situated on the posterior part of the brain, the animal carries the head high, runs straight forward, and throws itself on every object it meets."
Treatment.—Take
| Powdered worm seeds, (chenopodium anthelminticum,) | 1 ounce. |
| Powdered sulphur, | half an ounce. |
| Powdered charcoal, | 2 ounces. |
| Linseed, or flaxseed, | 1 pound. |
FOOTNOTES:
JAUNDICE.
This malady generally involves the whole system in its deranged action. It is recognized by the yellow tint of the conjunctiva, (white of the eye,) and mucous membranes lining the nostrils and mouth. We generally employ for its cure
| Powdered mandrake, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
| Powdered ginger, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
| Powdered golden seal, | 2 tea-spoonfuls. |
Mix. Divide into two parts. Give one dose in the morning, and the other at night. An occasional drink of camomile tea, a few bran mashes, and boiled carrots, will complete the cure.
INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS.
A derangement of these organs may result from external violence, or it may depend on the animal having eaten stimulating or poisonous plants.
Its symptoms are, pain in the region of the kidneys; the back is arched, and the walk stiff and painful, with the legs widely separated; there is a frequent desire to make water, and that is high colored or bloody; the appetite is more or less impaired, and there is considerable thirst.
The indications are, to lubricate the mucous surfaces, remove morbific materials from the system, and improve the general health.
| Poplar bark, finely powdered, | 1 ounce. |
| Pleurisy root, finely powdered, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
Make a mucilage of the poplar bark, by stirring in boiling water; then add the pleurisy root; the whole to be given in the course of twenty-four hours. The diet should consist of a mixture of linseed, boiled carrots, and meal.
WORMS.
The intestinal worms generally arise from impaired digestion. The symptoms are, a diminution of rumination, wasting away of the body, and frequent snorting, obstruction of the nostrils with mucus of a greater or less thickness.
Compound for Worms.
| Powdered worm seed, | equal parts. |
| Powdered skunk cabbage, | equal parts. |
| Powdered ginger, | equal parts. |
Dose, a tea-spoonful night and morning in the fodder.
DISEASES OF THE STOMACH FROM EATING POISONOUS PLANTS.
Treatment.—Take the animal from pasture, and put it on a boiled diet, of shorts, meal, linseed, and carrots. The following alterative may be mixed in the food:—
| Powdered marshmallows, | 1 ounce. |
| Powdered sassafras bark, | 2 ounces. |
| Powdered charcoal, | Powdered licorice, |
Dose, one table-spoonful every night.
SORE NIPPLES.
Lambs often die of hunger, from their dams refusing them suck. The cause of this is sore nipples, or some tumor in the udder, in which violent pain is excited by the tugging of the lamb. Washing with poplar bark, or anointing the teats with powdered borax and honey, will generally effect a cure.
FRACTURES.
The mending of a broken bone, though somewhat tedious, is by no means difficult, when the integuments are not torn. Let the limb be gently distended, and the broken ends of the bone placed in contact with each other. A piece of stiff leather, of pasteboard, or of thin shingle, wrapped in a soft rag, is then to be laid along the limb, so that it may extend an inch or two beyond the contiguous part. The splints are then to be secured by a bandage of linen an inch and a half broad. After being firmly rolled up, it should be passed spirally round the leg, taking care that every turn of the bandage overlaps about two thirds of the preceding one. When the inequality of the parts causes the margin to slack, it must be reversed or folded over; that is, its upper margin must become the lower, &c. The bandage should be moderately tight, so as to support the parts without intercepting the circulation, and should be so applied as to press equally on every part. The bandage may be occasionally wet with a mixture of equal parts of vinegar and water.
COMMON CATARRH AND EPIDEMIC INFLUENZA.
The seat of the disease is in the mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the external skin, folded into all the orifices of the body, as the mouth, eyes, nose, ears, lungs, stomach, intestines and bladder; its structure of arterial capillaries, veins, arteries, nerves, &c., is similar to the external skin; its most extensive surfaces are those of the lungs and intestines, the former of which is supposed to be greater than the whole external surface of the body.
The healthy office of this membrane is to furnish from the blood a fluid called mucus, to lubricate its own surface, and protect it from the action of materials taken into the system. The mucous membrane and the external surface of the body seem to be a counterpart of each other, and perform nearly the same offices; hence, if the action of one is suppressed, the other commences the performance of its office; thus a cold which closes the skin immediately stops the perspiration, which is now forced through the mucous membrane, producing the discharge of watery humors, pus intermixed with blood, dry cough, emaciation, &c. There are two varieties of this disease; the first is called common catarrh, which proceeds from cold taken in pasture that is not properly drained, also from atmospheric changes; it may also proceed from acrid or other irritating effluvia inhaled in the air, or from poisonous substances taken in the stomach in the form of food. The second variety is called epidemic influenza, and is produced by general causes; the attack is sometimes sudden; although of nearly the same nature as the first form, it is more obstinate, and the treatment must be more energetic. It is very difficult to lay down correct rules for the treatment of this malady, under its different forms and stages. The principal object to be kept in view is, to equalize the circulation, remove the irritating causes from the organs affected, and restore the tone of the system.
For this purpose, we make use of the following articles:—
| Horehound, (herb,) | 1 ounce. |
| Marshmallow, (root,) | 1 ounce. |
| Powdered elecampane, (root,) | half an ounce. |
| Powdered licorice, (root,) | half an ounce. |
| Powdered cayenne, | half a tea-spoonful. |
| Molasses, | 2 table-spoonfuls. |
| Vinegar, | 2 table-spoonfuls. |
Mix, pour on the whole one quart of boiling water, set it aside for two hours, then strain through cotton cloth, and give a table-spoonful night and morning.
The following injection may be used:—
| Powdered bayberry bark, | 1 ounce. |
| Powdered gum arabic, | half an ounce. |
| Boiling water, | 1 pint. |
Stir occasionally while cooling, and strain as above.
The legs and ears should be briskly rubbed with tincture of capsicum; this latter acts as a counter-irritant, equalizes the circulation, and, entering into the system, gives tone and vigor to the whole animal economy.
