  [3] The opinion maintained by some geologists, that certain strata have been formed in the inclined position in which they are now found, admitting it true with regard to some particular strata which might have been crystallized, as Mr Greenough supposes, like the deposit which encrusts the inside of vessels, in which water containing gypsum has been boiled, cannot at least apply to those which contain shells or rolled stones, which could not have waited, so suspended, the formation of the cement by which they were to be agglutinated. [5] The conjecture of the Marquis de la Place, that the materials of which the globe is composed, have perhaps existed at first in the elastic form, and have successively assumed a liquid consistence on cooling, and have at length been solidified, is well supported by the recent experiments of M. Mitscherlich, who has composed, of all sorts of substances, and crystallized by the heat of intense furnaces, several of the mineral species which enter into the composition of primitive mountains.—Note D. [6] The Travels of Saussure and Deluc present a multitude of facts of this description. These geologists imagined, that they could only have been produced by enormous eruptions. De Buch and Escher have recently employed themselves upon this subject. The memoir of the latter, inserted in the Nouvelle Alpina of SteinmÜller, vol. i. presents the general results in a remarkable manner. The following is a comprehensive view of them: Such of these blocks as are scattered over the low parts of Switzerland and Lombardy, come from the Alps, and have descended along their valleys. They occur every where, and of all sizes, up to 50,000 cubic feet, over the great extent of country which separates the Alps from the Jura mountains; and they rise upon the sides of the latter facing the Alps, to a height of 4000 feet above the level of the sea. They are found at the surface, or in the superficial layers of debris, but not in the strata of sandstone, molasse, or conglomerate, which fill up almost every where the interval in question. They are sometimes isolated, sometimes in heaps. The height of their situation is not connected with their magnitude; the smaller ones alone appear sometimes a little worn, but the large ones are not so at all. Those which belong to the basin of each river are found, upon examination, to be of the same nature as the mountains of the tops or sides of the high valleys in which the tributary streams of this river take their rise. They are already seen in these upper valleys, and are particularly accumulated at the places which are situated above some of the contractions of these valleys. They have passed over the lower hills, when their height has not been more than 4000 feet; and then they are seen upon the other side of the ridges, in the cantons between the Alps and Jura, and even upon the latter itself. It is opposite the mouths of the valleys of the Alps that they are seen in the greatest quantity, and at the greatest heights; those of the intervening spaces have not been carried so high. Among the chains of the Jura mountains, which are more remote from the Alps, they are only found in places which are opposite the openings of the nearer chains. From these facts, the author draws the conclusion, that the transportation of these blocks has taken place at a period subsequent to the deposition of the sandstones and conglomerates, and has perhaps been occasioned by the last of the revolutions which the globe has experienced. He compares the transportation in question to that which still takes place from the agency of torrents; but the objections presented by the consideration of the great size of the blocks, and the deep valleys over which they must have passed, appear to us to militate greatly against this part of his hypothesis.—Note E. [7] Regarding the changes of the surface of the earth, known from history or tradition, and consequently dependent on causes still in operation, see the German work of M. de Hof, entitled “ Geschichte der NatÜrlichen VerÄnderungen der ErdoberflÄche,” 2 vols. 8vo. Goth. 1822 and 1824. The facts contained in it are collected with equal care and erudition. [10] Voyage aux Terres Australes, t. i. p. 161. [12] It is a common opinion in Sweden, that the level of the sea is becoming lower, and that many places may even be forded or passed dry-shod, which were formerly impracticable. Eminent philosophers have adopted this popular opinion; and M. von Buch goes so far as to suppose that the whole of Sweden is gradually rising. But it is singular, that no one has made, or at least published, a series of accurate observations, calculated to confirm a fact that had been announced so long ago, and which would leave no doubt upon the mind, if, as LinnÆus asserts, this difference of level were so much as four or five feet yearly. Note I. [13] Mr Stevenson, in his observations upon the bed of the German Ocean and British Channel, maintains that the level of the sea is continually rising, and has been very sensibly elevated within the last three centuries. Fortis asserts the same of some parts of the Adriatic sea. But the example of the Temple of Serapis, near Pouzzola, proves that the margins of that sea are, in many places, of such a nature as to be subject to local risings and fallings. On the other hand, there are thousands of quays, roads, and other works, made along the sea-side by the Romans, from Alexandria to Belgium, the relative level of which has never varied. [14] When I formerly mentioned this circumstance of the science of geology having become ridiculous, I only expressed a fact, to the truth of which every day bears witness; but in this I did not profess to give my own opinion, as some respectable geologists seem to have believed. If their mistake has arisen from any thing equivocal in my expressions, I here apologize to them. [15] Burnet, Telluris Theoria Sacra. Lond. 1681. [16] Woodward, Essay towards the Natural History of the Earth. Lond. 1702. [17] Scheuchzer, MÉm. de l’Acad. 1708. [18] Whiston, New Theory of the Earth. Lond. 1708. [19] Leibnitz, ProtogÆa. Act. Lips. 1683; Gott. 1749. [20] Telliamed. Amsterd. 1748. [21] Theorie de la Terre, 1749; and Epoques de la Nature, 1775. [22] See La Physique de Rodig. p. 106, Leipsic, 1801; and Telliamed, vol. ii. p. 169, as well as a multitude of new German works. M. de Lamarck has of late years developed this system to a great extent, in France, and supported it with much ingenuity, in his Hydrogeologie and Philosophie Zoologique. [23] M. Patrin has shewn much ingenuity in supporting these fantastical ideas, in several articles of the Nouveau Dictionnaire d’Histoire Naturelle. [24] This application of pantheism to geology may be best seen in the works of Oken and Steffens. [25] DelamÉtherie, in his “GÉologie,” admits crystallization as the principal agent. [26] Hutton and Playfair.—Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth. Edin. 1802. [27] Lamanon,—in various parts of the Journal de Physique,—after Michaelis, and several others. [28] Dolomieu, in the Journal de Physique. [29] MM. de Marschall, in their Researches respecting the Origin and Development of the present order of the World. Giessen, 1802. [30] Bertrand,—Periodical Renewal of the Terrestrial Continents. Hamburgh, 1799. [31] My work has, in fact, proved how far this inquiry was yet new when I commenced it, notwithstanding the excellent labours of Camper, Pallas, Blumenbach, Merk, SÖmmering, RosenmÜller, Fischer, Faujas, Home, and other learned men, whose works I have most scrupulously cited in such of my chapters as their researches are connected with. [32] This is more particularly noticed in the Chapter on Elephants in the first volume of Professor Cuvier’s Recherches. [33] See the history of the Rhinoceros in the first part of the second volume of Professor Cuvier’s Recherches. [34] See the chapter on the Hippopotamus, in the first volume of Recherches. [35] Hist. Anim. Lib. ii. cap. 1. [36] Jul. Capitol., Gord. iii. cap. 23. [37] Antilope Gnu, Gmel. [38] Pliny, Lib. viii. cap. 32.; and Ælian, Lib. vii. cap. 5. [39] Ælian, Anim. v. 27. [40] Pliny, lib. viii. cap. 15.; and lib. xi. cap. 37. [41] Ælian, Anim. xiv. 14. [42] Opp. Cyneg., ii. v. 445. et seq. [43] Pliny, lib. viii. cap. 21. [44] See the great Work upon Egypt, Antiq. iv. pl. 49.; and pl. 66. [45] Ælian, Anim. xv. 14. [46] Idem, Anim. iii. 34. [47] Arist. Hist. Anim. lib. ii. cap. 5. [48] Ælian, ii. 53. [49] Idem, ii. 20. [50] Idem, xv. 24. [51] Idem, xv. 24. [52] Idem, Anim. iii. 3. [53] Idem, iv. 32. [54] This is more particularly explained in the chapters upon Deer and Oxen, in the fourth volume of Professor Cuvier’s Recherches. [55] Aurochs is Bos Urus, Lin., not the Urus of the ancients, which latter appears now to be extinct. [56] Buffon having read in Du Fouilloux a mutilated passage of Gaston-PhÉbus, Count de Foix, in which that prince describes the chase of the rein-deer, imagined that, in the time of Gaston, this animal lived in the Pyrenees; and the printed editions of Gaston were so faulty, that it was difficult to make out, with certainty, what the author had intended to say; but having had recourse to his original manuscript, which is preserved in the Royal Library, I have ascertained that it was in Xueden and NourvÈgue, (Sweden and Norway), that he relates having seen and hunted the rein-deer. [57] AthenÆis, lib. v. [58] The only error committed, is that of giving it a claw too much to the hind foot. Augustus exhibited thirty-six of them; Dion, lib. lv. [59] Caracalla killed one of them in the Circus; Dion, lib. lxxvii. Consult also Gisb. Cuperi de Eleph. in nummis obviis, ex. ii. cap. vii. [60] See Lichtenstein, Comment. de Simiarum quotquot veteribus innotuerunt formis. Hamburgh, 1791. [61] The Jerboa is impressed upon the medals of Cyrene, and indicated by Aristotle under the name of Two-legged Rat. [62] Plin. viii. 31. Arist. lib. ii. cap. 40. Phot. Bibl., Art. 72; Ctes. Indic. Ælian, Anim., iv. 21. [63] Ælian, Anim. iv. 27. [64] Ælian, xvi. 20. Photius, Bibl., art. 72. Ctes. Indic. [65] See Corneille Lebrun, Voyage en Muscovie, en Perse et aux Indes, tom. ii. See also the German work by M. Heeren, on the Commerce of the Ancients. [66] Photius, Bibl., art. 250. Agatharchid., Excerpt. hist., cap. xxxix. Ælian, Anim. xvii. 