MILITARY PYROTECHNY.

CHAPTER I.

OBSERVATIONS IN GENERAL. Laboratory-works comprehend all the operations of the workshop, connected with this branch of pyrotechny. The tools and instruments required for the laboratory, as well as the substances employed in the different preparations, we have already described.

Having noticed the origin of gunpowder, in the first part of our work, the following remarks in relation to that subject, namely, the history, of cannon, may be interesting.

For some time after the invention of artillery, gunpowder was of a weaker composition than that at present used, or than that described by Marcus GrÆcus. The first pieces of artillery were rough and very inconvenient, being usually framed of several pieces of iron bars, fitted together lengthwise, and hooped with rings. These guns were first employed in throwing stone shot of a prodigious weight, in imitation of the ancient machines, to which they succeeded, and were of an enormous bore. When Constantinople was besieged by Mahomet II. in the year 1453, the walls were battered with stone bullets, and some of the pieces were of 1200 lbs. caliber; but they could not be fired more than four times in twenty-four hours, and sometimes were burst by the first charge.

As mathematical knowledge increased in Europe, that of mechanics gradually advanced, and enabled artists, by making brass cannon of a much smaller bore for iron bullets, and capable of bearing a much greater charge of strong powder in proportion to their calibers, to produce a very material and important change in the construction and fabric of those original pieces. Guicciardin (History, &c. 1st book) informs us, that, about 114 years after the first use made of those unwieldy pieces by the Venetians, in their war against the Genoese in 1380, the French were able to procure, for the invasion of Italy, a great number of brass cannon, mounted on carriages, drawn by horses. He then enumerates the advantages which these pieces possessed, and particularly that they could be pointed with incredible quickness and expedition, in comparison with those formerly made use of in Italy. But, as our limits will not permit us to notice all the circumstances in connection with these pieces, it is sufficient to remark, that this change in the formation of artillery has as yet undergone no material alteration; if we except the introduction of carronades, first suggested by general Melville, and of Columbiads, by the late Mr. Barlow.

Glenie (History of Gunnery, 1776) appears to have been the first, who gave the theory of projectiles in vacuo by plain geometry, or by means of the square and rhombus, with a method of reducing projections on inclined planes, whether elevated or depressed below the horizontal plane, to those which are made on the horizon. The experiments, and observations, of Mr. Robins, on the subject of gunpowder, &c. may be seen in the article on gunpowder.

Besides the formation of cannon, by uniting iron bars together, and strengthening them by hoops, (one or two of which were made in Philadelphia in 1776, by a Mr. Wheeler, of a superior kind,) others were made of thin sheets of iron, rolled up together and hooped; and on emergencies, they were made of leather, with plates of iron or copper. Stone balls were used, and a small quantity of powder. In the 13th century, cannon were used in a sea fight, between the king of Tunis and the Moorish king of Seville. The Venetians used cannon at the siege of Claudia Jessa, now called Chioggia, in 1366, which were brought thither by two Germans, with some powder and leaden balls; as likewise in their wars with the Genoese in 1379. At the battle of Cressy, in 1346, Edward III made use of cannon. They were also employed in the seige of Calais, in 1347. Pieces of ordnance were made use of by the Turks, at the siege of Constantinople, then in possession of the Christians, in 1394, or in that of 1452, that threw a weight of 1006 lbs. Louis XII had one cast at Tours, of the same size. One of those cannon was taken at the seige of Dieu, in 1546, by Don John de Castra, and is in the castle of St. Juliao de Barra, 10 miles from Lisbon. Its length is 20 feet 7 inches, diameter at the centre, 6 feet 3 inches, and it discharges a ball of 1000 lbs. It has neither dolphins, rings, nor buttons, is of a curious kind of metal, and has a large Indostan inscription upon it, by which it appears it was cast in 1400. The mortars at the Dardanelles are represented to throw shells, or ball of an immense size and weight.

Some do not consider cannon an European invention; because it is asserted, that authentic documents exist of their use in China, many centuries before they were thought of in Europe. If they say, the testimony of the Chinese themselves is not sufficient on this point, the fact of their great wall being furnished with embrasures, fitted in such a manner for cannon, leaves no doubt of their having been in use at the time of its erection. To this, an additional argument may be added, from their very ancient game of chess, in which pieces have been used from remote antiquity, designating engines of war, whose power was derived from gunpowder. Mr. Irvin, (Trans. Royal Irish Academy,) in his paper on the Chinese Game of Chess, proves, that gunpowder was in common use in China, 371 years after Confucius, or 161 years before Christ; and Du Halde has long since given documents to show, that the Chinese wall was in existence 200 years before the commencement of the Christian era; and consequently, for the reason before stated, the use of cannon must have been of at least equal antiquity. The Asiatic Researches contain some remarks to the same point. There is a strong probability then, that the invention of guns was of a much more remote date. It is not impossible, however, that the same thing may have been invented by different persons, in various parts of the world.

We mentioned, that it is much more probable, that the use of gunpowder in war was derived ultimately from the Chinese, notwithstanding the generally received opinion, that the Greek fire was the progenitor of its discovery; or that Bacon, or Schwartz, an obscure monk, has claims to the invention. The mode in which the use of gunpowder in war might have passed from China to Europe, is the most probable and simple imaginable. Zingis Khan is known to have conquered the five northern provinces of China, about the year 1234. He must have known the common use of gunpowder at that period, as it had been known in China 1400 years before. In the Chinese annals of the Moguls, by Yuen, as translated by PÉre Gaubil, it is particularly stated, that the use of cannon and mortars was familiar in the wars and sieges of Zingis against the Chinese, both by them and him, in attack and defence. It is most probable, that he used gunpowder in his wars against Mahomet, Sultan of Carisme, whose dominions extended from the Persian Gulf, to the borders of India and of Turkistan. It is known, that he had a body of Chinese engineers in his army, who, of course, must have been acquainted with the use of gunpowder.

The conquests of Zingis would thus have spread the knowledge of gunpowder, &c. over the western part of Asia; and the Europeans, in their crusades, may have had frequent opportunities of becoming acquainted with it. It was just after this time, that it became known, and was used in the European wars.

Sir Francis Bacon (Moral and Political Essays,) observes, that "ordnance was known in the city of Oxydraces, in India, and was that which the Macedonians called 'thunder, lightning, and magic;' and it is well known, that the use of ordnance had been common in China above two thousand years."

Beckman, (History of Inventions, iii, p. 434,) in his essay on the origin of guns and gun-locks, has given, at some length, the history of guns. All we can add here, is, that the first portable fire-arms were discharged by means of a match, which, in the course of time, was fastened to a cock, and afterwards a fire stone and steel plate were used. This fire stone was not a flint, but a compact pyrites, or marcasite, (sulphuret of iron), which was distinguished by that name. On each new improvement, the piece received a new name; as, bÜchse, haken bÜchse, arquebuse, &c. After explaining the origin of these names, he adds, that the large pieces were conveyed on carriages, called karrenbÜchse, but soon after also canna, cannon. Pistols are mentioned by Beilay, in 1544, in the time of Francis I; and under Henry II, the German horsemen were called pistoliers. The name is derived from Pistoia, in Tuscany; because they were there first made. Muskets received their name from the Latin muschetus, which signifies a male sparrow-hawk. They were first used at the seige of Rhege, in the year 1521. They were known in France in the time of Francis I. Brantome, however, asserts, that they were first introduced by the Duke of Alva, in 1567, and used in the Netherlands. He also says, that they were made general in France by M. de Strozzi, under Charles XI. The lock was invented in Germany, in the city of Nuremberg, in 1517; it is uncertain whether it is the present lock. In the arsenal at Hanover, there are many ancient pieces. The oldest had on the barrel, the figure of a hen with a musket in its mouth; because it is said they were made at Henneberg.