FOOTNOTES:
CASTRATING LAMBS.
The lambs are first driven into a small enclosure. Select the ewe from the ram lambs, and let the former go. Two assistants are necessary. One catches the lambs; the other is seated on a low bench for the purpose of taking the lamb on his lap, where he holds it by the four legs. The operator,
NATURE OF SHEEP.
"The sheep, though in most countries under the protection and control of man, is not that stupid and contemptible animal that has been represented. Amidst those numerous flocks which range without control on extensive mountains, where they seldom depend upon the aid of man, it will be found to assume very different character. In those situations, a ram or a wether will boldly attack a single dog, and often come off victorious; but when the danger is more alarming, they have recourse to the collected strength of the whole flock. On such occasions, they draw up into a compact body, placing the young and the females in the centre, while the males take the foremost ranks; keeping close by each other. Thus an armed front is presented to all quarters, and cannot be easily attacked, without danger or destruction to the assailant. In this manner they wait with firmness the approach of the enemy; nor does their courage fail them in the moment of attack; for when the aggressor advances to within a few yards of the line, the rams dart upon him with such impetuosity, as to lay him dead at their feet, unless he save himself by flight. Against the attack of a single dog, when in this situation, they are perfectly secure."
THE RAM.
Mr. Lawson says, "It may be observed that the rams of different breeds of sheep vary greatly in their forms, wools, and fleeces, and other properties; but the following description, by that excellent stock-farmer, Mr. Culley, deserves the attention of the breeder and grazier. According to him, the head of the ram should be fine and small; his nostrils wide and expanded; his eyes prominent, and rather bold or daring; his ears thin; his collar fall from his breast and shoulders, but tapering gradually all the way to where the neck and head join, which should be very fine and graceful, being perfectly free from any coarse leather hanging down; the shoulders full, which must, at the same time, join so easy to the collar forward, and chine backward, as to leave not the least hollow in either place; the mutton upon his arm or fore thigh must come quite to the knee; his legs upright, with a clean fine bone, being equally clear from superfluous skin and coarse, hairy wool from the knee and hough downwards; the breast broad and well forward, which will keep his fore legs at a proper width; his girt or chest full and deep, and instead of a hollow between the shoulders, that part by some called the fore flank should be quite full; the back and loins broad, flat, and straight, from which the ribs must rise with a fine circular arch; his belly straight; the quarters long and full, with the mutton quite down to the hough, which should neither stand in nor out; his twist, or junction of the inside of the thighs, deep, wide, and full, which, with the broad breast, will keep his legs open and upright; the whole body covered with a thin pelt, and that with fine, bright, soft wool.
"It is to be observed that the nearer any breed of sheep come up to the above description, the nearer they approach towards excellence of form."
LEAPING.
"The manner of treating rams has lately received a very great improvement. Instead of turning them loose among the ewes at large, as heretofore, and agreeably to universal practice, they are kept apart, in a separate paddock, or small enclosure, with a couple of ewes only each, to make them rest quietly; having the ewes of the flock brought to them singly, and leaping each only once. By this judicious and accurate regulation, a ram is enabled to impregnate near twice the number of ewes he would do if turned loose among them, especially a young ram. In the old practice, sixty or eighty ewes were esteemed the full number for a ram. [Overtaxing the male gives rise to weak and worthless offspring.]
"The period during which the rams are to go with the ewes must be regulated by climate, and the quantity of spring food provided. It is of great importance that lambs should be dropped as early as possible, that they not only be well nursed, but have time to get stout, and able to provide for themselves before the winter sets in. It is also of good advantage to the ewes that they may get into good condition before the rutting season. The ram has been known to live to the age of fifteen years, and begins to procreate at one. When castrated, they are called wethers; they then grow sooner fat, and the flesh becomes finer and better flavored."
ARGYLESHIRE BREEDERS.
In Argyleshire, the principal circumstances attended to by the most intelligent sheep-farmers are these: to stock lightly, which will mend the size of the sheep, with the quantity and quality of the wool, and also render them less subject to diseases; (in all these respects it is allowed, by good judges, that
FATTENING SHEEP.
We are indebted to Mr. Cole, editor of the New England Farmer, for the following article, which is worthy the attention of the reader:—
"Quietude and warmth contribute greatly to the fattening process. This is a fact which has not only been developed by science, but proved by actual practice. The manner in which these agents operate is simple, and easily explained.
"One hundred sheep were placed in a shed, and ate twenty pounds of Swedish turnips each per day; whilst another hundred, in the open air, ate twenty-five pounds each; and at that rate for a certain period: the former animals weighed each thirty pounds more than the latter; plainly showing that, to a certain extent, warmth is a substitute for food. This was also proved, by the same nobleman, in other experiments, which also illustrated the effect of exercise.
"No. 1. Five sheep were fed in the open air, between the 21st of November and the 1st of December. They consumed ninety pounds of food per day, the temperature being 44°. At the end of this time, they weighed two pounds less than when first exposed.
"No. 2. Five sheep were placed under shelter, and allowed to run at a temperature of 49°. They consumed at first eighty-two pounds, then seventy pounds, and increased in weight twenty-three pounds.
"No. 3. Five sheep were placed in the same shed, but not allowed any exercise. They ate at first sixty-four pounds, then fifty-eight pounds, and increased in weight thirty pounds.
"No. 4. Five sheep were kept in the dark, quiet and covered. They ate thirty-five pounds per day, and increased in weight eight pounds.
"A similar experiment was tried by Mr. Childers, M. P. He states, that eighty Leicester sheep, in the open field, consumed fifty baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil cake.
"From these experiments, it appears that the least quantity of food, which is required for fattening, is when animals are kept closely confined in warm shelters; and the greatest quantity when running at large, exposed to all weather. But, although animals will fatten faster for a certain time without exercise than with it, if they are closely confined for any considerable time, and are at the same time full fed, they become, in some measure, feverish; the proportion of fat becomes too large, and the meat is not so palatable and healthy as when they are allowed moderate exercise, in yards or small fields.