45. Plin. viii. 21. [67] I have even seen, in the collection of the late Mr Addrien Camper, a skeleton of a hyena, in which several of the vertebrÆ of the neck were anchylosed. It was probably from seeing some similar individual that the character in question was attributed to all hyenas. This animal ought to be more subject than any other to such an accident, on account of the prodigious power of the muscles of its neck, and the frequent use which it makes of them. When the hyena has laid hold of any thing, it is easier to drag it along by it than to wrest it from its jaws; and it is this circumstance which has caused the Arabs to consider it as the emblem of invincible obstinacy. [68] It does not in reality change its sex, but it has an orifice in the perineum, which might make it be supposed to be hermaphrodite. [69] Arist. Anim. ii. 1. iii. 1. Plin. xl. 46. [70] Herod. iv. 192. [71] Oppian, Cyneg. ii. vers. 551. [72] Plin. viii. 53. [73] Philostorg. iii. 11. [74] Plin. viii. 21. [75] Onesicrit, ap. Strab. lib. xv. Ælian, xiii. 42. [76] Plin. viii. 31. [77] Barrow’s Voyage to the Cape, Fr. transl. ii. 178. [78] Oppian, Cyneg, lib. II. v. 468. and 471. [79] De Anim. lib. xv. cap. 14. [80] Ælian, Anim. iv. 52; Photius, Bibl. p. 154. [81] I do not intend by this remark, as I have already observed on a former occasion, to detract from the merit of the observations of Camper, Pallas, Blumenbach, Soemmering, Merk, Faugas, RosenmÜller, Home, &c.; but their excellent works, which have been very useful to me, and which I quote throughout, are incomplete; and several of these works have only been published since the first editions of this Essay. [82] See M. Frederick Cuvier’s memoir upon the varieties of dogs, in the Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, which he drew up at the request of Professor Cuvier, from a series of skeletons of all the varieties of the dog prepared in the Professor’s collection. [83] The first figure made of it from nature is in the Description de la Menagerie, a work composed by M. Cuvier. It is seen perfectly represented in the great work on Egypt.—Antiq. t. iv. pl. xlix. [84] See the Journal de Marseille et des Bouches-du-RhÔne, of the 27th Sept. 25th Oct. and 1st Nov. 1820. [85] I am confirmed in this opinion by the sketches transmitted to me by M. Cottard, one of the Professors of the College of Marseilles. [86] These skeletons, more or less mutilated, are found near Port de Moule, on the north-west coast of the mainland of Guadaloupe, in a kind of slope resting against the steep edges of the island. This slope is, in a great measure, covered by the sea at high-water, and is nothing else than a tufa, formed, and daily augmented, by the very small debris of shells and corals, which the waves detach from the rocks, and the accumulated mass of which assumes a great degree of cohesion in the places that are most frequently left dry. We find, on examining them with a lens, that several of these fragments have the same red tint as a part of the corals contained in the reefs of the island. Formations of this kind are common in the whole archipelago of the Antilles, where they are known to the Negroes under the name of MaÇonne-bon-dieu. Their augmentation is proportioned to the violence of the surge. They have extended the plain of the Cayes to St Domingo, the situation of which has some resemblance to the Plage du Moule, and there are sometimes found in it fragments of earthen vessels, and of other articles of human fabrication, at a depth of twenty feet. A thousand conjectures have been made, and even events imagined, to account for these skeletons of Guadaloupe. But, from all the circumstances of the case, M. Moreau de JonnÈs, correspondent of the Academy of Sciences, who has been upon the spot, and to whom I am indebted for the above details, thinks that they are merely bodies of persons that have perished by shipwreck. They were discovered in 1805 by M. Manuel CortÈs y CampomanÈs, at that time a general officer in the service of the colony. General Ernouf, the governor, caused one to be extracted with much labour, of which the head, and almost the whole superior extremities, were wanting. This had been deposited at Guadaloupe, in the expectation that another and more complete specimen would be procured, in order to send them together to Paris, when the island was taken by the English. Admiral Cochrane having found this skeleton at the headquarters, sent it to the English Admiralty, who presented it to the British Museum. It is still in that collection, and M. Koenig, Keeper of the Mineralogical Department, has described it in the Phil. Trans. of 1814, and there I saw it in 1818. M. Koenig observes, that the stone in which it is imbedded, has not been cut to its present shape, but that it seems to have been simply inserted, in the form of a distinct nodule, into the surrounding mass. The skeleton is so superficial, that its presence must have been perceived by the projection of some of its bones. They still contain some of their animal matter, and the whole of their phosphate of lime. The rock being entirely formed of pieces of corals, and of compact limestone, readily dissolves in nitric acid. M. Koenig has detected fragments of Millepora miniacea, of several madrepores, and of shells, which he compares to Helix acuta and Turbo pica. This fossil skeleton is represented in Plate I. More recently, General Donzelot has caused another of these skeletons to be extracted, which is now in the Royal Cabinet, and of which a figure is given in Plate II. It is a body which has the knees bent. A small portion of the upper jaw, the left half of the lower, nearly the whole of one side of the trunk and pelvis, and a large portion of the left upper and lower extremities, are what remain of it. The rock which contains it, is evidently a travertin, in which are imbedded shells of the neighbouring sea, and land-shells, which are still found alive in the island, namely, the Bulimus guadalupensis of Ferussac. [87] See M. de Schlotheim’s Treatise on Petrifactions, Gotha, 1820, p. 57; and his Letter in the Isis of 1820, 8th Number, No. 6. of Supplement. [88] It is perhaps proper that I take notice of those fragments of sandstone, regarding which some noise was attempted to be made last year (1824), and in which a man and a horse were alleged to have been found petrified. The mere circumstance of its being a man and a horse, with their flesh and skin, that these fragments must have represented, might have enabled every one to perceive that the whole was a mere lusus naturÆ, and not a true petrifaction.—Note L. [89] Fourcroy has given an analysis of them in the Annales du Museum, vol. x. p. 1. [90] Journal de Physique, t. xlii, p. 40. et seq. [91] Herod. Euterpe, v. and xxv. [92] Arist. Meteor. lib. i. cap. 14. [93] Demaillet, Description of Egypt, p. 102-3. [94] Herod. Euterpe, xiii. [95] See M. Girard’s Observations on the valley of Egypt; and on the secular increase of the soil which covers it, in the great work upon Egypt, and Mod. Mem. t. ii. p. 343. On this subject we may further observe that Dolomieu, Shaw, and other respectable authors, have estimated these secular elevations much higher than M. Girard. It is to be lamented, that nowhere has it been tried to examine the depth of these deposits over the original soil, or the natural rock. [96] See M. Forfait’s Memoir on the lagunes of Venice, inserted in the MÉm. de la Classe Phys. de l’Institut, t. v. p. 213. [98] In various parts of the two last volumes of his Letters to the Queen of England. [99] Melpom. lxxxvi. [100] Ibid. lvi. [101] This supposed diminution of the Black Sea and Sea of Asoph, has also been attributed to the rupture of the Bosphorus, which had taken place at the pretended period of the deluge of Deucalion; and yet, in order to establish the fact itself, recourse is had to successive diminutions of the extent attributed to these seas by Herodotus, Strabo, and others. But it is very obvious, that, if this diminution had arisen from the rupture of the Bosphorus, it would necessarily have been completed long before the time of Herodotus, and even at the period at which Deucalion is supposed to have lived. [102] See the Geography of Herodotus by M. Rennel, p. 56. et seq.; and the Physical Geography of the Black Sea, &c. by M. Dureau de Lamalle. There is only at present the small river of Kamennoipost, that could represent the Gerrhus and Hypacyris, such as they are described by Herodotus. M. Dureau, p. 170, supposes Herodotus to have made the Borysthenes and Hypanis discharge themselves into the Palus MÆotis; but Herodotus (in Melpom. liii.) only says that these two rivers fall together into the same lake, that is, into the Liman, as at the present day. Herodotus does not carry the Gerrhus and Hypacyris any farther. [103] For example, M. Dureau de Lamalle, in his Physical Geography of the Black Sea, quotes Aristotle (Meteor. lib. i. cap. 13.) as “apprising us, that, in his time, there still existed several ancient periods and peripli, attesting that there had been a canal leading from the Caspian Sea into the Palus MÆotis.” Now, Aristotle’s words at the place mentioned (Duval’s edition, i. 545. B.) are merely these: “From the Paropamisus, descend, among other rivers, the Bactrus, the Choaspes, and the Araxis, from which the Tanais, which is a branch of it, takes its origin, into the Palus MÆotis.” Who does not see that this nonsense, which is neither founded upon peripli nor periods, is nothing else than the strange idea of Alexander’s soldiers, who took the Jaxartes or Tanais of the Transoxian for the Don or Tanais of Scythia? Arrian and Pliny distinguish these two rivers from each other, but the distinction does not appear to have been made in the time of Aristotle. How, then, could such geographers as these furnish us with geological documents? [104] See the Report upon the Downs of the Gulf of Gascony (or Bay of Biscay) by M. Tassin.