There are three species of cannon, the gun, the howitzer, and the mortar. The gun is the longest piece of artillery, employed at the present day: the culverins, dragons, &c. as they were formerly called, had calibers twice, and even three times as long as those now used. Guns were originally called bombards, and were eight calibers in length. The term pieriers, from pierre, a stone, were given to some guns, because they were employed in throwing rough stones. The carronades, derived from the river Carron, in Scotland, where they were originally made, is a short gun, with a bore about eight diameters of the shot in length. The howitzer is a species of mortar, but longer, and used to throw a hollow projectile, called a howitz, which acts at first as a ricochet ball. The mortar is the shortest species of cannon, and is used to throw bombs or shells. A stone mortar is used in sieges, to throw stones upon an enemy. Besides these descriptions of guns, there is another division, to which General Lallemand (Treatise on Artillery, vol. 1, p. 20,) has given the name of demi-guns, under which he ranks the harquebus on a swivel, the rampart gun, and the repeating gun, or musket, of the Americans.

He observes, that the harquebus nearly resembles the amusette of Marshal Saxe, has a barrel like that of a musket, and carries a ball weighing half a pound or more; that the rampart gun, or wall piece, is a large musket, that was anciently much used in the defence of fortresses, having a barrel of 5¹/₂ or 6 feet long, and a ball from 10 to 14 to the pound; and that the repeating musket is a gun, consisting of 7 barrels, all of which discharges 32 rounds in succession, making 224 in all. With respect to this gun, the effect of which we have witnessed, not only in the discharge of thirty-two rounds from a single gun, but the combined effect of seven or more barrels, the General observes, that the diameter of the bore is three-fourths of an inch, and the weight seventy pounds. It is placed, like the rampart guns, upon a wooden frame, and has a handle at the breech to point by. As to its use, he adds:—it may be advantageously employed in the defence of places at the moment of assault; it may be useful in the field, to defend parts of a line of battle, or entrenchments, with few troops, and yet astonish the enemy by a warm fire, when he ventures to approach. Its discharge does not last a minute. It may be of great service in the tops of ships of war.

The inventor is a Mr. Chambers, of Pennsylvania. We witnessed its effect, when the President of the United States visited the navy yard in Philadelphia, where the inventor manufactured them; and also at Bush-hill, in the neighbourhood of that city. Having examined their construction, and also the shot it may be sufficient to remark, that the lead is cylindrical, one end being flat, and the other conical, and of such a size as to fit the caliber of the musket; that these rounds are pierced with a hole in the centre, which is charged with fuse composition; and, after a charge of powder, one of these cylinders is put in; then a charge, then a cylinder, &c. up to 32. The lock is placed opposite the last charge, so that when the first load is discharged, the fire communicates successively through the cylinders.

A repeating gun has been invented by a gentleman of New York. I have seen no description of it. The Marquis of Worcester, in his Century of Inventions, in the 58th to the 64th invention, hints at a similar contrivance; as for instance, (Inven. 58th,) "How to make a pistol to discharge a dozen times with one loading, and without so much as one new priming requisite, or to change it out of one hand into the other, or stop one's horse."

We may add, that, in 1764, M. Bouillet and Sons presented, to the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, a musket of their invention, which was lighter than the common kind, and had the property of firing twenty-four times in succession, charging and priming itself by a single circular movement of the musket upon an axis, fixed for that purpose. In the file of the French Gazette, for 1786, article Linberg, there is an account of an invention of the baron De Walskohl. It is the same, it would appear from the description, as the repeating musket. Being once charged, it will fire thirty-six times in succession. The experiments made with it were satisfactory.

Many patents have been secured in this country, and in England and France, for improvements on the musket and rifle; but, in order to accommodate short-sighted persons, M. Regnier's invention appears to be the first which consists in an optic glass fixed in the butt, enabling persons of that description to shoot with accuracy. This invention is given in the Journal de la Blancherie for 1779, p. 194.

In 1771, Moret, an armourer, announced a new constructed pistol, which would charge itself, &c. and in 1793, M. Gass presented to the military committee of France, a pistol of a new construction, calculated to fire several ball in succession. The Journal des Inventions et DÉcouv. i, p. 121, speaking of this invention, adds, that the means employed depended entirely on the construction of the ball, which, instead of round, was a cylinder, pierced in its length. This small canal is filled with meal-powder, and serves as the match of communication to the charges. This contrivance is much the same as the one we have described.[29]

Mr. Misson (Travels through Germany and Italy,) says, that in the arsenal at Venice, there is an engine which will light five hundred matches at once, and some very curious arms of ancient make, among which is a small trunk, with six little guns, which Carrara, the last lord of Padua, who was famous for his inhumanity, sent as a present to a lady; and was so contrived, that, upon opening of the trunk, the guns all fired at once, and killed her!

With respect to the invention of the various incendiary machines, we may observe generally, (as we purpose to notice them in their respective places), that Greek fire was employed in different ways, and was considered a destructive composition; that rain-fire, bombs, lances, matches, fire-balls and carcasses, torches, powder sacks, petards, &c. were all employed in more modern times for the same purpose; and, lastly, that the fougette of the Asiatics, called Indian rockets, the Congreve rocket, the incendiary bomb of the French, and the floating rocket carcass, are embraced under the same head, and are all used for similar purposes in war. These, and other subjects, belonging to military fire-works, we purpose to mention in this, and the following chapters.

Sec. I. Of Cartridges.

Cartridges are cases of paper, parchment, or flannel, fitted to the caliber of the piece, and holding exactly its proper charge. Strong paper is always used for musket and pistol cartridges, and the French musket-ball-cartridges are capped with flannel or coarse cotton. For heavy guns, they are made of thick, and as the English call it, of cured paper, with flannel bottoms. Those for field ordnance are all made of flannel, and their size suited to the bore, or chamber of pieces, for which they are intended. The ball cartridges, for wall pieces, muskets, carbines, and pistols, are made of whitish-brown paper, on formers of wood. A sheet of paper will make six for wall pieces, twelve for muskets, sixteen for carbines, and twenty-four for pistols. The quantity of powder they contain respectively is, for wall pieces ten drachms, musket six, carbine four, and pistol three drachms.

Blank cartridges, for pistols, carbines, and muskets, are made of blue paper, to preserve a distinction between ball and blank, and to prevent the possibility of accidents, from the ball cartridges being mixed with the blank.

The charge for muskets is commonly half the weight of the ball. The balls for musketry are eighteen to the pound; and one pound of powder is sufficient for thirty-six cartridges.[30] Forty cartridges may be used to the pound, but forty-five would be too weak. The paper, necessary to form cartridges, should be well sized and not too thick. It is made for the purpose, under the name of cartridge paper, and should be of such a size as to cut to advantage. It is usually fourteen inches in length, and sixteen in breadth. A sheet will form twelve cartridges, but on account of wastage, it makes only ten. Half a sheet is employed as a wrapper for every ten cartridges, and one and a half sheets are used for ten and their wrapper. Six quires will make 1000 cartridges, and 31 reams, 100,000. Five ounces of packthread are necessary for binding 1000 cartridges, and 31 lbs. for 100,000.

Musket cartridges are made in the following manner. Long tables are provided, and, at certain distances, excavations, or holes are made, larger than the diameter of the ball, and one-third of its diameter in depth. These holes are designed for rounding the folds upon the ball. It is necessary first to be provided with formers to roll the cartridges upon, and measures to fill them with. These formers are made of hard and dry wood, seven inches, or seven and a half inches in length, and six-tenths of an inch in diameter, one-twelfth of an inch less than the diameter of the caliber. One end is rounded so as not to hurt the hand; the other is hollow, to receive one-third of the ball. The measures are in the form of the frustrum of a cone, open above. They are made of sheet-tin, and should contain one-fortieth part of a pound of powder, (one-forty-ninth according to the Strasburgh directions), or, when heaped, one thirty-sixth part of a pound. The height of these measures is one inch and a quarter; their diameter at the large end one inch and one-twelfth, and at the smaller end, three-quarters of an inch. In every squad of ten men, six are employed to roll the cartridges, two to fill them, and two to pack them. Each squad may make 10,000, but commonly 8,000, in a day.

To cut the paper for musket cartridges, we begin by folding the sheet in three parts widthwise; then each third part into two, again into three, and again into two, by a diagonal line which takes from 2.2 inches of a superior angle on the left, to 2.2 of the opposite inferior angle at the right; so that every sheet of paper will cut, without loss, into twelve parts, and every part will be 5.68 inches in height, 4.53 in width at one end, and 2.2 at the other end. According to Bigot, however, each trapezoid thus formed is 5¹/₃ inches in length, 4¹/₄ in width at one end, and 2¹/₄ at the other end. The paper is cut by a person detailed for the purpose.