"As to the kinds of food which may be used most advantageously in fattening, this will generally depend upon what is raised upon the farm, it being preferable, in most cases, to use the produce of the farm. Sheep prefer beans to almost any other grain; but neither beans nor peas are so fattening as some other grains, and are used most advantageously along with them. Beans, peas, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, &c., may be used along with Indian corn, or oil cake, or succulent food, making various changes and mixtures, in order to furnish the variety of food which is so much relished by the sheep, and which should ever be attended to by the sheep fattener. This will prevent their being cloyed, and will hasten the fattening process. A variety of food, says Mr. Spooner, operates like cookery in the human subject, enabling more sustenance to be taken.
"The quantity of grain or succulent food, which it will be proper to feed, will depend upon the size, age, and condition of the sheep; and judgment must be used in ascertaining how much they can bear. Mr. Childers states that sheep (New Leicester) fed with the addition of half a pint of barley per sheep, per day, half a pound of linseed oil cake, with hay, and a constant supply of salt, became ready for the
"This experiment shows what is about the largest amount of grain which it is necessary or proper to feed to New Leicester sheep, at any time while fattening. The average weight of forty New Leicester wethers, before fattening, was found by Mr. Childers to be one hundred and twenty-eight pounds each. By weighing an average lot of any other kind of sheep, which are to be fattened, and by reference to the table of comparative nutriment of the different kinds of food, a calculation may be readily made, as to the largest amount, which will be necessary for them, of any article of food whatever.
"When sheep are first put up for fattening, they should be sorted, when convenient, so as to put those of the same age, size, and condition, each by themselves, so that each may have a fair chance to obtain its proportion of food, and may be fed the proper length of time.
"They should be fed moderately at first, gradually increasing the quantity to the largest amount, and making the proper changes of food, so as not to cloy them, nor produce acute diseases of the head or intestines, and never feeding so much as to scour them.
"Sheep, when fattening, should not be fed oftener than three times a day, viz., morning, noon, and evening. In the intervals between feeding, they may fill themselves well, and will have time sufficient for rumination and digestion: these processes are interrupted by too frequent feeding. But they should be fed with regularity, both as to the quantity of food and the time when it is given. When convenient, they should have access to water at all times; otherwise a full supply of it should be furnished to them immediately after they have consumed each foddering.
"When sheep become extremely fat, whether purposely or not, it is generally expedient to slaughter them. Permitting animals to become alternately very fat and lean is injurious to all stock. Therefore, if animals are too strongly inclined to
IMPROVEMENT IN SHEEP.
No country in the world is better calculated for raising sheep than the United States. The diversity of climate, together with the abundance and variety of the products of the soil, united with the industry and perseverance of the agriculturist, renders this country highly favorable for breeding, maturing, and improving the different kinds of sheep. The American people, taken as a whole, are intellectually stronger than any other nation with the like amount of population, on the face of the globe; consequently they are all-powerful, "for the mind is mightier than the sword." All that we aim at, in these pages, is to turn the current of the American mind to the important subject of improvement in the animal kingdom; to show them the great benefits they will derive from practical experience in the management of all classes of live stock; and, lastly, to show them the value and importance of the veterinary profession, when flourishing under the genial influence of a liberal community. If we can only succeed in arresting the attention of American stock raisers, and they, on the other hand, direct their whole attention to the matter, then, in a few years, America will outshine her more favored European rivals, and feel proud of her improved stock. What the American people have done during the last half century in the improvement of the soil, manufactures, arts, and sciences, is an earnest of what they can do in ameliorating the condition of all classes of live stock, provided they take hold of the subject in good earnest. Let any one who is acquainted with the subject of degeneration, its causes and fatal results, not only in reference to the stock itself, but as regards the pocket of the breeder, and the health of the whole
"In 1789, he made twelve hundred guineas by three 'ram brothers,' and two thousand guineas from seven, and, from his whole letting, full three thousand guineas. Six or seven other breeders made from five hundred to a thousand guineas each by the same operation. The whole amount of ram-letting of Bakewell's breed is said to have been not less, that year, than ten thousand pounds, [forty-eight thousand dollars.]
"It is true that still more extraordinary prices were obtained for the use of rams of this breed after Mr. Bakewell's death. Pitt, in his 'Survey of Leicestershire,' mentions that, in 1795, Mr. Astley gave three hundred guineas for the use of a ram of this breed, engaging, at the same time, that he
"We have nothing to do, at present, with the question whether the value of these animals was not exaggerated. The actual superiority of the breed over the stock of the country must have been obvious, and this point we wish kept in mind.
"This breed of sheep is continued to the present day, and it has been remarked by a respected writer, that they will 'remain a lasting monument of Bakewell's skill.' As to their origin, the testimony shows them to have been of mixed blood; though no breed is more distinct in its characters, or transmits its qualities with more certainty; and if we were without any other example of successful crossing, the advocates of the system might still point triumphantly to the Leicester or Bakewell sheep.
"But what are the opinions of our best modern breeders in regard to the practicability of producing distinct breeds by crossing? Robert Smith, of Burley, Rutlandshire, an eminent sheep-breeder, in an essay on the 'Breeding and Management of Sheep,' for which he received a prize from the Royal Agricultural Society, (1847,) makes the following remarks: 'The crossing of pure breeds has been a subject of great interest amongst every class of breeders. While all agree that the first cross may be attended with good results, there exists a diversity of opinion upon the future movements, or putting
We have alluded to the low price of some of the mutton brought to the Boston market. We do not wish the reader to infer that there is none other to be had: on the contrary, we have occasionally seen as good mutton there as in any European market. There are a number of practical and worthy men engaged in improving the different kinds of live stock, and preventing the degeneracy to which we refer. They have taken much interest in that class of stock, and they have been abundantly rewarded for their labor. But the great mass want more light on this subject, and for this reason we endeavor to show the causes of degeneracy, to enable them to avoid the errors of their forefathers.