—Mont. de-Marsan, an x. [105] Memoir on the means of fixing Downs, by M. Bremontier. [106] Report of M. Tassin, loc. cit. [107] See M. Bremontier’s Memoir. [108] Denon, Voyage en Egypte. [109] We might cite in confirmation all the travellers who have visited the western border of Egypt. [110] These phenomena are very well treated of in M. Deluc’s Letters to the Queen of England, in the parts where he describes the peat-mosses of Westphalia; and in his Letters to Lametherie, inserted in the Journal de Physique for 1791, &c. as well as in those which he has addressed to Blumenbach. We may refer also to the very interesting details which are given in note F, respecting the islands of the west coast of the Duchy of Sleswick, and the manner in which they have been joined, whether to one another, or to the continent, by alluvial depositions and peat-mosses, as well as respecting the irruptions of the sea which from time to time have destroyed or separated some of their parts. [111] The period of Cyrus, about 650 years before the Christian era. [112] The period of Ninus, about 2348 years before Christ, according to Ctesias, and those who have followed him; but only 1250, according to Volney, after Herodotus. [113] Herodotus lived 440 years before Christ. [114] Cadmus, Pherecydes, AristÆus of Proconnesus, Acusilaus, HecatÆus of Miletum, Charon of Lampsacus, &c. See Vossius, Histor. GrÆc. lib. i., and especially his fourth book. [115] [116] The Septuagint, 5345 years; the Samaritan text, 4869; the Hebrew text, 4174. [117] There is a difference of several years among chronologists with respect to each of these events; but these migrations form, notwithstanding, the peculiar and very remarkable feature of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries before the christian era. Thus, according to the calculations of Usserius, Cecrops came from Egypt to Athens about 1556 years before Christ; Deucalion settled on Parnassus about 1548; Cadmus arrived from Phenicia at Thebes about 1493; Danaus came to Argos about 1485; and Dardanus established himself on the Hellespont about 1449. All these founders of nations must therefore have been nearly contemporary with Moses, whose migration took place in 1491. Consult further, regarding the synchronism of Moses, Danaus and Cadmus, Diodorus, lib. xi; in Photius, p. 1152. [118] The genealogies of Apollodorus are generally known, and that portion of them upon which Clavier endeavoured to establish a sort of primitive history of Greece; but, when we become acquainted with the genealogies of the Arabs, those of the Tartars, and all those which our old chronicling monks invented for the different sovereigns of Europe, and even for individuals, we readily comprehend that Greek writers must have done for the early periods of their nation what has been done for all the other nations, at periods when criticism had not been used to throw light upon history. [119] 1856 or 1823 years before Christ, or other dates still, but always about 350 years before the principal Phoenician or Egyptian colonies. [120] The common date of Ogyges, according to Acusilaus, followed by Eusebius, is 1796 years before Christ, consequently several years after Inachus. [121] Varro places the deluge of Ogyges, which he calls the first deluge, 400 years before Inachus, and consequently 1600 years before the first Olympiad. This would refer it to a period of 2376 years before Christ; and the deluge of Noah, according to the Hebrew text, is 2349, there being only 27 years of difference. This testimony of Varro is mentioned by Censorinus, De Die Natali, cap. xxi. In reality, Censorinus wrote only 238 years after Christ; and, it appears, from Julius Africanus, ap. Euseb. PrÆp. cv. that Acusilaus, the first author who placed a deluge in the reign of Ogyges, made this prince cotemporary with PhoronÆus, which would have brought him very near the first Olympiad. Julius Africanus makes only an interval of 1020 years between the two epochs; and there is even a passage in Censorinus conformable to this opinion. Some also read erogitium in place of ogygium, in the passage of Varro, which we have quoted above from Censorinus. But what would this be but an Erogitian Cataclysm, of which nobody has ever heard? [122] Neither Homer nor Hesiod knew any thing of the deluge of Deucalion, any more than that of Ogyges. The first author, whose works are extant, by whom mention is made of the former, is Pindar (Od. Olymp. ix.) He speaks of Deucalion as landing upon Parnassus, establishing himself in the city of Protogene (first growth or birth), and re-creating his people from stones; in a word, he relates, but confining it to a single nation only, the fable afterwards generalized by Ovid, and applied to the whole human race. The first historians who wrote after Pindar, namely, Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon, make no mention of any deluge, whether of the time of Ogyges, or that of Deucalion, although they speak of the latter as one of the first kings of the Hellenes. Plato, in his TimÆus, says only a few words of the deluge, as well as of Deucalion and Pyrrha, in order to commence the recital of the great catastrophe, which, according to the priests of Sais, destroyed the Atlantis; but, in these few words, he speaks of the deluge in the singular number, as if it had been the only one. He even expressly mentions farther on, that the Greeks knew only one. He places the name of Deucalion immediately after that of Phoroneus, the first of the human race, without making mention of Ogyges. Thus, with him, it is still a general event, a true universal deluge, and the only one which had happened. He regards it, therefore, as identical with that of Ogyges. Aristotle (Meteor. i. 14.) seems to be the first who considered this deluge only as a local inundation, which he places near Dodona and the river Achelous, but near the Achelous and Dodona of Thessaly. Apollodorus (Bibl. i. § 7.) restores to the deluge of Deucalion all its grandeur and mythological character. According to him, it took place at the period when the age of brass was passing into the age of iron. Deucalion is the son of Titan Prometheus, the fabricator of man; he forms anew the human race of stones; and yet Atlas, his uncle, Phoroneus, who lived before him, and several other personages anterior to him, preserve a lengthened posterity. In proportion as we advance toward authors who approach nearer our own times, we find circumstances of detail added, which more resemble those related by Moses. Thus Apollodorus gives Deucalion a great chest as a means of safety; Plutarch speaks of the pigeons by which he sought to find out whether the waters had retired; and Lucian, of the animals of every kind which he had taken with him, &c. With regard to the blending of traditions and hypotheses, by which it has recently been tried to infer the conclusion, that the rupture of the Thracian Bosphorus was the cause of Deucalion’s deluge, and even of the opening of the pillars of Hercules, by making the waters of the Euxine Sea discharge themselves into the Archipelago, supposing them to have been much higher and more extended than they have been since that event, it is not necessary for us to treat of it in detail, since it has been determined by the observations of M. Olivier, that if the Black Sea had been as high as it is imagined to have been, it would have found several passages for its waters, by hills and plains less elevated than the present banks of the Bosphorus; and by those of the Count Andreossy, that had it one day fallen suddenly in the manner of a cascade by this new passage, the small quantity of water that could have flowed at once through so narrow an aperture, would not only be diffused over the immense extent of the Mediterranean, without occasioning a tide of a few fathoms, but that the mere natural inclination necessary for the flowing of the waters, would have reduced to nothing their excess of height above the shores of Attica. See further on this subject the note that I have published at the head of the third volume of Ovid, of M. Lemaire’s collection. [123] Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Antiq. Rom. lib. i. cap. lxi. [124] Diodorus Siculus, lib. v. cap. xlvii. [125] Stephen of Byzantium, under the word Iconium;—Zenodotus, Prov. cent. vi. No. 10.;—and Suidas, voce Nannacus. [126] Lucian, De De SyrÂ. [127] Arnobius, Contra GÊnt. lib. v. p. m. 158, even speaks of a rock in Phrygia, from which it was pretended that Deucalion and Pyrrha had taken their stones. [128] This mutual resemblance in their institutions is carried to such an extent as to make it very natural to suppose that these nations had a common origin. It should not be forgotten, that many ancient authors thought that the Egyptian institutions came from Ethiopia; and that Syncellus, p. 151. says positively that the Ethiopians came from the banks of the Indus in the time of King Amenophtis. [129] See Polier. Mythology of the Hindoos, vol. i. p. 89, 91. [130] See the elaborate Memoir of Mr Wilfort, on the chronology of the kings of Magadha, and the Indian emperors, and on the epochs of Vicramaditya or Bikermadjit, and Salivahanna, in the Calcutta Memoirs, vol. ix. p. 82. 8vo. edit. [131] See Sir William Jones on the chronology of the Hindoos, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 111. See also Wilfort on the same subject, Ibid. vol. v. p. 241. and the lists which he gives in his essay cited above, vol. ix. p. 116. [132] Wilfort, Calcutta Mem. 8vo. vol. ix. p. 133. [133] In the Ayeen-Acbery, vol. ii. p. 138, of the English transl. See also Heeren, Commerce of the Ancients, vol. i. part ii. p. 329. [134] See Bentley, on the Astronomical Systems of the Hindoos, and their Connection with History; Calcutta Memoirs, vol. viii. p. 243. of the 8vo edition. [135] See Mr Colebrooke’s Memoir on the Vedas, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. viii. p. 493. 8vo edition. [136] Megasthenes apud Strabonem, lib. xv. p. 709. Almel. [137] The epoch which gave birth to the present age, Caliyug (the earthen age,) 4927 years before the present day, or 3200 years before Christ. See Legentil, Voyage aux Indes, t. i. p. 253.;—Bentley, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. viii. of the 8vo edition, p. 212. This period is only fifty-nine years farther back than the deluge of Noah, according to the Samaritan text. [138] The person named Satyavrata plays the same part as Noah, by saving himself with fourteen saints. See Sir W. Jones, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. i. p. 230. 