The person who rolls the cartridges, having spread the cut paper upon a table, takes the form with one hand, and the ball in the other, which he puts into the hollow of the form; after which, he rolls the paper round the ball and the form, so that there remains sufficient beyond the ball, to fold over in small folds; then he rolls the form surrounded with the paper, and having rounded the folds upon the ball, in a small hole made for that purpose in the table, he withdraws the form, and passes the cartridge to the man who is to fill it. He puts in the charge with a small tin measure, folds the paper over upon the powder as close as possible, and passes it on to him who is to make the packages. The packer takes ten in his hand, and arranges them on a sheet of paper folded in two, the balls half on one side and half on the other; and having wrapped them in the paper, he folds over the two ends, and ties the packets crosswise over the middle, and lengthwise.

Musket cartridges cannot be too tightly rolled upon the form; and to ascertain their accuracy, they must be calibered before they are loaded; that is, they must be put into the end of a musket. He who fills them, should make a charge complete in every cartridge, and not load one more than another, but always pour a full measure into every one. The packer should tie the cartridges, and round them as much as possible, without tearing the paper. He should take care that all the packets are of the same length; so that they may be placed in the partitions of the ammunition chest, which are all of one determined length, and will not therefore contain them, if made too long.

Cannon cartouches should be well arranged in the ammunition chests, and well stowed with tow, that they may be carried without danger of injury from the road. The tow is pressed down in small quantities, by a little wooden spatula, and cannot be pressed too hard; for the more the chests are stuffed with tow, the better the ammunition will be preserved.

Musket cartridges are placed in the ammunition chests in different arrangements, the height of which is proportioned to that of the cartridge. There are three stories in height in each chest, for musket cartridges; and between each a small separation, to prevent them from injuring each other. The number of cartridges contained in an ammunition wagon is proportioned to the kind of wagon in use, and to the quantity necessary for the service. The common load of ammunition wagons does not exceed thirteen hundred weight, if it is meant to take the benefit of forced marches. In every ammunition wagon for cannon cartouches, there are cartouches with ball, grape-shot, quick-match, and port-fires, staffs for port-fires, priming wires and match-rope—so that every wagon contains all kinds of ammunition relative to its caliber. In an ammunition wagon filled with musket cartridges, a certain number of flints are contained, to be distributed to the troops from the same chest whence they receive their ammunition.

We might here speak of the load of every ammunition wagon; but this subject more particularly belongs to artillery and its suite, than to fire-works.

Cartridges, used in sieges, &c. are made of paper bags, of the calibers of the different pieces, and of a sufficient length to contain the requisite quantity of powder. The paper should be large and strong.

The handle of each of the formers should have such a length and size, as to render them convenient to hold in the hand. Care must be taken to pierce a small hole in the middle, through the whole length of the form, by which the air might enter to the cartouches, and cause the form to be more easily drawn out, after the cartridge is made.

Pasted cartridges are formed in the usual manner upon a former; and when five-sixths of the paper are rolled, the remaining portion is pasted with a paste made of flour and glue, mixed together. The bottom is pasted over in the same manner. When the cartridge is drawn off the former, it is placed to dry in the sun, or near a stove.

With regard to the cost of cartridges in France, it appears, that a pound of packthread costs twelve sous, and workmen receive from fifteen to twenty sous per thousand for their labour. The whole expense of 100,000 would be, for paper, 105 livres; for packthread, 18 livres, 15 sous; for making 100 livres; total 223 livres, 15 sous. Bigot has furnished us with the following estimate:

For 31 reams of paper, at 4 fr. 50 c. the ream, is	140	fr.	60c.
For 31¼ lbs. of packthread at 80 centimes,	24
Labour, 1 fr. per thousand,	100
Five days work, for the cutter,	5
	——————
Total.	269	fr.	60 c.

One hundred thousand cartridges, for which the above is a calculation, require also

Bullets of lead,	5556lbs.
Powder,	2500 lbs.

Sec. II. Of Cannon Cartridges.

The gargousse of the French, in artillery, is a sack or bag of paper, or parchment, destined to enclose the load of a cannon. When it is made of serge, it is then called a pouch, (sachet); and, when united with the ball, it receives the name of ball-cartridge.

Bigot remarks, that these cartridges have been substituted for the dangerous and unsafe use of the spoon, or ladle, (lanternes, Fr.[31]), by means of which the load was carried to the bottom of the piece. They are paper bags or sacks, of the caliber of the gun. The loading is much more expeditious, and less danger is to be apprehended. It requires only, that the piece should be well sponged, and the priming to communicate with the load.

For the construction of these cases, coarse gray paper, and sufficiently strong, is used; and they should be well pasted. The paper, which is used with advantage, and commonly employed, is 23 inches in length, and 28 inches in breadth. It serves for all calibers, and even proof charges, which are stronger than the ordinary loads. The paper is cut of such a size as to leave from 1¹/₄ inches, to 1¹/₂ inches, on the roller, and a sufficiency to cover the lower extremity. One of the sides, as well as the side which is cut, is pasted. The paper is rolled upon the former, or roller, and is straightened, so that the hand may be passed over the pasted part, and the paper tightened. The bottom of the bag is placed upon the roller, and, in folding it, the bag is tied above that part of the paper, which is pasted. The bag is then dried, by placing it on one end upon a table, and exposing it to the air.

The rollers should be bored in their axis, so that, in drawing them out, they may come out easy, and without injuring the bag. This hole admits the external air, and prevents the formation of a vacuum in a degree, when the roller is suddenly withdrawn. The bottoms (culots,) are cut of the same diameter as the roller. The paste is made of flour and glue.

The table given by Bigot, p. 28, relative to the dimensions of sacks or cartridges, for cannon, embraces the following particulars: The diameter of the former, or roller for a 24 pr. is 5¹/₆ inches: for a 16, 4¹/₂; for a 12, 4; for an 8, 3¹/₂; for a 6, 3¹/₆; and for a four pounder 2³/₄ of an inch: the circumference of the cartridge for a 24 pr. is 17²/₃ inches; for a 16, 15³/₁₂ths; for a 12, 13¹/₃; for an 8, 12¹¹/₁₂; for a 6, 6¹/₂; for a 4, 9²/₃ds inches. The height of the roller for a 24 pr. is 18 inches; for a 16, 15; for a 12, 14; for an 8, 13; for a 6, 12¹/₂, and for a 4, 12. The height of the paper, including the circumference, for a 24 pr. is 17²/₃ inches; for a 16, 14; for a 12, 14; for an 8, 11; for a 6, 10¹/₂; for a 4, 10. The height, which covers the cartridge, is for a 24 pr. 1⁵/₁₀ inches; for a 16, 1³/₁₂; for a 12, 1¹/₁₂; for an 8, ¹¹/₁₂; for a 6, ¹⁰/₁₂; and for a 4, ⁹/₁₂. The bottom (culot,) for a 24 pr. is 1²/₁₂th inches; for a 16, 1; for a 12, ¹⁰/₁₂; for an 8, ²/₃ds; for a 6, ⁷/₁₂; and for a 4, ¹/₂ inch. The height of the charge for a 24 pr. is 11¹/₆ for a 16, 8¹/₂; for a 12, 8¹/₆; for an 8, 7¹/₃; for a 6, 6⁹/₁₁; and for a 4, 6²/₁₂ths inches. The height of the paper, for the charges of exercise, is for a 24 pr. 10 inches; for a 16, 9; for a 12, 8; for an 8, 7; for a 6, 6¹/₂; and for a 4, 6 inches.

In the table of the proportions of the charge, for different calibers, given by Ruggieri, (Pyrotechnie Militaire, p. 197,) besides the weight of the ball, and the height of the sack, the weight of the charge is given in pounds, and ounces, which is thus stated by him: for a 4 pr. 1 lb. 8 oz; an 8 pr. 2 lbs. 8 oz; a 12 pr. 4 lbs. 8 oz; a 16 pr. 5 lbs; and a 24 pr. 8 lbs.