Mr. Roberts, of Pennsylvania, says, "Early in my experience, I witnessed the renovation of a flock of what we call country sheep, that had been too long propagated in the same blood. This was about the year 1798. An imported ram from England, with heavy horns, very much resembling the most vigorous Spanish Merinos, was obtained. The progeny were improved in the quality of fleece, and in the vigor of constitution. On running this stock in the same blood for some twelve years, a great deterioration became apparent. A male was then obtained of the large coarse-wooled Spanish stock: improvement in the vigor of the progeny was again most obvious. A Tunis mountain ram was then obtained, with a result equally favorable. In this process, fineness of fleece or weight was less the object than the carcass. In 1810, a male of not quite pure Merino blood was placed with the same stock of ewes; and a change of the male from year
DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF SHEEP.
Mr. Lawson tells us that "the variety in sheep is so great, that scarcely any two countries produce sheep of the same kind. There is found a manifest difference in all, either in the size, the covering, the shape, or the horns."
TEESWATER BREED.
"This is a breed of sheep said to be the largest in England. It is at present the most prevalent in the rich, fine, fertile, enclosed lands on the banks of the Tees, in Yorkshire. In this breed, which is supposed to be from the same stock as those of the Lincolns, greater attention seems to have been paid to size than wool. It is, however, a breed only calculated for warm, rich pastures, where they are kept in small lots, in small enclosures, and well supported with food in severe winter seasons. The legs are longer, finer boned, and support a thicker and more firm and heavy
LINCOLN SHIRE BREED.
"This is a breed of sheep which is characterized by their having no horns; white faces; long, thin, weak carcasses thick, rough, white legs; bones large; pelts thick; slow feeding; mutton coarse grained; the wool from ten to eighteen inches in length; and it is chiefly prevalent in the district which gives the name, and other rich grazing ones. The new, or improved Lincolns, have now finer bone, with broader loins and trussed carcasses, are among the best, if not actually the best, long-wooled stock we have.
THE DISHLEY BREED.
"This is an improved breed of sheep, which is readily distinguished from the other long-wooled sorts; having a fulness of form and substantial width of carcass, with peculiar plainness and meekness of countenance; the head long, thin, and leaning backward; the nose projecting forward; the ears somewhat long, and standing backward; great fulness of the fore quarters; legs of moderate length, and the finest bone; tail small; fleece well covering the body, of the shortest and finest of the combing wools, the length of staple six or seven inches.
COTSWOLD BREED.
"This is a breed of sheep answering the following description: long, coarse head, with a particularly blunt, wide nose; a top-knot of wool on the forehead, running under the ears; rather long neck; great length and breadth of back and loin; full thigh, with more substance in the hinder than fore quarters; bone somewhat fine; legs not long; fleece soft, like that of the Dishley, but in closeness and darkness of color
ROMNEY MARSH BREED.
"This is a kind which is described, by Mr. Young, as being a breed of sheep without horns; white faces and legs; rather long in the legs; good size; body rather long, but well barrel-shaped; bones rather large. In respect to the wool, it is fine, long, and of a delicate white color, when in its perfect state.
DEVONSHIRE BREED.
"This is a breed or sort of sheep which is chiefly distinguished by having no horns; white faces and legs; thick necks; backs narrow, and back-bones high; sides good; legs short, and bones large; and probably without any material objection, being a variety of the common hornless sort. Length of wool much the same as in the Romney Marsh breed. It is a breed found to be prevalent in the district from which it has derived its name, and is supposed to have received considerable improvement by being crossed with the new Leicester, or Dishley.
THE DORSETSHIRE BREED.
"This breed is known by having the face, nose, and legs white, head rather long, but broad, and the forehead woolly, as in the Spanish sort; the horn round and bold, middle-sized, and standing from the head; the shoulders broad at top, but lower than the hind quarters; the back tolerably straight; carcass deep, and loins broad; legs not long, nor
THE WILTSHIRE BREED.
"This is a sort which has sometimes the title of horned crocks. The writer on live stock distinguishes the breed as having a large head and eyes; Roman nose; wide nostrils; horns bending down the cheeks; color all white; wide bosom; deep, greyhound breast; back rather straight; carcass substantial; legs short; bone coarse; fine middle wool, very thin on the belly, which is sometimes bare. He supposes, with Culley, that the basis of this breed is doubtless the Dorsets, enlarged by some long-wooled cross; but how the horns came to take a direction so contrary, is not easy, he thinks, to conjecture; he has sometimes imagined it must be the result of some foreign, probably Tartarian cross.
THE SOUTH DOWN BREED.
"This is a valuable sort of sheep, which Culley has distinguished by having no horns; gray faces and legs; fine bones; long, small necks; and by being rather low before, high on the shoulder, and light in the fore quarter; sides good; loin tolerably broad; back-bone rather high; thigh full; twist good; mutton fine in grain and well flavored; wool short, very close and fine; in the length of the staple from two to three inches. It is a breed which prevails on the dry, chalky downs in Sussex, as well as the hills of Surrey and Kent, and which has lately been much improved, both in carcass and wool, being much enlarged forward, carrying a good fore flank; and for the short, less fertile, hilly pastures is an excellent sort, as feeding close. The sheep are hardy, and disposed to fatten quickly; and where the ewes are full kept, they frequently produce twin lambs, nearly in
THE HERDWICK BREED.
"This is a breed which is characterized by Mr. Culley as having no horns, and the face and legs being speckled; the larger portion of white, with fewer black spots, the purer the breed; legs fine, small, clean; the lambs well covered when dropped; the wool, short, thick, and matted in the fleece. It is a breed peculiar to the elevated, mountainous tract of country at the head of the River Esk, and Duddon in Cumberland, where they are let in herds, at an annual sum; whence the name. At present, they are said to possess the property of being extremely hardy in constitution, and capable of supporting themselves on the rocky, bare mountains, with the trifling support of a little hay in the winter season.
THE CHEVIOT BREED.
"This breed of sheep is known by the want of horns; by the face and legs being mostly white; little depth in the breast; narrow there and on the chine; clean, fine, small-boned legs, and thin pelts; the wool partly fine and partly coarse. It is a valuable breed of mountain sheep, where the herbage is chiefly of the natural grass kind, which is the case in the situations where these are found the most prevalent, and from which they have obtained their name. It is a breed which has undergone much improvement, within these few years, in respect to its form and other qualities, and has been lately introduced into the most northern districts; and from its hardiness, its affording a portion of fine wool, and being quick in fattening, it is likely to answer well in such situations.