8vo edition;—also in the Bagvadam, or Bagavata, translated by FouchÉ d’Obsonville, p. 212. [139] Cala-Javana, or, in common language, Cal-Yun, to whom his partisans might have given the epithet, deva, deo, (dieu, god), having attacked Chrishna (the Indian Apollo), at the head of the northern nations (the Scythians, of whom was Deucalion, according to Lucian), was repulsed by fire and water. His father Garga had for one of his surnames Pramathesa (Prometheus); and, according to another legend, he was devoured by the eagle Garuda. These particulars have been extracted by Mr Wilfort (in his Memoir upon Mount Caucasus, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. vi. p. 507, 8vo edition), from the Sanscrit drama, entitled Hari-Vansa. Mr Charles Ritter, in his Vestibule of the History of Europe before Herodotus, concludes that the whole fable of Deucalion was of foreign origin, and had been brought into Greece along with the other legends of that part of the Grecian worship which had come from the north, and which had preceded the Egyptian and Phenician colonies. But if it be true that the constellations of the Indian sphere have also names of persons celebrated in Greece, that Andromeda and Cepheus are represented under the names of Antarmadia and Capiia, &c. we should perhaps be induced to draw, with Mr Wilfort, a conclusion quite the reverse. Unfortunately the authenticity of the documents referred to by this writer has been doubted among the learned. [140] About 4000 years before the present time. See Bentley, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. viii. p. 226. of the 8vo edition, Note. [141] See Plato’s TimÆus and Critias. [142] Euterpe, chap. xcix. et seq. [143] Herodotus thought he had discovered relations of figure and colour between the Colchians and Egyptians; but it is infinitely more probable that those dark-coloured Colchians of which he speaks, were an Indian colony, attracted by the commerce anciently established between India and Europe, by the Oxus, the Caspian Sea, and the Phasis. See Ritter, Vestibule of Ancient History before Herodotus, chap. i. [144] Euterpe, chap. cxliii. [145] Ibid. cxliv. [146] Euterpe; cxli. [147] Ibid. clix., and in the fourth Book of the Kings, chap. 19, or in the second of the Paral. chap. 32. [148] Syncell. p. 40. [149] Syncell. p. 51. [150] Ibid. p. 91. et seq. [151] Diod. Sic. lib. i. sect. 2. [152] Tacit. Annal. lib. ii. cap. 60. N. B.—According to the interpretation given by Ammianus, lib. xvii. cap. 4., of the hieroglyphics on the obelisk of Thebes, which is at present in Rome in the place of St John of Latran, it appears that a Rhamestes was styled, after the eastern manner, lord of the habitable earth; and that the history told to Germanicus was only a commentary on this inscription. [153] Pliny, lib. xxxvi. cap. 8, 9, 10, 11. [154] That of Ramestes in Ammian. loc. cit. [155] Stromat. lib. vi. p. 633. [156] See the “Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique des Anciens Egyptiens,” by M. Champollion the younger, p. 245; and his Letter to the Duke de Blacas, p. 15 et seq. [157] This important bas-relief is engraved in the second volume of M. Caillaud’s Voyage À MeroË, Plate xxxii. [158] Syncell, p. 59. [159] Canon, p. 355. [160] The whole ancient mythology of the Brahmins has relation to the plains or the course of the Ganges, where their first establishments were evidently formed. [161] The descriptions of the ancient Chaldean monuments have a strong resemblance to what we see of those of the Indians and Egyptians; but these monuments are not equally well preserved, because they were only built of bricks dried in the sun. [162] Clio, cap. xcv. [163] Clio, cap. vii. [164] Stephen of Byzantium, at the word ChaldÆi. [165] Josephus, (Contra App.) lib. i. cap. xix. [166] Diod. Sic. lib. ii. [167] Josephus (contra App.) lib. i. cap. 6; and Strabo, lib. xv. p. 687. [168] See in the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, vol. v. the memoir of Freret on the History of the Assyrians. [169] Strabo, lib. xi. p. 507. [170] Syncellus, p. 38 and 39. [171] N. B.—It is very remarkable that Herodotus does not mention having seen monuments of Sesostris, except in Palestine, and does not speak of those of Ionia, but upon the authority of others, adding, at the same time, that Sesostris is not named in the inscriptions, and that those who had seen these monuments attributed them to Memnon. See Euterpe, chap. cvi. [172] Justin, lib. i. cap. i. Vetleius Paterculus, lib. i. cap. 7. [173] See Moses of Chorene, Histor. Armeniac. lib. l. cap. i. [174] See the Preface of the Brothers Whiston, regarding Moses of Chorene, p. 4. [175] Zendavesta of Anquetil, vol. ii. p. 354. [176] Mazoudi, ap. Sacy, MS. of the Royal Library, vol. viii. p. 161. [177] See the preface to the edition of Chou-king, by M. de Guignes. [178] Chou-king, French translation, p. 9. [179] See the Yu-kong, or first chapter of the second part of the Chou-king, pp. 43-60. [180] See the excellent and magnificent work of M. de Humboldt upon the Mexican monuments. [181] Geminus, who was cotemporary with Cicero, explains their motives at length. See M. Halma’s edition at the end of the PtolomÉe, p. 43. [182] The whole of this system is developed by Censorinus, De Die Natali, cap. xviii. and xxi. [183] Ideler. Historical Researches regarding the Astronomical Observations of the Ancients. M. Halma’s translation, at the end of his Canon de PtolomÉe, p. 32. et seq. [184] Bainbridge, Canicul. [185] Petau, Var. Dios. lib. v. cap. vi. p. 108.—Also, La Nanze, Acad. de Bell. Lett. t. xiv. p. 346. [186] Petau. loc. cit. M. Ideler asserts that this concurrence of the heliacal rising of Sirius also took place in 2782 before Christ. (Historical Researches in M. Halma’s PtolomÉe, vol. iv. p. 37.) But with regard to the Julian year 1598 after Christ, which is also the last of a great year, Petau and Ideler differ much from each other. The latter refers the heliacal rising of Sirius to the 22d July; the former to the 19th or 20th of August. [187] See, in the great work on Egypt, Antiq. Memoirs, vol. 1. p. 803. the ingenious Memoir of M. Fourier, entitled Recherches sur les Sciences et le Gouvernement de l’Egypte. [188] These are the words of the late M. Nouet, Astronomer to the Expedition to Egypt. See Volney, New Inquiries regarding Ancient History, vol. iii. [189] Delambre, AbregÉ d’Astronomie, p. 217; and in his note upon the Parantaellons, in his History of the Astronomy of the Middle Age, p. lij. [190] Delambre, Report upon M. de Paravey’s Memoir regarding the Sphere, in the 8th vol. of the Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. [191] Ideler, loc. cit. p. 38. [192] See Laplace, Systeme du Monde, 3d edition, p. 17; and the Annuaire of 1818. [193] See on the Inaccuracy of the Determinations of the Sphere of Eudoxus, M. Delambre, in the first volume of his History of the Astronomy of the Ancients, p. 120. et seq. [194] See the Preliminary Discourse of the History of the Astronomy of the Middle Age, by M. Delambre, p. viii. et seq. [195] Euterpe, chap. iv. [196] Diog. Laert. lib. i. in Thalet. [197] Saturnal. lib. i. cap. xv. [198] Bibl. lib. i. p. 46. [199] Geogr. p. 182. [200] See regarding the probable newness of this period the excellent dissertation of M. Biot, in his Researches respecting several points of the Egyptian Astronomy, p. 148 et seq. [201] See M. Delambre, Hist. de l’Astronomie, vol. i. p. 212. See also his analysis of Geminus, ibid. p. 211. Compare this with M. Ideler’s Memoirs on the Astronomy of the Chaldeans, in the fourth volume of M. Halma’s Ptolemy, p. 166. [202] See Bailly, History of Ancient Astronomy; and M. Delambre, in his work on the same subject, vol. i. p. 3. [203] See Laplace, ExposÉ du Systeme du Monde, p. 330; and the Memoir of Mr Davis, on the Astronomical Calculations of the Indians.—Calcutta Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 225, 8vo. edition. [204] See Mr Bentley’s Memoirs on the Antiquity of the Surya-Siddhanta, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. vi. p. 540; and on the Astronomical Systems of the Indians, ibid., vol. viii. p. 195. of the 8vo edition. [205] Manuscript Memoirs of M. de Paravey, on the sphere of Upper Asia. [206] See the profound essay on the Astronomy of the Indians in M. Delambre’s Histoire de l’Astronomie ancienne, vol. i. p. 400-556. [207] See the Memoir of Sir William Jones, on the Antiquity of the Indian Zodiac, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 289 of the 8vo edition. [208] The following are Mr Wilfort’s own words, in his memoir on the Testimonies of Ancient Hindoo Books, respecting Egypt and the Nile, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. iii. p. 433 of the 8vo edition: —“Having desired my pundit, who is a learned astronomer, to point out in the heavens the constellation of Antarmada, he directed me immediately to Andromeda, which I had taken care not to shew him as a constellation that I knew. He afterwards brought me a very rare and curious book, in Sanscrit, in which there was a particular chapter on the Upanacshatras, or extra-zodiacal constellations, with figures of Capeya, of Casyape, seated, and holding a lotus-flower in her hand; of Antarmada, chained, with the fish near her; and of Parasica, holding the head of a monster, which he had killed, dropping blood, and having snakes for hair.” Who does not recognise in this, Perseus, Cepheus, and Cassiope? But we must not forget that this pundit of Mr Wilfort’s has become much suspected. [209] Chou-king, p. 6 and 7. [210] Idem, p. 66. et seq. [211] See, in the Connaissance des Temps of 1809, p. 382, and in M. Delambre’s Histoire de l’Astronomie ancienne, vol. i. p. 391, the extract of a memoir by P. Gaubil, on the Observations of the Chinese. [212] Thus at Dendera, the ancient Tentyris, a city below Thebes, in the portico of the great temple, the entrance of which faces the north, there are seen on the ceiling the signs of the zodiac marching in two bands, one of which extends along the eastern side, and the other along the opposite one. Each of the bands is embraced by the figure of a woman of the same length, the feet of which are toward the entrance, the head and arms toward the bottom of the portico; the feet are consequently to the north, and the heads to the south. (Great Work on Egypt, Antiq. vol. ix. pl. 20.) The Lion is at the head of the band which is on the western side; his