Cannon Cartouches are composed of a bag of serge, and a shoe or base, in which the ball was fixed by means of a tin cross, nailed to the shoe or base. The bag should be as large as the shoe, and long enough to contain the requisite quantity of powder. The shoe is a little less in diameter than the ball, so that the tin and the bag put upon it, do not increase its size beyond that of the ball. The shoe is flat on one side, and hollow on the other. The hollow part should be a spherical concavity, about one-third of the diameter of the ball. At a small distance from the bottom of the shoe, a groove is made sufficiently deep to contain the packthread, with which it is fastened to the bag.

In the construction of cannon cartouches, the ball must first be fixed to the base by means of two tin bands in the form of a cross, and nailed with two small nails at the bottom and sides of the base. These bands for sixteen and twelve pounders, are at least .44 decimal parts of an inch in width, and 15 inches long. Those for eight and four pounders, are .355 decimal parts of an inch in width, and 11.72 inches in length.

The ball being fixed on this base, it is put into a bag filled with powder, and the bag tied above to the base. Then a bit of parchment soaked in water, of from two to four inches in width, and of sufficient length to go round the cartouch, is placed round the bag, half on the shoe and half on the powder. Then tie it with a string passing in the groove, at about .27 parts of an inch below the base; so that the cartouch is tied in three different places—the two first above in the groove of the shoe, serves to hold the bag and it strongly together; the third below, is to prevent the powder from rising and slipping between the bag and the shoe. The band is placed on the part where the greatest friction is, to preserve the bag from being torn.

The cartouch thus made, is to be calibered by trying it with the piece for which it is intended, into which it must enter with ease. This cannot be too strongly recommended. It is of all things the most essential, and the only way of ascertaining the goodness of ammunition.

A workshop of twelve workmen is divided into four classes. The first class consists of two men who put the ball into the shoe; the second of two others who fill the bag with powder; the third, two others who press the powder into the bag; and the remaining six are employed in tying the bags to the shoes, two to each.

These twelve workmen can, in one day of twelve hours, make two hundred and forty cartouches, of sixteen or twelve pounders, or 320 of eight or four pounders.

Table relative to the Cartouch, or Pouch.

For	12	8	6	4	LightTroops
Height, without the folds.	Inches.	Inches.	Inches.	Inches.	Inches.
	11	10	9½	9	6
Circumference, without the folds.	127/12	109/12	9¾	8½	53/12
Diameter of the base, without the folds.	4	35/12	31/12	29/12	18/12

To make grape shot, we must have a bag of ticking, in which the small balls are arranged; also a shoe, to which not only the bag which contains the ball is attached, but also the serge filled with powder.

The shoe is made of the same wood with the ball cartridges, and of the following dimensions, viz. The sixteen pounder should have 4.97 inches diameter; the twelve pounders, 4.35; the eight pounders, 3.82; and the four pounders, 3.1 inches diameter. Those of the caliber of sixteen and twelve, should be 1.6 inches in thickness, with a groove in the middle of .44 parts of an inch in depth, and the same in width; the eight and four pounders have but 1.07 inch in thickness, with a groove in the middle of .36 parts of an inch in depth and width. Every shoe or base, has a pin in its centre, the size of which is in proportion to the vacancy left by the small balls of iron arranged about it. The height is in proportion to the different layers of ball.—In general thirty-six balls are put into one grape shot, of whatever caliber it be; that is to say, six heights of six each. The balls should be proportioned to the caliber, so that the six balls on the base should exactly fill the circumference of it. The pin in the middle of the base is exactly the size of the ball and seven times its diameter in height. At the top of the pin a groove is made to tie the threads, the width of which is one-third, and the depth, one-fourth of its diameter.

The bag in which the small balls are arranged, layer upon layer, should be of good strong ticking closely woven. It is of the size of the shot, and 2.13 inches in length above the top of the pin. It is strongly fastened at the bottom in the groove of the base with strong pack-thread. There must be 3¹/₂ fathom of strong pack-thread trebled, to tie the grape of the caliber of sixteen and twelve pounders, and three fathom only for one of eight and four.

Grape shot may be corded in the same manner as the carcase is corded; with this difference, instead of eight turns, taking only six. The best and strongest method of tying the thread in grape-shot, is in the net-work form—one person holding, and another tying it.

In a work-shop where ten men are employed, eight are employed to wind the thread round, and two to attach the bag to the base or shoe, or to arrange the small balls on the shoe, round the pin. Such a work-shop, in a day of ten hours, can complete 120 grape-shot of the largest caliber, and as many as 140 of eight or four pounders might be made.

The grape shot composed of 36 iron balls, weigh, without their charge of powder, as follows:

			lb.	oz.
For	acaliberof16		21	10
For	do. of 12		16	31/5
For	do. of 8		10	124/5
For	do. of 4		6	3?

The diameters of the small balls for grape shot, of which six exactly fill the circumference, are as follows:

For 16 pounders,	1.66inch.	For 8 pounders,	1.31inch.
For 12 do.	1.5 do.	For 4 do.	0.16 do.

M. Bigot has given the following Table relative to Cartouches, and their Balls.

Calibers.	12	8	6	4	LightTroops
Charge of powder.	lbs.oz.	lbs.oz.	lbs.oz.	lbs.oz.	lbs.oz.
	4 0	2 ½	2 0	1 ½	0 17
Weight of the cartouch and ball.	16 11	11 2	8 ½	5 12	2 1
Height of the charge of powder.	Inches.	Inches.	Inches.	Inches.	Inches.
	83/12	69/12	63/12	61/12	51/12
Total height of the cartouch.	13½	11½	108/12	911/12	78/12

OF MATCHES.

Matches, in artillery, are a kind of rope made of flax, hemp, or cotton slightly twisted, and prepared to retain fire for the use of artillery, mines, fire-works, &c. Bigot, (TraitÉ d'Artifice de Guerre, p. 64,) has considered this subject under three heads; namely, of match-rope, priming fuses or tubes, and quick-match. We purpose, therefore, in the following sections, to treat the subject in this order.

Sec. I. Of Slow Match.

Slow-match may be prepared by different processes. When hemp or tow is spun on the wheel like cord, but very slack, and made into three twists and then covered with tow, so that the twists do not appear, and then boiled in the lees of old wine, a slow-match will be formed which burns very gradually; but slow-match is commonly made after the following method: The rope for this match is made of flax, or of soft well-beaten hemp, thoroughly cleansed from the harder fibres, and the strands are loosely spun. Three strands are sufficient, which should not, when formed into rope, exceed one inch and two-thirds in thickness. It should not be shortened in twisting more than one-fifth, or one-fourth at most, in order to be firm without being hard.

The ley or lixivium in which the rope is soaked, is composed of wood ashes and quick lime; and every hundred pounds of match require fifty pounds of the former, and twenty-five pounds of the latter. They are boiled for fifteen hours and are taken out of the tub, piled in heaps and covered with tow, in which situation they are left to ferment. Some recommend, in order to improve them, immersing them two or three times in a nitrous solution, composed of four pounds of saltpetre in a sufficient quantity of water, to every one hundred pounds of match.

The match is afterwards polished by rubbing it along a hair rope, which removes all extraneous fibres that would spread fire too rapidly. Twisting the rope strongly before it is polished, is said to be a good plan.

Matches are finally dried in the sun, and rolled into pieces of twenty yards each, (weighing about two and a half pounds); then made up into barrels or boxes, each of which contains about twenty of these pieces. Match of a good quality burns uniformly at the rate of five inches per hour, and its coal terminates in a point that resists pressure. Match rope may be formed by boiling the rope in water, containing three pounds of wood ashes, one pound of quicklime, two pounds of the liquor of horse-dung, and one pound of saltpetre.

In the small work, called The Bombardier and Pocket Gunner, there are three formulÆ given for slow-match: The first consists in soaking light twisted rope in strong ley for three days. It burns three feet in six hours. The second or No. 2, as made at Gibraltar, by immersing blue paper in a solution of eight ounces of nitre in a gallon of water. The No. 3, by soaking rope in a solution of three-fourths of an ounce of sugar of lead in a pint of rain-water, using a larger quantity in the same proportion, according to the rope.