THE MERINO BREED
"In this breed of sheep, the males have horns, but the females are without them. They have white faces and legs;
THE WELSH SHEEP.
"These, which are the most general breed in the hill districts, are small horned, and all over of a white color. They are neat, compact sheep. There is likewise a polled, short-wooled sort of sheep in these parts of the country, which are esteemed by some. The genuine Welsh mutton, from its smallness and delicate flavor, is commonly well known, highly esteemed, and sold at a high price."
A Boar.
Bred and fed by Willm. Fisher Hobbs, Esq. of Marks Hall, Coggleshall, Essex for which a Prize of £10 was awarded at the Meeting of the R.A.S of E. at Derby 1843.
SWINE.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
Swine have generally been considered "unclean," creatures of gross habits, &c.; but these epithets are unjust: they are not, in their nature, the unclean, gross, insensible brutes that mankind suppose them. If they are unclean, they got their first lessons from the lords of creation, by being confined in narrow, filthy sties—often deprived of light, and pure air, by being shut up in dark, underground cellars, to wallow in their own excrement; at other times, confined beneath stables, dragging out their existence in a perfect hotbed of corruption—respiring the emanations from the dung and urine of other animals; and often compelled to satisfy the cravings of hunger by partaking of whatever comes in their way. All manner of filth, including decaying and putrid vegetable and animal substances, are considered good enough for the hogs. And as long as they get such kind of trash, and no other, they must eat it; the cravings of hunger must be satisfied. The Almighty has endowed them with powerful organs of digestion; and as long as there is any thing before them that the gastric fluids are capable of assimilating, although it be disgusting to their very natures, rather than suffer of hunger, they will partake of it. Much of the indigestible food given to swine deranges the stomach, and destroys the powers of assimilation, or, in other words, leaves it in morbid state. There is then a constant sensation of hunger, a longing for any
We know from experience that, if young pigs are daily washed, and kept on clean cooked food, they will not eat the common city "swill;" they eat it only when compelled by hunger. When free from the control of man, they show as much sagacity in the selection of their food as any other animals; and, indeed, more than some, for they seldom get poisoned, like the ox, in mistaking noxious for wholesome food. The Jews, as well as our modern physiologists, consider the flesh of swine unfit for food. No doubt some of it is, especially that reared under the unfavorable circumstances alluded to above. But good home-fed pork, kept on good country produce, and not too fat, is just as good food for man as the flesh of oxen or sheep, notwithstanding the opinion of our medical brethren to the contrary. Their flesh has long been considered as one of the principal causes of scrofula, and other diseases too numerous to mention: without doubt this is the case. But that good, healthy pork should produce such results we are unwilling to admit. We force them to load their stomachs with the rotten offal of large cities, and thus derange their whole systems; they become loaded with fat; their systems abound in morbific fluids; their lungs become tuberculous; their livers enlarge; calcerous deposits or glandular disorganization sets in. Take into consideration their inactive habits; not voluntary, for instinct teaches them, when at liberty, to run, jump, and gambol, by which the excess of carbon is thrown off. Depriving them of exercise may be profitable to the breeder, but it induces a state of plethora. The cellular structures of such an animal
Professor Liebig tells us that excess of carbon, in the form of food, cannot be employed to make a part of any organ; it must be deposited in the cellular tissue in the form of tallow or oil. This is the whole secret of fattening.
At every period of animal life, when there occurs a disproportion between the carbon of the food and the inspired oxygen, the latter being deficient,—which must happen beneath stables and in ill-constructed hog-sties,—fat must be formed.
Experience teaches us that in poultry the maximum of fat is obtained by preventing them from taking exercise, and by a medium temperature. These animals, in such circumstances, may be compared to a plant possessing in the highest degree the power of converting all food into parts of its own structure. The excess of the constituents of blood forms flesh and other organized tissues, while that of starch, sugar, &c., is converted into fat. When animals are fed on food destitute of nitrogen, only certain parts of their structure increase in size. Thus, in a goose fattened in the manner alluded to, the liver becomes three or four times larger than in the same animal when well fed, with free motion; while we cannot say that the organized structure of the liver is thereby increased. The liver of a goose fed in the ordinary
Hence the proper management of swine becomes a subject of great importance; for, if more attention were paid to it, there would be less disease in the human family. When we charge these animals with being "unclean creatures of gross habits," let us consider whether we have not, in some measure, contributed to make them what they are.
In the Island of Minorca, hogs are converted into beasts of draught; a cow, a sow, and two young horses, have been seen yoked together, and of the four the sow drew the best.
A gamekeeper of Sir H. Mildmay actually broke a sow to find game, and to back and stand.
Swine are frequently troubled with cutaneous diseases, which produce an itching sensation; hence their desire to wallow and roll in the mire and dirt. The lying down in wet, damp places relieves the irritation of the external surface, and cools their bodies. This mud and filth, however, in which they are often compelled to wallow, is by no means good or wholesome for them.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HOG.
"The hog," says Professor Low, "is subject to remarkable changes of form and characters, according to the situations in which he is placed. When these characters assume a certain degree of permanence, a breed or variety is formed; and there is none of the domestic animals which more easily receives the characters we desire to impress upon it. This
"The body is large in proportion to the limbs, or, in other words, the limbs are short in proportion to the body; the extremities are free from coarseness; the chest is broad, and the trunk round. Possessing these characters, the hog never fails to arrive at early maturity, and with a smaller consumption of food than when he possesses a different conformation.
"The wild boar, which was undoubtedly the progenitor of all the European varieties, and of the Chinese breed, was formerly a native of the British Islands, and very common in the forests until the time of the civil wars in that country."