direction is toward the north, or toward the feet of the figure of the woman, and his feet are toward the eastern wall. The Virgin, the Balance, the Scorpion, the Saggittary and the Capricorn, follow marching in the same line. The latter is placed toward the bottom of the portico, and near the hands and head of the large figure of the woman. The signs of the eastern band commence at the extremity where those of the other band terminate, and are consequently directed toward the bottom of the portico, or toward the arms of the large figure. They have the feet toward the lateral wall of their own side, and the heads in the contrary direction to those of the opposite band. The Aquarius marches first, and is followed by the Fishes, the Ram, the Bull, and the Twins. The last of the series, which is the Crab, or rather the ScarabÆus, (for this insect is substituted for the crab in the zodiacs of Egypt), is thrown to a side upon the legs of the large figure. In the place which it should have occupied is a globe resting upon the summit of a pyramid, composed of small triangles, which represent a sort of rays, and before the base of which is a large head of a woman with two small horns. A second scarabÆus is placed awry and cross-wise upon the first band, in the angle which the feet of the large figure form with the body, and before the space in which the Lion marches, which is a little behind. At the other end of this same band, the Capricorn is very near the bottom, or at the arms of the large figure; and, upon the left band, the Aquarius is separated to some distance from it. The Capricorn, however, is not repeated like the Crab. The division of this zodiac, from the entrance, is therefore made between the Lion and the Cancer; or if it be thought that the repetition of the ScarabÆus marks a division of the sign, it takes place in the Crab itself; but that of the lower end is made between the Capricorn and Aquarius. In one of the inner halls of the same temple, there was a circular planisphere inscribed in a square, the same that has been brought to Paris by M. Lelorrain, and which is to be seen at the Royal Library. In it, also, the signs of the zodiac are observed among many other figures which appear to represent constellations. (Great Work on Egypt, Antiq. vol. iv. pl. 21.) The Lion corresponds to one of the diagonals of the square; the Virgin, which follows, corresponds to a perpendicular line which is directed toward the east; the other signs march in the usual order, till we come to the Crab, which, in place of completing the chain, by corresponding to the level of the Lion, is placed above it, nearer the centre of the circle, in such a manner that the signs are upon a somewhat spiral line. This Crab, or rather ScarabÆus, marches in a contrary direction to the other signs. The Twins correspond to the north, the Sagittary to the south, and the Fishes to the east, but not very exactly. At the eastern side of this planisphere is a large figure of a woman, with the head directed toward the south, and the feet toward the north, like that of the portico. Some doubt might therefore also be raised regarding the point at which the series of the signs ought to commence. According as one of the perpendiculars or one of the diagonals is taken, or the place where one part of the series passes over the other part, the division will be judged to be at the Lion, or between the Lion and the Crab; or lastly at the Twins. At Esne, the ancient Latopolis, a city placed above Thebes, there are zodiacs on the ceilings of two different temples. That of the great temple, the entrance of which faces the east, is upon two bands, which are contiguous and parallel to one another, along the south side of the ceiling. The female figures which embrace them are not placed in the direction of their length, but in that of their breadth, so that one lies across near the entrance, or to the east, the head and arms toward the north, and the feet toward the lateral wall, or toward the south, and the other is in the bottom of the portico, equally across, and looking toward the first. The band nearest the axis of the portico, or the north, presents first, on the side of the entrance, or east, and toward the head of the female figure, the Lion, placed a little behind, and marching toward the bottom, the feet directed toward the lateral wall. Behind the Lion, at the commencement of the band, are two smaller Lions. Before it is the ScarabÆus, and then the Twins marching in the same direction; then the Bull and the Ram, and the Fishes close to each other, placed across upon the middle of the band, the Bull having its head toward the lateral wall, the ram toward the axis. The Aquarius is more distant, and resumes the same direction toward the bottom as the first signs. On the band nearest the lateral wall and the north, we see first, but at a considerable distance from the wall of the bottom, or the west, the Capricorn, which marches in a contrary direction to the Aquarius, and is directed toward the east, or the entrance of the portico, having the feet turned toward the lateral wall. Close upon it is the Sagittarius, which thus corresponds with the Fishes and Ram. It also marches toward the entrance; but its feet are turned toward the axis, and in a contrary direction to those of the Capricorn. At a certain distance before, and placed near one another, are the Scorpion and a woman holding the Balance. Lastly, a little before, but still at a considerable distance from the anterior or eastern extremity, is the Virgin which is preceded by a sphinx. The Virgin and the woman holding the Balance, have also their feet toward the wall, so that the Sagittary is the only one which is placed with its head contrary to the other signs. To the north of Esne is a small isolated temple, equally facing the east, and having a zodiac also in its portico (Great Work on Egypt, Antiquities, vol. i. Plate 87.) This zodiac is upon two lateral and separated bands. That which extends along the south side commences with the Lion, which marches toward the bottom, or toward the west, the feet turned toward the wall, or the south. It is preceded by the ScarabÆus, and the latter by the Gemini, marching in the same direction. The Bull, on the contrary, faces them, having a direction toward the east. But the Ram and the Fishes resume the direction toward the bottom, or toward the west. On the band of the north side, the Aquarius is near the bottom, or the west, marching towards the entrance or east, the feet turned toward the wall, preceded by the Capricorn and Sagittary, both marching in the same direction. The other signs are lost; but it is clear that the Virgin must have marched at the head of this band, on the side next the entrance. Among the accessory figures of this small zodiac, must be remarked two winged Rams placed across, the one between the Bull and the Twins, the other between the Scorpion and Sagittary, and each nearly in the middle of its band; the second, however, a little more advanced toward the entrance. It was at first thought, that, in the great zodiac of Esne, the division of the entrance took place between the Virgin and the Lion, and that of the bottom between the Fishes and the Aquarius. But Mr Hamilton, and MM. de Jollois and Villiers, have supposed, that, in the Sphinx, which precedes the Virgin, they found a repetition of the Lion, analogous to that of the Cancer in the great zodiac of Dendera; so that, according to them, the division would be at the Lion. In fact, without this explanation, there would only be five signs on one side, while there would be seven on the other. With regard to the small zodiac of the north of Esne, it is not known whether some emblem analogous to this Sphinx may have occurred in it, because this part is destroyed.—See British Review, February 1817, p. 136; and Critical Letter on Zodiacomania, p. 33. [213] Description of the Pyramids of Ghiza, by M. Grobert, p. 117. [214] Connaissance des Temps for the year xiv. [215] Observations upon the zodiac of Dendera, in the Revue Philosophique et Litteraire, 1806, p. 257, et seq. [216] Ægyptiaca, p. 212. [217] See in the British Review of February 1817, p. 13. et seq. the article No. vi. upon the origin and antiquity of the zodiac. It is translated at the end of Swartz’s Critical Letter upon the Zodiacomania. [218] See M. Nouet’s Memoir in Volney’s New Inquiries regarding Ancient History, vol. iii. p. 328-336. [219] Eratosthenes has made but one constellation of the Scorpion and Talons. He indicates the commencement of the latter without its termination; and as he gives 1823 years to Scorpio, properly so called, there remain 1089 for the other, on the supposition that there is not an empty space between these two constellations. [220] See the great work on Egypt. Antiq. Mem. vol. i. p. 486. [221] Rhode. Essay upon the Age of the Zodiac, and the Origin of the Constellations, in German. Breslau, 1809, p. 78. [222] According to the tables of M. Delambre’s note above, the solstice has remained 3474, or at least 3307 years, in the constellation of virgo, the one which occupies the greatest space in the zodiac, and 2617 in that of the Lion. [223] Translation of Herodotus by Larcher, vol. ii. p. 570. [224] See the Dissertation of the AbbÉ Dominique Testa, Sopra due Zodiaci novellamente scoperte nell’ Egitto, Rome, 1802, p. 34. [225] Delambre. Note at the end of the Report on the Memoir of M. de Paravey. This report is printed in the Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, vol. viii. [226] See the work of M. Biot, entitled, Recherches sur plusieurs points de l’Astronomie Egyptienne, appliquÉes aux monumens astronomiques trouvÉs en Egypte; Paris, 1823, 8vo. [227] Letronne. Researches into the history of Egypt during the domination of the Greeks and Romans, p. 180. [228] Id. ibid. p. xxxviij. [229] Letronne. Ibid. p. 456, and 457. [230] Letronne. Critical and ArchÆological Observations upon the object of the zodiacal representations which remain to us of antiquity, occasioned by an Egyptian zodiac painted in a mummy case, which bears a Greek inscription of the time of Trajan; Paris, 1824, 8vo, p. 30. [231] Idem, p. 48, and 49. [232] Varro, de Ling. Lat. lib. vi. Signa, quod aliquid significent, ut libra Æquinoctium; Macrob. Sat. lib. i. cap. xxi. Capricornus ab infernis