The use of the acetate or sugar of lead for the formation of match-rope, was recommended by a French officer in 1782; and since that time has been used in France both with and without saltpetre. The tinder-wood, if soaked alternately in solutions of saltpetre and sugar of lead, will form a very good match.

M. Rothelet (Archives des DÉcouvertes, v, p. 239) has given some new observations on the use of acetate of lead for the preparation of combustible match-rope. He mentions the use of liquid acetate of lead, which may either be a solution of the oxide of lead in distilled vinegar, or a solution of sugar of lead in water. Rope, he adds, may be made very inflammable, by soaking it well in the liquid acetate, and drying it thoroughly. See also the Bulletin de Pharmacie, September, 1812.

Matches may be made very expeditiously by employing sugar of lead in the following manner: Put a quantity of rain or river water in a kettle over the fire, and when it boils, throw in sugar of lead in the proportion of three-fourths of an ounce to a pound of water. Remove the kettle when the sugar of lead is all dissolved, and immerse the cord or rope in the solution for ten minutes, and then take it out and dry it in the air. If cold water is used, the rope must remain longer in the solution. Rope of every description, old or new, or that made of the linden bark, and damaged match, may be submitted to the same process, previously boiling them in common water to remove their old coating. One pound of solution is required for each pound of cord.[32]

Ruggeri (Pyrotechnie Militaire, p. 185,) has a similar process. The salt of saturn there recommended, is the same as sugar of lead.

When matches have been made by contract, we may determine their quality by examining their interior, to see if they are not mixed with old matches, or pieces of dirty hemp. They should be sufficiently closed without being either too hard or too loose. The lixivium should penetrate to their centre; the difference of colour will indicate the contrary. They should be well dried and partake neither of mould nor rottenness, which are easily ascertained by the colour and smell. To be good, the match when lighted should preserve the fire, and burn uniformly without interruption in moist weather, so that a piece of five inches in length shall last at least one hour.

In 1808, there appeared in our papers an article on the subject of artillery rods, of which the following is a copy. We re-published it in the Aurora, of Philadelphia, in the same year, with comments. Instead of the acetate, nitrate of lead is used.

M. Cadet, of Paris, has invented artillery rods to supersede the matches in common use. They may be made of birch, elm, poplar, or of the linden tree. They are saturated with nitrate of lead and undergo two ebullitions in spirit of turpentine. They then burn very well and are not extinguished by the air. A metre of each will last an hour and a half, while the common matches burn only seven minutes. General Gassendi has made a calculation, which proves, that matches, which now cost the French government twenty-thousand livres, will not cost more than fifteen hundred, if made on M. C's new principle.

One pound of rope-match, such as is used in the military academy of Segovia, lasts nearly thirty-five hours, and rather more provided it be damp. In that state it is generally surcharged with from six to seven per cent. of moisture. In short it would be better to dry the rods in an oven, before they are saturated with the nitrate as well as afterwards. The following table shows the difference of duration between the matches made of rope and the new invented rods; and the quantity of nitrate, each wood absorbs per quintal, is specified in the last column.

Woods.	Durat.per	25 lbs.	lbs.	French
Cord-match		850	4
Linden,		2400	10
Pine,		2400	42
Cedar,		2400	42
Elm,		2430	19
Oak,		2200	18
Green oak,		1400	18
Walnut,		1400	7
Poplar,		1400	37
Willow,		2400	30

Hence we find that the poplar, pine, cedar and willow, exclude themselves when compared with the linden tree; since they absorb three or four times more nitrate than the latter, without burning longer.

The linden unites the advantages of economy and duration, since it absorbs only a tenth of its weight. The common oak, elm, walnut and green oak, occupy but the second rank. We may remark also, that the hardest woods are not of the greatest duration; for a rod made of green oak, which is much harder than the common oak, supports combustion only eight hours, while the latter will burn for twelve hours. Half a kilogramme of nitrate of lead will saturate forty-five metres of elm, seventeen of birch; twenty-one of poplar, and twelve of the linden tree. The woods were cut in parallelepipeds and boiled in a fish-pan.

MM. Carnot, Guyton Morveau, and Deyeux, were appointed to examine this invention, who reported favorably. An extract of their report may be seen in the Archives des DÉcouvertes, v, p. 240.

Born also recommends for the same purpose, nitrate of lead, and used in the same manner. Proust, it appears, repeated the experiments of Born, and came to the same conclusion;—that it was an expeditious, and, on a large scale, an economical process for making matches. Proust, however, used hazle wood. He observes that the solution must be strong; that when cold it requires three days immersion in the fluid, and when boiling, only one and a half hours. He also found that nitrate of copper may be substituted for either the acetate or nitrate of lead.

Sec. II. Of Priming Tubes.

Priming tubes, (fusÉes d'amorce) serve to communicate fire to the powder in a cannon. They were formerly made of tin, but in consequence of the inconvenience of rusting they were laid aside. James (Military Dictionary, p. 416) remarks, that, owing to this defect in the tin, a colonel Harding had invented a pewter tube in lieu of tin tubes. Tubes are used in quick firing. When made of tin their diameter is two-tenths of an inch, being just sufficient to enter into the vent of the piece. They are about six inches long. Through this tube is drawn a quick-match, the cap being primed with meal powder moistened with spirits of wine. To prevent the mealed powder from falling out by carriage, a cap of paper or flannel, steeped in spirits of wine, is tied over it.

They are composed of two distinct parts, the cravat which contains the priming, and the tube that enters into the touch hole. Small pieces of well dried reeds or of quills, a little less than the size of the vent of the piece, are preferred. They are made thus. The reeds are cut into pieces three inches in length, square at one end and diagonally at the other, and are passed through a caliber two and one-third lines in diameter, (the diameter of the vent being two and one-fourth lines;) they are then rubbed clean in the inside by passing a small file several times through them, that removes the inner skin. Having prepared the reeds, they are filled, and also quills, or other cases, with the composition hereafter mentioned, made sufficiently thin to enter them. This may be done with the most facility by placing the cases side by side, with the square end up, in a tin or wooden box five inches deep; the composition is put into this, and made to descend into the cases, by knocking the box on the table. When they are full, they are taken out of the box, wiped clean, and laid to dry in the sun or in a warm room; before the composition is entirely dry, a knitting needle is passed from one end to the other, in order that the fire may reach the bore of the piece more rapidly. The match of communication (etoupille) is then fixed. This is done by cutting a notch on each side of the reed, near the end that is cut square, to which two strands of a match, two and a half inches long, are tied with a fibre of hemp.

The tubes are tied up in packets of ten each, to facilitate their distribution in service.

The reeds, or other cases, may also be filled in the following way, viz: Take twine made of the strands of cotton thread, and cut into pieces ten inches long; fold each of these into two lengths, and pass them through the reed from one end to the other by means of a loop of very fine thread. The two inches are covered with some of the composition made thick.

Composition of Priming Tubes.

Parts of,		Meal-powder,	Saltpetre,	Sulphur,	Charcoal.
Usualcomposition,		12	8	2	3
Very quick,		4	1	0	0
Particular	}	0	13	3½	4½
composition,	}	0	4	½	½

The composition is to be moistened with a solution of camphor, &c. in brandy. To every pint add one ounce of gum arabic, and half an ounce of camphor. Gum water retards the combustion of the match.

Fifteen pounds of this composition will make ten thousand tubes.

M. Cadet, (Archives des DÉcouvertes, i, p. 412) has connected with the match a preparation of chlorate of potassa, which is inflamed by sulphuric acid.

We have already spoken of the use of chlorate, formerly called hyper-oxymuriate, of potassa, in this way. See chlorate of potassa.

M. Cadet's invention is as follows: In a glass tube or tube of elder, is enclosed a match covered with a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sulphur; above which is fixed a small glass bulb containing sulphuric acid. This bulb has a small stem of glass similar to that of the candle cracker, to stick it by into the composition. This match is placed above the vent or touch hole, and retained there by a socket of lead. A spring, to which a small hammer is attached, is fixed to the gun, and is extended and kept in that position by a hook or bolt. When this is pushed, the spring is unhooked, and by recovering itself gives a blow with the hammer which breaks the glass ball, and the acid falls directly on the composition. This is then inflamed and the fire is communicated to the match, and from the match to the gunpowder.