We are told, that the wild hog "is now spread over the temperate and warmer parts of the old continent and its adjacent islands. His color varies with age and climate, but is generally a dusky brown, with black spots and streaks. His skin is covered with coarse hairs and bristles, intersected with soft wool, and with coarser and longer bristles upon the neck and spine, which he erects when in anger. He is a very bold and powerful creature, and becomes more fierce and indocile with age. From the form of his teeth, he is chiefly herbivorous in his habits, and delights in roots, which his acute sense of smell and touch enables him to discover beneath the surface. He also feeds on animal substances, such as worms and larvÆ, which he grubs up from the earth, the eggs of birds, small reptiles, the young of animals, and occasionally carrion; he even attacks venomous snakes with impunity. In the natural state, the female produces a litter but once a year;
"In the wild state, the hog has been known to live more than thirty years; but when domesticated, he is usually slaughtered before he is two years old. When the wild hog is tamed, it undergoes the following amongst other changes in its conformation: the ears become less movable, not being required to collect distant sounds; the formidable tusks of the male diminish, not being necessary for self-defence; the muscles of the neck become less developed, from not being so much exercised as in the natural state; the head becomes more inclined, the back and loins are lengthened, the body rendered more capacious, the limbs shorter and less muscular; and anatomy proves that the stomach and intestinal canals have also become proportionately extended along with the form of the body. The habits and instincts of the animal change; it becomes diurnal in its habits, not choosing the night for its search of food; is more insatiate in its appetite, and the tendency to obesity increases.
"The male, forsaking its solitary habits, becomes gregarious, and the female produces her young more frequently, and in larger numbers. With its diminished strength, and its want of active motion, the animal loses its desire for liberty.
"The true hog does not appear to be indigenous to America, but was taken over by the early voyagers from the old world, and it is now spread and multiplied throughout the continent.
"The first settlers of North America and the United States carried with them the swine of the parent country, and a few of the breeds still retain traces of the old English character. From its nature and habits, the hog was the most profitable and useful of all the animals bred by the early settlers in the distant clearings. It was his surest resource during the first years of toil and hardship."
Their widely-extended foreign commerce afforded the
FOOTNOTES:
GENERALITIES.
Dr. Gunther observes, that "the robust constitution of the pig causes it to be less liable to fall sick than oxen and sheep. It would be still less liable to disease, if persons manifested more judgment in the choice of the animals to be reared, and if more care were shown in the matter. With
"There are two other points which deserve to be taken into consideration, if we wish swine to thrive: these are, daily exercise in the open air whenever the weather permits, and cleanliness in the sty. Constant confinement throws them into what may be called a morbid state, which renders their flesh less wholesome for man. The manner in which the animal evinces its joy when set at liberty proves sufficiently how disagreeable confinement is to it. A very general prejudice prevails, viz., that dung and filth do not injure swine; this opinion, however, is absurd."
GENERAL DEBILITY, OR EMACIATION.
The falling off in flesh, or wasting away, of swine is in most cases owing to derangement in the digestive organs. The cure consists in restoring the tone of these organs. We commence the treatment by putting the animal on a boiled diet, consisting of bran, meal, or any wholesome vegetable production. The following tonic and diffusible stimulant will complete the cure:—
| Powdered golden seal, | equal parts. |
| Powdered ginger, | equal parts. |
Dose, a tea-spoonful, repeated night and morning.
EPILEPSY, OR FITS.
The symptoms are too well known to need any description. It is generally caused by plethora, yet it may exist in an hereditary form.
Treatment.—Feed with due care, and put the animal in a well-ventilated and clean situation; give a bountiful supply of valerian tea, and sprinkle a small quantity of scraped horseradish in the food; or give
| Powdered assafoetida, | 1 ounce. |
| Powdered capsicum, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
| Table salt, | 1 table-spoonful. |
Mix. Give half a tea-spoonful daily.
RHEUMATISM.
Causes.—Exposure, wallowing in filth, &c.
Symptoms.—It is recognized by a muscular rigidity of the whole system. The appetite is impaired, and the animal does not leave its sty willingly.
| Powdered sulphur, | equal parts. |
| Powdered sassafras, | equal parts. |
| Powdered cinnamon, | equal parts. |
Dose, half a tea-spoonful, to be given in warm gruel. If this does not give immediate relief, dip an old cloth in hot water, (of a proper temperature,) and fold it round the animal's body. This may be repeated, if necessary, until the muscular system is relaxed. The animal should be wiped dry, and placed in a warm situation, with a good bed of straw.
MEASLES.
This disease is very common, yet is often overlooked.
Symptoms.—It may be known by eruptions on the belly, ears, tongue, or eyelids. Before the eruption appears, the animal is drowsy, the eyes are dull, and there is sometimes loss of appetite, with vomiting. On the other hand, if the disease shall have receded towards the internal organs, its presence can only be determined by the general disturbance of the digestive organs, and the appearance of a few eruptions beneath the tongue.
Treatment.—Remove the animal from its companions to a warm place, and keep it on thin gruel. Give a tea-spoonful of sulphur daily, together with a drink of bittersweet tea. The object is to invite action to the surface, and maintain it there. If the eruption does not reappear on the surface, rub it with the following liniment:—
Take one ounce of oil of cedar; dissolve in a wine-glass
Almost all the diseases of the skin may be treated in the same manner.
OPHTHALMIA.
Causes.—Sudden changes in temperature, unclean sties, want of pure air, and imperfect light.
Treatment.—Keep the animal on thin gruel, and allow two tea-spoonfuls of cream of tartar per day. Wash the eyes with an infusion of marshmallows, until a cure is effected.
VERMIN.
Some animals are covered with vermin, which even pierce the skin, and sometimes come out by the mouth, nose, and eyes.
Symptoms.—The animal is continually rubbing and scratching itself, or burrowing in the dirt and mire.
Treatment.—First wash the body with a strong lie of wood ashes or weak saleratus water, then with an infusion of lobelia. Mix a tea-spoonful of sulphur, and the same quantity of powdered charcoal, in the food daily.
RED ERUPTION.
This disease is somewhat analogous to scarlet fever. It makes its appearance in the form of red pustules on the back and belly, which gradually extend to the whole body. The external remedy is:—
| Powdered bloodroot, | half an ounce. |
| Boiling vinegar, | 1 pint. |
When cool, it should be rubbed on the external surface.