partibus ad superas solem reducens CaprÆ naturam videtur imitari. [233] See the Memoir on the Origin of the Constellations, in Dupuis’s Origine des Cultes, vol. iii. p. 324. et seq. [234] Id. ibid. p. 267. [235] Dupuis himself suggests this second hypothesis. Ibid. p. 340. [236] Ægyptiaca, p. 215. [237] See in the Great Work on Egypt, Antiq. Mem. vol. i., the memoir of M. Remi Raige upon the nominal and original zodiac of the ancient Egyptians. See also the table of the Greek, Roman, and Alexandrian months, in M. Halma’s Ptolemy, vol. iii. [238] See the Historical Researches regarding the Astronomical Observations of the ancients, by M. Ideler, a translation of which has been inserted by M. Halma in the third volume of his Ptolemy: and especially M. Freret’s memoir on the opinion of Lanauze, relative to the establishment of the Alexandrian year, in the memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, vol. xvi. p. 308. [239] See the Memoir of Sir William Jones on the Antiquity of the Indian Zodiac. Calcutta Memoirs, vol. ii. [240] See the Zodiac explained, or Researches regarding the Origin and Signification of the Constellations of the Greek Sphere, translated from the Swedish of M. Swartz; Paris, 1809. [241] Saturnalia, lib. i. cap. xxi. sub. fin. Nec solus Leo, sed signa quoque universa zodiaci ad naturam solis jure referuntur, &c. It is only in the explanation of the Lion and Capricorn, that he has recourse to some phenomenon relative to the seasons; the Cancer itself is explained in a general point of view, and with reference to the obliquity of the sun’s march. [242] See the Memoir of M. Guignes on the Zodiacs of the Eastern Nations, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, vol. xlvii. [243] See M. de Fortia d’Urban’s History of China before the Deluge of Ogyges, p. 33. [244] Copies have been printed separately, under the title of Description Geologique des Environs de Paris, par MM. G. Cuvier et Al. Brongniart. Second edition. Paris, 1822, 4to. [245] See Professor Buckland’s work, entitled ReliquiÆ DiluvianÆ. Lond. 1823, 4to, p. 185 et seq.; and the article Eau, by M. Brongniart, in the 14th volume of the Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles. [246] A full view of the arrangement of rocks is given in [247] See my “Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles,” t. v. part ii. p. 300. [248] Id. vol. v. part ii. p. 355 and 525. [249] See my “Recherches,” vol. v. part ii. p. 447. [250] Researches, &c. vol. v. part ii. p. 475, et seq. [251] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 485 and 486. [252] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 143. [253] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 127. [254] We expect a fuller knowledge of it from M. Conybeare’s researches. [255] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 343. [256] Ibid. p. 120. [257] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 358. et seq. [258] Ibid. p. 376. [259] Ibid. p. 380. [260] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 225. [261] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 161, 232, and 350. [262] Researches, vol. v. part iv. p. 310, et seq. [263] Ibid. p. 163. [264] Ibid. p. 316. [265] P. 317. [266] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 266. [267] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 234; and part ii. p. 521. [268] See my Researches, in the whole of vol. iii., and especially p. 250; and vol. v. part ii. p. 505. [269] Ibid. vol. v. part ii. p. 505. [270] Researches, vol. iii. p. 254; and vol. iv. p. 498. and 499. [271] Ibid. vol. iii. p. 258. [272] Ibid. vol. v. part ii. p. 505. [273] See my Researches, vol. ii. part i. p. 177 and 218; vol. iii. p. 394; and vol. iv. p. 498. [274] Regarding the Anaplotheria, see the whole of the 3d volume of my “Researches,” and particularly p. 250 and 396. [275] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 398 and 404; vol. iv. p. 501; vol. v. part ii. p. 506. [276] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 260. [277] Id. vol. iii. p. 265. [278] “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 103. [279] I am indebted for the knowledge of this animal to the Count de Bournon; and as I have not described it in my great work, I have given a figure of it here. See Plate II. figs. 1 and 2. [280] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 267. [281] Id. vol. iii. p. 269. [282] Id. vol. iii. p. 272. [283] Id. vol. iii. p. 284. [284] Id. vol. iii. p. 297 and 300. [285] Id. vol. v. part ii. p. 506. [286] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 304 et seq. [287] Id. vol. v. part ii. p. 166. [288] Id. vol. iii. p. 335; vol. v. part ii. p. 166. [289] Id. vol. iii. p. 233. [290] Id. vol. v. p. 232. [291] Id. vol. iii. p. 329; vol. v. part ii. p. 222. [292] “Researches,” vol. v. part ii. p. 223 and 227. [293] Id. vol. iii. p. 338. [294] See my “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 351. et seq. [295] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 309. [296] Id. p. 390. [297] “Researches,” vol. v. part i. p. 393. [298] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 352. and 357. [299] “Researches,” vol. i. p. 75, 195 and 335; vol. iii. p. 371 and 405; vol. iv. p. 491. [300] “Researches,” vol. i. p. 250, 265 and 335; vol. iv. p. 493. [301] Id. vol. i. p. 206, 249; vol. iii. p. 376. [302] “Researches,” vol, i. p. 304, 322; vol, iii. p. 380; vol. iv. p. 493. [303] Id. vol. ii. part i. p. 64; and vol. iv. p. 496. [304] “Researches,” vol. ii. part i. p. 89. vol. iii.; p. 390; and vol. v. part ii. p. 50. [305] Id. vol. iii. p. 385. [306] Id. vol. ii. part i. p. 71. [307] Id. vol. ii. part i. p. 89. [308] See my “Researches,” vol. part i. p. 89. [309] Id. p. 95. [310] Id. p. 109. [311] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 70. [312] “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 168-225. [313] Id. p. 89. [314] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 94. [315] Id. vol. iv. p. 98. [316] Id. vol. iv. p. 148; and vol. v. part ii. p. 509. [317] Id. vol. iv. p. 150; vol. v. part ii. p. 510. [318] Id. vol. iv. p. 153. [319] Id. vol. iv. p. 199-204. [320] Id. vol. iv. p. 174, 177, 196; vol. v. part i. p. 55. [321] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 178, 202, and 206; vol. v. part i. p. 54. [322] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 55. [323] Id. vol. iv. p. 206. [324] Id. vol. v. part ii. 517. [325] Id. part i. p. 59. [326] Id. p. 174; and part ii. p. 519. [327] See my “Researches,” vol. v. part i. p. 160. [328] Id. vol. v. p. 193. [329] Id. vol. iv. p. 193. [330] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 351. [331] Id. vol. iv. p. 356 and 357. [332] Id. vol. iv. p. 392, and 507. [333] Id. vol. iv. p. 452. [334] Id. vol. iv. p. 458. [335] Id. vol. iv. p. 461. [336] Id. vol. iv. p. 475. [337] Id. vol. iv. p. 467. [338] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 378 and 507; and vol. v. part ii. p. 516. [339] See Mr Buckland’s excellent work, entitled ReliquiÆ DiluvianÆ. [340] See in the ReliquiÆ DiluvianÆ of Mr Buckland the account of the skeleton of a woman found in the cave of Pavyland; and in my Researches, vol. iv. p. 193, that of a fragment of a jaw, found in the osseous brecciÆ of Nice. M. de Schlotheim collected human bones in fissures at Koestritz, where there are also bones of rhinoceroses; but he himself expresses his doubts regarding the epoch at which they were deposited. [341] Herodotus, i. 2. [342] Ælian, lib. ii. cap. 35 and 38. [343] Id. lib. i. cap. 38. [344] Bruce, French translation, 8vo. vol. viii, p. 264; and Atlas, pl. xxxv., under the name of AbouhannÈs. [345] Description d’un Ibis blanc et de deux cicognes, Academie des Sciences de Paris, t. iii, pl. iii. p. 61. of the 4to edition of 1734, pl. xiii. fig. 1. The beak is represented as truncated at the end, but this is a fault of the engraver. [346] Numenius sordide albo-rufescens, capite anteriore nudo rubro, lateribus rubro purpureo et carneo colore maculatis, remigibus majoribus nigris, rectricibus sordide albo rufescentibus, rostro in exortu dilute luteo, in extremitate aurantio, pedibus griseis. Ibis candida, Brisson, Ornithologia, t. v. p. 349. [347] Planches EnluminÉes, No. 389; Histoire des Oiseaux, t. viii. 4to. p. 14. pl. 1. This last figure is a copy of that of Perault, with the same fault. [348] Handbuch der Naturgeschichte, p. 203. of the edition of 1799; but in the edition of 1807 he has restored the name of Ibis to the bird to which it belongs. [349] Philosophical Transactions for 1794. [350] Folio edition, Oxford 1746, pl. v. and pages 64-66. [351] Hasselquist, Iter Palestinum, p. 249. Magnitudo gallinÆ, seu cornicis; and, p. 250. vasa quÆ in sepulchris inveniuntur, cum avibus conditis, hujus sunt magnitudinis. [352] We have definitively established this genus in our “Regne Animal,” t. i. p. 483, and it appears to have been adopted by naturalists. [353] Bruce, loc. cit.; and Savigny, “Mem. sur l’Ibis,” p. 12. [354] Ælian, lib. ii. cap. 38. [355] ???? t?? ?efa???, ?a? t?? de???? p?sa?, ?e??? pte???s? p??? ?efa???, ?a? a?????? ?a? ?????? t?? pte????? ?a? t?? p??a??? ?????. Larcher, in his French translation of Herodotus, has properly understood the difference of the words a????, the nape, and de??? or d??? the throat. [356] Ælian, lib. v. cap. 29. [357] Ælian, lib. ii. cap. xxxv;—Plut. De Solert. An.; Cic. de Nat. Deor. lib. ii.;—Phil. de Anim. prop. 16. &c. [358] De Med. Ægypt. lib. i. fol. i. vers. Paris Edition, 1646. [359] Rer. Ægypt. lib. iv. cap. i. t. i. p. 199 of the Leyden Edition. [360] See the French Translation, vol. ii. p. 167. [361] Description de l’Egypte, part ii. p. 23. [362] Antiq. Monum. Pl. x. p. 129. [363] Hist. Anim. lib. ix. cap. xxvii. and lib. x. cap. xxx. [364] Buffon, Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux, 4to, vol. viii. p. 17. [365] Belon, Nature des Oiseaux, p. 159 and 200; and Portraits d’Oiseaux, folio 44, vers. [366] Observations de plusieurs singularitÉs, &c. [367] Savigny, MÉmoire sur l’Ibis, p. 37. [368] Idem, ibid. [369] See the Great Work on Egypt, Natural History of Birds, pl. vii. fig. 2. [370] Euterpe, cap. lxxv. Herodotus says a place in Arabia, but it is not seen how a place in Arabia could have been near the city of Buto, which was in the western part of the Delta. [371] Avis excelsa, cruribus rigidis, corneo proceroque rostro. Cic. de Nat. Deor. lib. i. [372] Strabo, lib. xvii. [373] Ælian, Anim. lib. x. cap. xxix. [374] Leopold de Buch, Voyage en Norwege, t. i. p. 30. of the German edition. [375] The Sierra Parima. [376] T. ii. p. 233, 236, 252, 273, 288, 382, 597, 627, and 633. [377] Are there any blocks in North America to the north of the Great Lakes? [378] In Silliman’s American Journal there are many interesting details in regard to the distribution of boulders in the northern parts of North America. [379] By geest is understood the alluvial matter which is spread over the surface both of the hilly and low country, and appears, according to De Luc, to have been formed the last time the waters of the ocean stood over the surface of the earth.