A small portion of sugar mixed with the chlorate of potassa and sulphur, will ensure the composition to inflame with more certainty; although M. Cadet mentions only the hyper-oxymuriate and sulphur. If some of this composition, after the priming fuse is charged, be put in the cup of the fuse, a drop of sulphuric acid will inflame the fuse.

Sec. III. Of Quick Matches.

The etoupille of the French is the same as quick match, which is used to communicate fire in particular in military works, to priming tubes and other fuses. We have noticed in a former article the preparation of the matches of communication used in Fire-works, and the mode of forming leaders for the purpose of conveying fire to the different parts of a fixed or moveable piece. It will be sufficient, therefore, to notice the preparation of what is usually called quick match. These matches are made, according to Bigot, of five strands of fine cotton thread, soaked twenty-four hours in strong vinegar, and sometimes in brandy. They are then put, for twelve hours at least, in a liquid paste, made of meal gunpowder, and spirits, in which gum arabic and camphor are dissolved, in proportions to be given hereafter. To make them imbibe this completely, they are pressed with a pallet knife. They are then taken out and drawn gently between the fingers to discharge the excess, spread upon a table, and when half dry, dusted with meal-powder. The match is rolled by hand to make it round, hung upon a frame, furnished with pins, to dry, and afterwards cut into lengths of two and a half feet and tied up in bundles.

Materials necessary to make ten thousand Priming Tubes.

Cotton thread,	5	lbs.
Meal-powder,	3	—
Vinegar,	5	quarts.
Brandy, or other spirits,	3	——
Gum arabic,	3	ounces.
Camphor,	1½	——

When matches are required to communicate fire slowly, sulphur and beeswax, or rosin are added to meal-powder, in proportion to the degree of slowness required. The cotton, in this case, must have been soaked in water instead of spirits.

Cotton,	1	lb.	12	ounces.
Saltpetre,	1	—	8	——
Spirits of wine,	2	quarts.
Water,	2	——
Isinglass,	3	gills.
Meal-powder,	10	lbs.

The cotton is then taken out and laid in a trough, where some meal-powder, moistened with alcohol, is thoroughly wrought into it. This done, the cotton, being in strands, is taken out separately, and drawn through meal-powder and hung upon a line to dry.

If worsted in the place of cotton is employed, the proportions then are,

Worsted,	10	ounces.
Meal-powder,	10	pounds.
Alcohol, (spirits of wine,)	3	pints.
Vinegar, (white wine,)	3	——

In the preparation of quick match, the following method is sometimes pursued; viz. soak the cotton well in a hot solution of saltpetre; then remove it and lay it in a trough with some mealed powder, moistened with spirits of wine, which is to be worked in by the hand. It is afterwards drawn through meal-powder, and dried upon a line or reel.

CHAPTER III.

OF PORT FIRES.

Port fires (lances À feu) are a species of fuse of a slow composition, designed for different purposes, and particularly for guns, when they are to fire rapidly. The paper, is first rolled in cases. The rod or mandril should be of hard wood, 16 or 18 inches long, and 5¹/₂ lines in diameter. Two brass rods to load them, one of 17 inches in length, the other of only 8, are required. A wooden rammer, with a heavy head, may be used. A small funnel with a spout 5¹/₂ lines in diameter, and a ladle to lift the composition, are also required. The instructions of M. Bigot for the formation of Port-fire are that the paper must be cut in bands, 3¹/₂ to four inches wide, and 15 inches long, and six strips of this paper are to be arranged on a level table, one above the other in such a way, that each strip extends about half an inch beyond the next below it, and pasting the projecting parts of it; that the wooden rod is then placed upon the upper strip, near the side, and the paper is rolled several times round it; pressing it at the same time, and shutting the case, thus formed, at one end, by bending the paper up 3 or 4 lines on the rod, and striking it on the table to flatten it; that the rod is then removed, and the case is dried, which is afterwards filled by introducing the composition through the funnel, and ramming it as fast as it falls down; which is done by alternately raising and lowering the copper rod, without drawing it entirely out; that in charging, care must be taken to beat it uniformly, with such a force, that the paper may not be torn, and the composition equally solid throughout; that when the composition is within an inch of the end of the paper case, a tow match is put over it, of 1¹/₂ inches in circumference, the two ends of which project from the paper case, and are covered with priming paste; and finally, that the port-fire is finished, by pasting upon its end a small bit of paper, which is torn off, when the match is to be used.

Port-fires are tied up in a sheet of paper, in parcels of ten.

Composition of Port-fires.

KINDS OF PORT-FIRE.	Meal	Saltpetre.	Sulphur.	Charcoal.
	powder.				Rosin.
To last 12 min. moistened with linseed oil.	10	12	6
—— 10 do—do		19½	7¼	½
—— 7 do—commonly used.		19½	8	½	½

The articles are pulverized, and mixed by passing them through fine sieves at least twice. After the addition of linseed oil, the composition is again mixed with the hand. If too much oil be added, the port-fire will not keep. Fourteen pounds of composition, and 2¹/₂ reams of paper, are required for 100 port-fires.

Port-fires are usually 16¹/₂ inches, and seldom more than 21 inches in length. The paper cases must be rolled, wet with paste. The distinction, made between what is called the wet, and dry port-fire, is, that, in the former, linseed oil is used, and, in the latter, the composition is mixed dry. Dry port-fire, according to the British formula, is composed of saltpetre 4 parts, sulphur 1, meal-powder 2, and antimony 1.

The following formulÆ for port fire are given in the Pyrotechny of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

1.	Saltpetre			12	oz.
	Sulphur			4	—
	Meal-powder			2	—
2.	Saltpetre			8	oz.
	Sulphur			4	—
	Meal-powder			2	—
3.	Saltpetre	1	lb.	2	oz.
	Meal-powder	1½	lbs.
	Sulphur			10	oz.
4.	Meal-powder			6	oz.
	Saltpetre	2	lbs.	2	—
	Sulphur			10	—
5.	Saltpetre	1	lb.	4	oz.
	Meal-powder			4	—
	Sulphur			5	—
	Sawdust			8	—
6.	Saltpetre			8	oz.
	Sulphur			2	—
	Meal-powder			2	—

Illuminating port-fires, used in fire-works for exhibition, &c. have been noticed heretofore.

The composition of the charge for fire-lances (port-fire,) is thus given by Ruggeri;

	Substances.	Proportions.
	Saltpetre	16	parts.
	Sulphur	8	——
	Powdered antimony or powdered pitcoal	4	——
Mixed, and passed three times through a sieve.

CHAPTER IV.

OF FUSES FOR SHELLS, HOWITZES, AND GRENADES.

The fusÉe of the French, is applied to various purposes, and is differently made by different artificers. Fuses are intended to communicate fire to the powder with which shells, &c. are filled, so as to make them burst in the places to which they are thrown. They are composed, according to some, of one pound of gunpowder, and two or three ounces of charcoal, well mixed together; or of four pounds of gunpowder, two of saltpetre, and one of sulphur. It is to be remarked that the time a bomb, or grenade, will take to burn, after it has been thrown out of the mortar, or a howitz out of a howitzer, depends entirely upon the length and quality of the fuse. Fuses are made of wood turned in the form of a truncated cone, in order to enter fairly into the eye of the shell. They are perforated through the middle, in the direction of the axis, so as to receive the composition. This channel is called the light of the fuse. The wood that is employed, should be strong, dry, sound, and without knots. The best kinds are the oak, the elm, and the linden. They are filled with a slow combustible composition. The materials are increased or diminished according to the nature of their application. Fuses are sometimes made of copper.