The diet should consist of boiled vegetables, coarse meal, &c., with a small dose of sulphur every night.
DROPSY.
Symptoms.—The animal is sad and depressed, the appetite fails, respiration is performed with difficulty, and the belly swells.
Treatment.—Keep the animal on a light, nutritive diet, and give a handful of juniper berries, or cedar buds, daily. If these fail, give a table-spoonful of fir balsam daily.
CATARRH.
Symptoms.—Occasional fits of coughing, accompanied with a mucous discharge from the nose and mouth.
Causes.—Exposure to cold and damp weather.
COLIC.
Spasmodic and flatulent colic requires antispasmodics and carminatives, in the following form:—
| Powdered caraway seeds, | 1 tea-spoonful. |
| Powdered assafoetida, | one third of a tea-spoonful. |
To be given at a dose in warm water, and repeated at the expiration of an hour, provided relief is not obtained.
DIARRHŒA.
For the treatment of this malady, see division Sheep, article Scours.
FRENZY.
This makes its appearance suddenly. The animal, having remained in a passive and stupid state, suddenly appears much disturbed, to such a degree that it makes irregular movements, strikes its head against every thing it meets, scrapes with its feet, places itself quite erect alongside of the sty, bites any thing in its way, and frequently whirls itself round, after which it suddenly becomes more tranquil.
JAUNDICE.
This disease is recognised by the yellow tint of the conjunctiva, (white of the eye,) loss of appetite, &c.
The remedy is,—
| Powdered golden seal, | half an ounce. |
| Powdered sulphur, | one fourth of an ounce. |
| Powdered blue flag, | half an ounce. |
| Flaxseed, | 1 pound. |
Mix, and divide into four parts, and give one every night. The food must be boiled, and a small quantity of salt added to it.
SORENESS OF THE FEET.
This often occurs to pigs that have travelled any distance: the feet often become tender and sore. In such cases, they should be examined, and all extraneous matter removed from the foot. Then wash with weak lie. If the feet discharge fetid matter, wash with the following mixture:—
| Pyroligneous acid, | 2 ounces. |
| Water, | 4 ounces. |
In the treatment of diseased swine, the "issues," as they are called, ought to be examined, and be kept free. They may be found on the inside of the legs, just above the
SPAYING.
This is the operation of removing the ovaries of sows, in order to prevent any future conception, and promote their fattening. (See article Spaying Cows, p. 201.) It is usually performed by making incision in the middle of the flank, on the left side, in order to extirpate or cut off the ovaries, (female testes,) and then stitching up the wound, and wetting the part with Turlington's balsam. An able writer on this subject says, "The chief reason why a practice, which is beneficial in so many points of view to the interests and advantages of the farmer, has been so little attended to, is the difficulty which is constantly experienced from the want of a sufficient number of expert and proper persons to perform the operation. Such persons are far from being common in any, much less in every district, as some knowledge, of a nature which is not readily acquired, and much experience in the practice of cutting, are indispensably necessary to the success of the undertaking. When, however, the utility and benefits of the practice become better understood and more fully appreciated by the farmer, and the operators more numerous, greater attention and importance will be bestowed upon it; as it is capable of relieving him from much trouble, of greatly promoting his profits, and of benefiting him in various ways. The facts are since well proved and ascertained, that animals which have undergone this operation are more disposed to take on flesh, more quiet in their habits, and capable of being managed with much greater ease and facility in any way whatever, than they were before the operation was performed. It may also have
VARIOUS BREEDS OF SWINE.
BERKSHIRE BREED.
This breed is distinguished by being in general of a tawny, white, or reddish color, spotted with black; large ears hanging over the eyes; thick, close, and well made in the body; legs short; small in the bone; having a disposition to fatten quickly. When well fed, the flesh is fine. The above county has long been celebrated for its breed of swine. The Berkshire breeders have made a very judicious use of the pug cross, by not repeating it to the degree of taking away all shape and power of growing flesh, in their stock. This breed is supposed by many to be the most hardy, both in respect to their nature and the food on which they are fed. Their powers of digestion are exceedingly energetic, and they require constant good keep, or they will lose flesh very fast. They thrive well in the United States, provided, however, due care is exercised in breeding.
HAMPSHIRE BREED.
This breed is distinguished by being longer in the body and neck, but not of so compact a form as the Berkshire. They are mostly of a white color, or spotted, and are easily
SHROPSHIRE BREED.
These are not so well formed as those of the Berkshire kind, or equal to them in their disposition to fatten, or to be supported on such cheap food. Their color is white or brinded. They are flat boned; deep and flat sided; harsh, or rather wiry-haired; the ear large; head long, sharp, and coarse; legs long; loin, although very substantial, yet not sufficiently wide, considering the great extent of the whole frame. They have been much improved by the Berkshire cross.
There are various other breeds, which take their name from the different counties in the mother country. Thus we have the Herefordshire, Wiltshire, Yorkshire, &c. Yet they are not considered equal to those already alluded to. Many of the different English breeds might, however, serve to improve some species of breed in this country.
CHINESE BREED.
This is of small size; the body being very close, compact, and well formed; the legs very short; the flesh delicate and firm. The prevailing color, in China, is white. They fatten very expeditiously on a small quantity of food, and might be reared in the United States to good advantage, especially for home consumption.
BOARS AND SOWS FOR BREEDING.
Mr. Lawson says, "The best stock may be expected from the boar at his full growth, but no more than from three to
"It may be remarked, in respect to the period of being with young, that in the sow it is about four months; and the usual produce is about eight to ten or twelve pigs in the large, but more in the smaller breeds.
"In the ordinary management of swine, sows, after they have had a few litters, may be killed; but no breeder should part with one while she continues to bring good litters, and rear them with safety."
Pregnant sows should always be lodged separately, especially at the time of bringing forth their young, else the pigs would most probably be devoured as they fall. The sow should also be attended with due care while pigging, in order to preserve the pigs. It is found that dry, warm, comfortable lodging is of almost as much importance as food. The pigs may be weaned in about eight weeks, after which the sow requires less food than she does while nursing. In the management of these animals, it is of great utility and advantage to separate the males from the females, as it lessens their sexual desires.