—J. [380] By marsch, according to De Luc, is understood the new land added to the coasts since the last retiring of the water of the globe from the surface of the earth, and is formed by the sediments of rivers, mixed more or less with sand from the bottom of the sea.—J. [381] Vol. II. p. 114, 115, 116. [382] A remarkable fact of this kind is related by Salt, in his second journey to Abyssinia. The Bay of Amphila, in the Red Sea, is formed, he says, of twelve islands, eleven of which are in part composed of alluvial matters, consisting of corallines, madrepores, echinites, and a great variety of shells common in that sea. The height of these islands is sometimes thirty feet above high water. The small island, which differs from the eleven others, is composed of a solid limestone rock, in which veins of calcedony are observed. Does not this small island, we may ask, indicate that some cause has prevented the madrepores from covering it, while they constructed their habitations in the neighbourhood, on bases which probably must be of the same nature as those of the small island? [383] On glancing over the charts of Kotzebue’s voyage, we are struck at seeing several of these islands grouped in a circular form, connected with one another by reefs which appear to consist of madrepores, and to present, by this arrangement, a small internal sea of great depth, to which an entrance is afforded by one or more openings. May not this arrangement be owing to submarine craters, on the edge of which the lithophytes have erected their habitations? [384] 1824, St. 12. p. 443. MaltÉ Brun. Precis de la Geogr. Univers. T. ii. p. 459.; Catteau Calleville, Tabl. de la Mer Balt. T. i. p. 158, 188. [385] See the excellent figures in Blumenbach’s Decades. [386] Equal to 27,340 yards and 10 inches English measure, or 15½ miles and 60 yards. In these reductions of the revolutionary French metres to English measure, the metre is assumed as 39.37 English inches.—Transl. [387] Or 10,936 yards and 4 inches, equal to 6 miles and nearly a quarter, English measure. Hence the entire advance of the alluvial promontory of the Po appears to have extended to 21 miles 5 furlongs and 216 yards.—Transl. [388] Equal to 10,936 or 12,030 yards English measure.—Transl. [389] Or 2,186 yards 2 feet English.—Transl. [390] Or 20,778 yards 1 foot 10 inches.—Transl. [391] Or 21,872 yards.—Transl. [392] Or 18,591 yards.—Transl. [393] Equal to 9,842 or 10,936 yards.—Transl. [394] Equal to 6,564 or 7,655 yards.—Transl. [395] From 19 miles 7 furlongs and 15 yards, to 20 miles 4 furlongs and 9 yards, English measure.—Transl. [396] Or 15,366 yards.—Transl. [397] Equal to 9,842 or 10,936 yards.—Transl. [398] 20,231 yards.—Transl. [399] Exactly 27 yards 1 foot and ¼ of an inch English.—Transl. [400] Already stated at from 19¾ to 20½ miles; or more precisely, from 34,995 yards 1 foot 8 inches, to 36,089 yards 10 inches English measure.—Transl. [401] Equal to 76 yards 1 foot 7 inches and 9/10ths.—Transl. [402] In the salt lakes of Westphalia, we find LymnÆa and fresh water plants in abundance. “Jamque erat in totas sparsurus fulmina terras, Tela reponuntur, manibus fabricata Cyclopum: Poena placet diversa; genus mortale sub undis Perdere, et ex omni nimbos dimittere coelo.” Ovid. Met. lib. i. v. 255. [405] T. ix. c. 6. Claudian describes this occurrence in the following words: “Cum Thessaliam scopulis inclusa teneret Peneo stagnante palus, et mersa negarent Arva coli, trifida Neptunus euspide montes Impulit adversos: tum forti saucius ictu Dissiluit gelido vertex OssÆus Olympo.” De raptu Proserp. I. ii. v. 179. [406] L. i c. 3. [407] According to Wheeler, who was on the spot, it appears to have broken through the Mount Ptous. [408] Bibliothec. Historic. l. v. c. 47. [409] Vol. xiv. p. 205. [410] The remarks on the connection of geology with agriculture and planting, are inserted here as an illustration of some of the details in the body of the work. They will, we think, be useful to students of agriculture and geology, and interesting to the general reader. [411] The dryness depends chiefly, if not entirely, on the fissures or divisions in the rocky base of the soil; for, in some parts of Sologne in France, as stated by Mr Arthur Young, and in sundry districts of England, chalk and limestone bottoms are occasionally observed to be retentive and wet. Undergrounds, formed of chalk or limestone, have frequently a thin covering of vegetable mould, from their being, in some cases, over close and wet, and in others over open and dry; the former condition being unfriendly to vegetation and the formation of mould, and the latter too readily permitting its departure when formed, or otherwise favouring the decomposition and waste of that material. [412] The reason here assigned is confirmed by some observations delivered by one of the latest and most intelligent of the English writers on agriculture. “If,” says Mr Marshall, “the several strata” (viz. the subsoil and base) “are of so loose a texture, as to permit the waters of rains to pass quickly downward, without being in any sufficient degree arrested by the soil, the land may be said to be worthless to agriculture.” He adds, “Before we suggest any improvement of lands of the latter description, it will be proper to premise, that many of the light sandy soils of Norfolk, which would otherwise be uniformly absorbed to a great depth, have a thin earthy substance, or ‘Pan,’ which intervenes between the soil and the subsoil, and which is of such a texture, as to check the descent of rain waters, and thereby retain them the longer in the soil, as well as to prevent the manure it contains from being carried away by their rapid descent; yet sufficiently pervious to prevent a surcharge of moisture from injuring the produce. To this fortunate circumstance is principally owing the fertility of the lands of East Norfolk: for wherever this filter happens to be broken by the plough, or otherwise, the soil becomes unfertile, and continues to be so for a length of years.”—(See Norfolk, vol. i. page 11.) “This fact aptly suggests the expedient of improving, or fresh forming, a filter of this kind; seeing how capable it is of producing so many valuable advantages; the more especially, as it is probably the Norfolk pan owes its origin to fortuitous art, rather than to nature.”—(See Norfolk, vol. i. page 12.) “A millstone, or other heavy wheel-shaped stone, made to run upon its edge, in the bottom of the plough-furrow (the thickness of its edge being equal to the width of the furrow), by the help of an axle and wheels, would greatly compress a light, porous subsoil. The idea of forming a pan artificially, struck me first in Norfolk; and time and experience have strengthened it. If the experiment be made on a compressible subsoil, as sandy loam, or the soft rubble which sometimes intervenes between an absorbent soil and an open rock, there can be little doubt of its success. But on loose open gravel, which is not sufficiently mixed with tenacious mould to sheath it, and lying on an open base, less utility may be expected from it.” [413] Vide Dr Adam of Calcutta’s Remarks on the Rocks and Soil of Constantia at the Cape of Good Hope, in an early number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. [414] The ochre yellow colour of the decayed greenstone around Edinburgh, and in general in many trap districts in this country, is caused by the decomposition of the imbedded iron pyrites. [415] The Streams of Obsidian in Iceland, Lipari, Peak of Teneriffe, Ascension, and Mexico, afford striking examples of the fact stated above. [416] Those who feel disposed to examine the connection of Geology and Agriculture, will find many additional details and views given in Hausmann’s work, of which the above may be considered in some degree as a condensed view. [417] John Hart, Esq. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, some time ago sent to me a copy of a very interesting tract entitled “A Description of the Skeleton of the Fossil Deer of Ireland, Cervus megaceros; drawn up at the instance of the Committee of Natural Philosophy of the Royal Dublin Society.” The details in the text are extracted from Mr Hart’s memoir, and the engraving of the Elk is copied from Mr Hart’s lithographic delineation. [418] In a Report which Mr Hart made to the Committee of Natural Philosophy of the Royal Dublin Society, and which was printed in their Proceedings of July 8. 