The fuses for 10 and 12 inch shells are 8¹/₂ inches long; for 8 inch shells, 7¹/₂, for howitzes, 5¹/₂; and for hand grenades, 2¹/₂. The diameter of the light, in the first is 5 lines, in the second and third, 4 lines, and 2 lines for grenades. At the larger end of the fuse for shells, and howitzes, a cup is made from 10 to 14 lines in diameter, and 3 deep. In turning them, a solid bit, 2¹/₂ inches thick, is left at the small end, to prevent them from splitting, when the composition is pressed into the canal. When the fuse is to be driven into the eye of the projectile, this piece is sawn off, cutting the fuse diagonally. The turner marks its termination by a circle upon the fuse. Fuses decrease nearly one inch in length, and two lines in diameter, according to the caliber of the bomb. The diameter of the lights, or apertures, only diminish half a line.

In what is called the Shrapnel shell, invented by colonel Shrapnel, the seasonable use of the fuse constitutes one of its principal advantages. With regard to the American elongated shell, invented by a gentleman in the Ordnance, we have heard nothing. See Shrapnel shell, &c.

Sec. I. Of the Method of Charging the Fuses of Bombs or Shells.

Two rammers of copper are required for each of the several calibers of 12, 10, and 8 inches; the first an inch longer than the fuse, the second half as long. These rammers are of the same size with the lights of their respective fuses, and have a head to receive the blows of a mallet. Only one rod is wanted for the fuses of smaller calibers.

The first operation is to examine the fuses, to see that they have no knots or flaws, and are not wormeaten. The artificers place themselves astride, and facing each other, upon benches of strong plank, having, between them, a small vessel filled with the composition, and each one, a small measure. Each artificer takes a fuse, inserts the small end into a hole, made in the bench, for the purpose of maintaining it erect, and preventing it from splitting in the act of charging. He then passes a measure of the composition into the light, and introduces the first rod, on which he strikes 15 strokes, of equal force, with the mallet. Between every three strokes, he raises the rod, to make the composition fall. The ramming of this measure is therefore executed in 5 vollies or blows. He then withdraws the rod, and introduces a new charge of the composition, which he beats as before, and so on until the fuse is half full; after which he makes use of the second rod, and goes on loading, until the charge reaches within three lines of the cup. He then takes two strands of quick match, which (after placing them in the form of a cross, on the top of the fuse) he presses with his rod, pours some of the composition upon them, and, beating it carefully so as not to cut the match, he fills the fuse to the top of the cup.

The fuses of howitzes and grenades are charged in the same way; but the blows are not so heavy as in larger ones, for fear of splitting the wood.

The fuses being thus charged, the quick match is folded into the cup, and the opening closed with a bit of cloth or parchment, or very strong paper, which is tied an inch below the top. This operation is called capping the fuse. All the fuses for bombs or grenades are at present furnished with matches. Care must be taken, therefore, to leave a vacancy of about .27 parts of an inch, in order to fix in the match. Fuses of grenades are charged with the same precision as those for bombs, only the blows, as we remarked, should be weaker for fear of splitting the fuse. Before the little end is driven into the bomb or shell, care is to be taken to have the end cut slopingly, without which the communication of the fire with the powder would be uncertain.

When fuses have been well loaded, and the materials previously well mixed, they will naturally burn with an equal steady fire, preserving in general an even length of flame, without splitting, or irregularly shaking. They may be proved by throwing them into water, tied to a stone, or by driving them with heavy blows into the earth. They should not go out in either of these cases. Fuses made with the composition we shall describe, and for 10 and 12 inch shells, last seventy seconds. According to the Strasbourg directions, it appears, that fuses for shells of 12.78 inches should last until you can count 80 or 85, or 70 seconds. Those for bombs 8.52 inches, 65 counts, or 60 seconds, and those for grenades 25 or 30 counts.

Before the fuse is driven into the bomb, the thin or small end must be cut off, in order that the fire may be easily communicated to the mass of gunpowder, which is lodged in the bomb. To fire bombs at a small distance, the fuse must be cut on a longer slant, so that the bomb may take effect sooner, and may not remain a long time in the place where it falls, without bursting.

The fuse must be of such a length, as to continue burning all the time the shell is in its range, and to set fire to the powder as soon as it touches the ground, which occasions the shell instantly to burst into many pieces. When the distance from the object is known, the time of the shell's flight may be computed to a second or two; which being ascertained, the fuse may be cut accordingly. By burning two or three, and making use of a watch, or of a string, by way of a pendulum, to vibrate seconds, we may determine the length of time a fuse, or any length of a fuse, will take to burn.

In order to preserve fuses for a length of time, and protect them from moisture, the cap is coated with a composition, or cement, made of 16 parts of bees' wax, and 4 of mutton tallow; melting the wax first, and then adding the suet. Some make use of two-thirds wax, and one-third rosin. The cap of the fuse is dipped in, when the mixture is half cold, and immediately withdrawn.

Composition for the Fuses of Shells, Howitzes and Grenades.			PARTS OF
			Meal	Salt-	Sul-	Char-
			powder.	petre.	phur.	coal.
Composition usually employed,			5	3	2
Quicker composition,			7	4	2
Another (from Ruggeri)			14	6	8
	Do.	Do.	16	7	10
	Do.	(English)	7	3	4
	Do.	(Strasbourg) for 8.52 bombs,	4	2	3
	Do.	(from the Pocket Gunner)lbs.	2¾	1	3¼
	Do.	particular (from Bigot)	}	2?	6¾	?
			}	3?	9¼	?

The following is the quantity of composition required for fuses, viz:

1000	fuses,	for 10 and 12 inch shells,	92	lbs.
Do.	do.	for 8 inch shells,	53	—
Do.	do.	for 6 inch howitzes,	33½	—
Do.	do.	for hand grenades	16	—

Sec. II. Of Loading Shells, Howitzes and Grenades.

The shells, before they are loaded, are cleansed from any foreign substances that may be in them; and those which are split, or have flaws in the eye are rejected; so are also those that are not well bored, or are eccentric. They are then charged with powder, introduced into them by means of a funnel. Five or six pounds of gunpowder are usually put into twelve-inch shells; from three to five, in ten-inch shells; from one to one and a quarter, into eight-inch shells; from three-quarters to one pound, into howitzes; and grenades of all sorts are half filled. The charge of shells is increased, when they are to burst into a great number of pieces; for instance, when they are to fall among troops. Incendiary fire-works are added, when buildings are to be set on fire. Among these are fire-stone, and incendiary matches.

The charge having been put into these hollow projectiles, a fuse is introduced into the eye, after it has been cut diagonally at the smaller end, and the smaller part taken off. It is forced in by repeated blows of a mallet on the fuse driver, which is laid upon the cap of the fuse. It ought not to project more than eight or ten lines in shells, and six or seven in howitzes.

The fuses of loaded shells, howitzes, and grenades are preserved from wet and fire in the field, by dipping that part of the fuse, which projects from the surface of the sphere, for the same purpose as before mentioned, into the following composition. The immersion must be made, when the composition, after being melted, is half cold. Either this, or the formula before given, may be used.

Composition.

Pitch,	31	parts.
Turpentine,	16	——
Mutton tallow,	1	——
Linseed oil,	6	——

Agreeably to the Strasbourg Memoir on Military Fire-works, it appears, that, fuses being driven into the shell, four threads of match must be neatly arranged in the cap. Then cap the fuse with a piece of parchment dipped in brandy; after which, apply round the fuse, at the eye of the shell, some capping wax when lukewarm. Then dip all the extreme part of the fuse, down to the shell, in melted pitch, which you will leave to cool in the shade, in such a manner, that the shell may neither be exposed to moisture, nor to the accident of fire.

Composition of the Pitch.

Black pitch,	4	lbs.
Rosin,	4	—

This pitch serves not only to pitch the fuses of bombs and grenades, but also to cover the outside of fire-balls and other fire-works, intended to be preserved.

Another Composition of pitch for the same Purposes.

Black pitch,	6	lbs.
Linseed oil,	12	oz.

See the preceding section.

Sec. III. Of Fuses with Dead Light.

The feu mort, or dead fire fuse, is a peculiar species of fuse. The difference, between these fuses and the ordinary kind, consists in this, that the eye, instead of being pierced and hollow, is full, and of a hemispherical shape. In both cases, however, the composition is introduced through the small end.

Composition for dead light.