FOOTNOTES:
REARING PIGS.
"As the breeding of pigs is a business that affords the farmer a considerable profit and advantage in various views, it is of essential importance that he be provided with suitable kinds of food in abundance for their support. Upon this being properly and effectually done, his success and advantage will in a great measure depend. The crops capable of being cultivated with the most benefit in this intention are, beans,
"The sows considerably advanced in pig, and those with pigs, should be fed in a better manner than the stone pigs. The former should be supplied with boiled meal, potatoes, carrots, &c., so as to keep them in good condition. The sows with pigs should be kept with the litters in separate sties, and be still better fed than those with pig. When dairying is practised, the wash of that kind which has been preserved for that purpose while the dairying was profitable, must be given them, with food of the root kind, such as carrots, parsnips, &c., in as large proportions as they will need to keep them in condition."
Pea-soup is an admirable article when given in this intention; it is prepared by boiling six pecks of peas in about sixty gallons of water, till they are well broken down and diffused in the fluid: it is then put into a tub or cistern for use. When dry food is given in combination with this, or of itself, the above writer advises oats, as being much better than any other sort of grain for young pigs, barley not answering nearly so well in this application. Oats coarsely ground have been found very useful for young hogs, both in the form of wash with water, and when made of a somewhat thicker consistence. But in cases where the sows and pigs can be supported with dairy-wash and roots, as above, there will be a considerable saving made, by avoiding the use of the expensive articles of barley-meal, peas, or bran.
Mr. Donaldson remarks, that in the usual mode, the pigs reared by the farmer are fed, for some weeks after they are weaned, on whey or buttermilk, or on bran or barley-meal mixed with water. They are afterwards maintained on other food, as potatoes, carrots, the refuse of the garden, kitchen, scullery, &c., together with such additions as they can pick up in the farmyard. Sometimes they are sent into the fields at the close of harvest, where they make a comfortable living for several weeks on the gleanings of the crop; at other times, when the farm is situated in the neighborhood of woods or forests, they
Nothing tends more effectually to preserve the health and promote the growth of young pigs than the liberal use of hay tea. The tea should be thickened with corn meal and shorts. This, given lukewarm, twice a day, will quicken their growth, and give the meat a rich flavor. A few parsnips
FOOTNOTES:
FATTENING HOGS.
F. Dodge, of Danvers, Mass., states that, in the spring of 1848, he "bought, from a drove, seven shotes, the total weight of which was 925 pounds. The price paid for them was seven cents per pound. They were fed an average of 184 days, and their average gain was 179 pounds of net pork. The cost of the food they consumed was as follows:—
| 68 bushels corn at 53 cents, | $36 04 |
| 30 bushels corn damaged, at 35 cents, | 10 50 |
| 50 bushels corn at 65 cents, | 32 50 |
| 8 bushels meal at 65 cents, | 5 20 |
| $84 24 | |
| Add first cost of pigs, | 64 75 |
| Making a total cost of | $148 99 |
"The whole quantity of pork afforded by the pigs killed was 2178 pounds, which was sold at 6-1/3 cents per pound, amounting
The food in the above case was too costly. One half of it, mixed with parsnips, carrots, beets, or turnips, would have answered the purpose better. The balance would then have been in favor of the pigs. We are told, by an able writer on swine, that they will feed greedily, and thrive surprisingly, on most kinds of roots and tubers, such as carrots, beets, parsnips, potatoes, &c., particularly when prepared by boiling. It may be taken as a general rule, that boiled or prepared food is more nutritious and fattening than raw cold food; the additional expense and labor will be more than compensated by the increased weight and quality.
Cornstalks might be used as food for swine by first cutting them
Mr. P. Wing, of Farmersville, C. W., gives us his experience in feeding swine; and he requests his brother farmers to make similar experiments with various kinds of food, and, by preparing them in various ways, to ascertain what way it will yield the most nutriment—that is, make the most pork. He says,—
"I now give the result of feeding 100 bushels of good peas to sixteen hogs, of various mixed breeds, as found in this section. The peas were boiled until fine, making what I call thick soup. After having fed the hogs on the same kind
"I find that there is a great difference in breeds of hogs. The three year old sow small framed, and pretty full-fleshed, weighing 504 lbs. Her gain in the forty-two days was 66 lbs. The three pigs were from her, and showed traces of three distinct breeds of hogs. Their first weight and gain were as follows: the first weighed 253 lbs.—gain, 97 lbs.; the second, 218 lbs.—gain, 75 lbs.; the third, 171 lbs.—gain, 46 lbs. When butchered, the smallest one was the best pork, being the fattest. Two of the most inferior of the hogs gained 1-1/2 lbs. per day; six, mixture of the Berkshire, (I should think about one fourth,) gained 1-3/4 lbs. per day; three of the common stock of our country gained 2-1/2 lbs.; and one of a superior kind weighted 318 lbs., and in the forty-two days gained 134 lbs. They were weighed on the 20th September, the first time. They were kept confined in a close pen, except once a week I let them out for exercise, and to wallow, for the most pint of a day."
METHOD OF CURING SWINE'S FLESH.
"In the county of Kent, when pork is to be cured as bacon, it is the practice to singe off the hairs by making a straw fire round the carcass—an operation which is termed
"In the county of Westmoreland, where the curing of hams has long been practised with much success, the usual method is for them to be at first rubbed very hard with bay salt; by some they are covered close up; by others they are left on a stone bench, to allow the brine and blood to run off. At the end of five days, they are again rubbed, as hard as they were at first, with salt of the same sort, mixed with an ounce of saltpetre to a ham. Having lain about a week, either on a stone bench or in hogsheads amongst the brine, they are hung up, by some in the chimney, amidst the smoke, whether of peat or coals; by others in places where the smoke never reaches them. If not sold sooner, they are suffered to remain there till the weather becomes warm. They are then packed in hogsheads with straw or oatmeal husks, and sent to the place of sale."
A small portion of pyroligneous acid may be added to the brine. It is a good antiseptic, and improves the flavor of ham and bacon. (See Acid, Pyroligneous, in the Materia Medica.)