1824, he alluded to an instance of a pair of these horns having been used as a field gate near Tipperary. Since that he has learned that a pair had been in use for a similar purpose near Newcastle, county of Wicklow, until they were decomposed by the action of the weather. There is also a specimen in Charlemont House, the town residence of the Earl of Charlemont, which is said to have been used for some time as a temporary bridge across a rivulet in the county of Tyrone. [419] I have seen this antler divided into three points in two specimens, one at the Earl of Besborough’s, county Kilkenny (which measured eight feet four inches between the tips), the other in the hall of the Museum of Trinity College: it is single in the greater number of specimens, as in those which Cuvier describes. [420] Vide Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, tome xii. et Ossemens Fossiles, tome iv. [421] Philosophical Transactions, vol. xix. [422] A fine pair of this species, male and female, were exhibited by Mr Bullock in this city a few summers ago. They did not answer to any description of Pennant or of Dr Shaw, but had the characters of C. canadensis as given by Cuvier. [423] Dr Percy, Bishop of Dromore, describes a pair which measured fourteen feet by the skull. ArchÆologia Brit. v. vii. [424] Pennant’s Zoology, vol. i. [425] Organic Remains, vol. iii. [426] Ossemens Fossiles, tom. iv. [427] The elk, when pursued in the forests of North America, breaks off branches of trees as thick as a man’s thigh. [428] It is evidently not the animal mentioned by Julius CÆsar, under the name of Alces; vide Comment. de Bello Gallico, vi. cap. x.; nor is it the Alces of Pliny. [429] I am well aware of the occasional existence of holes in the ribs, a few instances of which I have seen in the human subject: but they differ essentially in character from the opening here described, as they occupy the centre of the rib, mostly in its sternal extremity, and have their margin depressed on both sides. [430] In A. W. Schlegel’s Contributions to the History of the Elephant, in the Indische Bibliothek, i. 2, are enumerated many facts not generally known regarding the African and Asiatic Elephants, and the details are accompanied with interesting inferences. [431] According to Schleiermacher, Goldfuss and Von Bachr, fossil tusks, resembling those of the African Elephant, have been found in some districts. Cuvier, however, questions their being in a true fossil state. [432] This plate forms the frontispiece to the present work. [433] Soemmering Über die fossilien Knocken, welche in der ProtogÆa Von Leibnitz abgebildet sind: eine Abhandlung in der Magazin fÜr die Naturgeschichte des Menschen von C. Grosse, iii. 1790, s. 73. [434] RosenmÜller, Beschreib. des HÖhlenbÄren, s. 2. [435] Further information in regard to these caves will be found in Leonhard Taschenb. der Min. vii. 2. S. 439; and in NÖggerath’s Gebirge in Rheinland-Westphalen, ii. S. 27. and iii. 1. 13. [436] In England and Wales the following caves have been found to contain fossil bones: 1. Cave in Duncombe Park, not far from that of Kirkdale. It contains only recent bones. 2. Cave of Hutton, a village in Somersetshire, at the foot of the Mendip Hills. Bones of elephants, horses, hogs, of two species of deer, of oxen, the nearly entire skeleton of a fox, and the metacarpal bone of a large bear, have been found in it. 3. Cave of Derdham Down, near to Clifton, to the westward of Bristol. Bones of horses were found in it. 4. Cave of Balleye, near to Warksworth, in Derbyshire. In 1663, teeth of elephants, some of which are still preserved, were found in it. 5. Cave of Dream, at the village of Callow, near to Warksworth. It was discovered in the year 1822, by some miners in search of lead-ore. Nearly all the bones of a rhinoceros, in a good state of preservation, were found enclosed in a bed of mud in this cave. 6. Fissures and caves at Oreston. These are in transition limestone. Bones of the rhinoceros, hyÆna, tiger, wolf, deer, ox, and horse, have been found in them. 7. Cave of Nicholaston, near the coast of Glamorgan, in the Bay of Oxwich. In the year 1792, bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, and hyÆna, were found in it. 8. Caves of Paveland, in the county of Glamorgan, between the Bay of Oxwich and Cape Worms, at the entrance of the English Channel. There are two openings in a cliff thirty or forty feet above the level of the sea, which we cannot reach but at low water. The clergyman and the surgeon of the neighbouring village of Portinan found in them a tusk and grinder of an elephant; afterwards other bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, bear, hyÆna, fox, wolf, ox, deer, rat, of birds, the skeleton of a woman, and splinters of bones, were also found. But many of these bones are modern; and the diggings made at remote and unknown periods have displaced the ancient bones, and mixed them with the modern, and also with shells of the present sea. Professor Goldfuss, in the 11th volume of the Nova Acta Physico-medica AcademiÆ CÆsareÆ Leopoldino-CarolinÆ NaturÆ Curiosorum, published in 1823, gives an account of the fossil bones he met with in the caves of Westphalia and Franconia. Speaking of the Cave of Gaylenreuth, he says, that Esper has the following remarks on the quantity of bones taken from these caves: On first examination, there were collected, in a very short time, in the dust of the floors of these caves, upwards of 200 different teeth; and we may assume that, by the end of the year 1774, some thousands were collected. It is difficult to form a conception of the number of these zoolithes, and of the earth in which they are contained; and I do not hesitate in believing, that, at the lowest estimate, several hundred waggons load would not remove the whole. The animal earth, with intermingled bones, was, in many places, eight or ten feet deep. Esper calculated that, in his time, 180 skulls had been taken out of the loose animal earth, the conglomerate not having been broken up for this purpose. Of late years, the conglomerate afforded, in the space of three years, 150 skulls; and we may estimate that twice as many more were destroyed in breaking them out of the hard stalactitic matter. If we add to this the pieces of skulls which occur in this repository, more frequently than perfect skulls, we may estimate that more than a thousand individuals lie buried here. These bones occur now, as formerly, irregularly dispersed; that is, teeth, cylindrical bones, cranial bones, and vertebrÆ of different species, and of different individuals of different ages, and of various sizes, occur conglutinated together. We never find the under jaw of the same skull near to it, and rarely the two separated portions of the same lower jaw together; the skulls occurring all in the deeper places: and Esper found the teeth forming a bed by themselves. The bones still possess their sharper edges, and are neither rubbed nor gnawed. If we assume a thousand buried individuals, the proportion of the different species will be, according to Dr Goldfuss, as follows: 1. HyÆna spelÆa, 25 The bones of small animals, mentioned by Esper, are now no longer met with; and, in the collections of Esper and Frischmann, Dr Goldfuss saw only a few dozen of the glutton (Gulo.) The contents of a peculiar conglomerate described by Esper, cannot now be determined. It consisted of a confused assemblage of very small bones, the fracture surfaces of which were fibrous, and contained also the thigh-bone and rib of a bird, which were conjectured to equal in size those of the eagle; hence Esper inferred that the mass was made up of the remains of reptile and fish bones. No remains have hitherto been found in these caves; but in former times we are told that teeth of the elephant were found in the Zahnloch, and a vertebra, supposed, of a rhinoceros, in the Schneiderloch. The bones of domestic animals, such as deer, roes, foxes, and badgers, frequently found in the caves, shew, at a glance, that they have come into their present situation accidentally, at a modern period. The cave at Mockas formerly contained in its deepest fissures, teeth and fragments of bones of bears, associated with rolled stones, and enveloped in earthy marl. The entrance to this cave is situated on the acclivity of a hill. Goldfuss ascended to the entrance of it by means of a rope, and found in its interior many narrow, wide extended hollows, which are generally so confined that we can only visit them by creeping. Here and there there are small widenings, and frequently narrow outlets occur in the roof. The Zahnloch and the Schneiderloch, which also contain single bones of bears, are small vaults, with wide openings, into which we can penetrate without difficulty. [437] The fact mentioned in the text brings to our recollection an interesting Memoir of Professor Walther, entitled, “On the Antiquity of diseases in Bones,” printed in Grasse and Walther’s Journal der Chirurgie und Augenheil Kunde, viii. From eleven specimens of bones of cave-bears found in the Caves of Sundwich, described by Walther, a proof is obtained, that the common forms of osseous diseases occur in them, just as they are observed at present in the human species, viz. necrosis, anchylosis, caries, exostosis, formation of new bony matter, thickening, thinning, and arthritic properties of diseased bones. Most of those diseases are such as would result from violent injuries, and the consequent very tedious organo-vital reaction. Such mechanical injuries would give rise to necrosis, caries, exostosis, &c. We can easily conceive, says Walther, how that the rapacious animals of a former world may have been exposed to violent mechanical injuries of their bodies, and of single parts of them. It is worthy of remark, that most of the diseased bones are of the lower jaw, the alveolar processes of it and the walls of single alveolÆ. During the combats of the cave bears for their prey amongst themselves, or with other gigantic animals, the jaws and teeth must have experienced the greatest mechanical injuries. The necroses of the humeral bones are such as might result from a bruising of the bones, and the caries of the upper surface of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrÆ, may have been occasioned by external violence. Walther is also of opinion, that the cave-bears suffered from diseases of the bones not referrible to mechanical injuries. He remarks of a radius and a vertebra, whose arthritic condition he carefully describes, “These bones have experienced pathological changes, which could only arise from a long continued diseased condition of the nutritive process. They are very light, have an extremely thin crust, the greater part of their mass is of a spongy, very porous substance, and are uncommonly fragile. Such a change could not be produced by any external mechanical injury, nor by any slight action of the weather; but must proceed from a tedious constitutional disease, connected with a total change of the organo-forming plastic activity, and proceeding from a peculiar dyscrasia.” Hence it is probable, these cave-bears even suffered from gout, scrophula, and other similar diseases. [438] According to Laugier, in 100 parts of the earth in which the bones in the caves of Gaylenreuth are imbedded, he found the following proportional quantity of constituent parts:
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