Meal-gunpowder,	16	parts.
Ashes of wood,	9½	——

The ashes must be dried, and run through a sieve. Potters' earth, or clay, will produce the same effect as the ashes.

In proceeding to charge a bomb-fuse that is made of ordinary wood, the eye, or aperture, is first closed with pipe clay, which is well beaten and pressed against the fuse in a small platter; the thin end of the fuse being held upwards. Three lines (³/₁₂ths of an inch) of this earth will be sufficient to stop the communication of any fire. A tube, or trundle, filled with meal-powder, for the purpose of setting fire to the composition called feu mort, is thrust into the fuse, by which it is finally charged. If this charge of meal-gunpowder were to be omitted, the fuse might not be susceptible of ignition; but the quantity never ought to exceed three lines, as the fuse would split by the explosion. When the grains of gunpowder have been well pounded, a trundle or tube, filled with the aforementioned composition, must be applied, and it is finally loaded like the rest.

It must be recollected, that two inches of this composition will last as long as one of the quality, with which common fuses are charged. Before the fuse is driven into the bomb, it must be pierced through with a gimblet of one line in diameter; taking care, that the hole is made precisely through the charge of meal-powder. One end of a priming match must be forced in, and three others be tied to it, which three are to fall upon the bomb, when it lies in the mortar. The particular object to be obtained by this kind of fuse, is to prevent the least trace of fire or light being visible in its projection; so that the enemy may remain ignorant of the range, or direction of the bomb, and not be able, of course, to get out of the way when it falls, or to avoid the effects of its explosion.

These fuses were made use of at the siege of Ham in 1761. The experiments, which were made, in 1792, with this composition, by an artificer belonging to the ordnance board, at Douay, have proved, that it answers every purpose, for which it was invented.

The author of the Manuel de l'Artilleur observes, however, that the advantages to be derived from this invention, are not so great as they first appear. He remarks, that, with respect to the real utility of the fuse À feu mort, if it be considered as tending materially to the defence of any beseiged place, the argument cannot be very forcible, when we reflect, that to gain time constitutes one of the principal means of defence, and that the only way to obtain it, is by retarding the beseigers' operations. These ends are gained by various expedients. Among others, the common lighted fuse conduces not a little: since, during the whole direction of the bomb against the works of the assailants, the attention of the workmen is diverted from their immediate labour; and as long as it continues in its range, much uneasiness is created, because its ultimate explosion and concomitant destruction are unknown. Add to this, that, independent of the confusion that is occasioned among the assailants by repeated projectiles, the bombardier, by means of lighted fuses, is enabled to correct his aim during the darkest night. This kind of fuse has been known for many years, and, it is presumed from these objections to its use, the common fuse has been hitherto adopted.

Sec. IV. Of the Dimensions of Fuses, and the Dimensions and Charge of Bombs, Howitzes and Grenades.

Shells, in gunnery, are hollow iron balls, to be thrown out of mortars or howitzers, with a fuse hole of about an inch in diameter, to load them with powder, and to receive the fuse. The bottom, or part opposite the fuse, is made heavier than the rest, that the fuse may fall uppermost. In small elevations, this is not always the case, nor is it necessary.

Shells are called hollow projectiles, and, besides powder, various incendiary matters are introduced; but in addition to shells, properly so called, hollow projectiles comprehend howitzes and grenades. As a principle, it is observed, that their sides ought to be proportionably thick to the shock they receive in the piece, and to the quantity of powder introduced for bursting them; and their weight, according to the objects they are to destroy. We remarked, that a shell should be thicker opposite the fuse. This thickness is called by the French a culot, or reinforcement of metal; the object of which is to prevent the breaking of the shell on rocks or stone, as well as to prevent its falling on the fuse. Four times as much powder may be put in the cavity as is sufficient to burst them. This admits the introduction of incendiary matter. Howitzes are hollow balls with a culot, or reinforcement of metal, upon the inside, opposite the eye, and are calculated for ricochet, that is, for passing, bounding, over the ground, and, by striking and penetrating solid objects, and finally bursting, produce considerable havoc and devastation. For ricochet, the howitz, in fact, should be of the same thickness throughout.

Grenades are also a hollow ball, and are of two kinds; namely, the rampart or ditch grenades, of the caliber of 36, 24, 18, and 12 pounders, designed for rolling along a trough from the top of the rampart, and falling into the ditch, to annoy an enemy, in attempting to cross it; and the hand-grenade, that are thrown by hand into the interior of works, that are attacked, into covered ways and trenches, &c. They are of six and three pounder calibers, and their splinters will fly 35 yards. Grenades were invented about the time that shells were, and first used in 1594. Grenades have sunk into disuse; but they may be advantageously employed. During the seige of Cassel, under the count de la Lippe, in the campaign of 1762, a young engineer undertook to carry one of the outworks, with a small detachment of men by using grenades, and in consequence succeeded.

Message shells are nothing more than howitzer shells, and are so called, because they are used to carry letters or papers. During the bombardment of Flushing, and while the communication with Cadsand was cut off, means were found to convey a letter from the garrison into the latter place. It was inclosed in a shell without inflammable matter, and discharged from a mortar, planted on one of the sea batteries.

Shrapnel shells were invented by colonel Shrapnel of the British service. They were used, we are told, with peculiar effect against the French, in 1808, and at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. The fuses for these shells, after being turned so as to fit the fuse-holes, are bored, and a deep thread grooved inside, to hold the composition firm; and, instead of being turned with cups, they are hollowed conical, and roughed with a tool that cuts under, the better to receive the priming. After they are driven, with fuse composition, one and a half inches, they are sawed across the top about one-fifth of an inch down, so as not to touch the composition, and divided into five equal parts, of two-tenths of an inch each; after which, a bit of quickmatch is placed across, and drawn tight in the same grooves. They are then primed with meal-powder and spirits of wine, capped, and packed for service.

We here insert three tables, which we have extracted from the work of M. Bigot.

The first table is relative to the dimensions of fuses for shells, howitzes, and grenades; the second, respecting the dimensions of bombs, howitzes, and grenades; and the third, of the charge of bombs and howitzes.

These tables, taken together, will exhibit all the particulars on this subject; and as this kind of data is necessary, in the practical operations of the laboratory, their introduction in this place, we consider important.

Table relative to the Dimensions of Fuses for Shells, Howitzes, and Grenades.

CALIBERS.	12 and	8-inch.	howitzes,	Grenades.
	10-inch		6-inch.	Rampart.	Hand.
	inch.	inch.	inch.	inch.	inch.
Length,	9	8	5½	4	2½
Diameter.
At the large end,	1?	1?	1¼	11/12	?
At 3 inches from the large end,	1?	1	11/12	0	0
At the small end,	11/6	11/12	10/12	¾	½
Of the light,	5/12	?	?	¼	1/6
Of the interior of the cup,	11/6	11/12	5/6	7/12	5/12
Depth of the cup,	3/12	3/12	3/12	3/12	3/12
Height of the massive,	5/12	5/12	¼	¼	0

Table of Dimensions of Bombs, Howitzes, and Grenades.

					8-inch,&
CALIBER.			12-inch.	10-inch.	howitz	howitzes	Hand
					8-inch.	6-inch.	grenades
			inch.	inch.	inch.	inch.	inch.
			lines.	lines.	lines.	lines.	lines.
			pts.	pts.	pts.	pts.	pts.
Diameter	{ of bombs,		11 10 6	10 0 0	8 1 6	6 0 0	3 6 0
	{ofthelight	{exterior,	1 4 0	1 4 0	1 0 0	0 11 0	0 8 6
		{ interior,	1 3 0	1 3 0	0 11 0	0 10 9	0 8 0
Thickness	{ of the sides,		1 6 0	1 6 0	0 11 0	0 11 0	0 4 0
	{ of the culot,		2 2 0	1 4 0	1 3 0	0 0 0	0 5 0
			Pounds.	Pounds.	Pounds.	Pounds.	Pounds.
Weight of the bombs,			145 to	97 to	43 to	20 to	3¼
			150	100	45	25	0

The rampart grenades are variable in their dimensions, and weigh from eight to twelve pounds.

Table of the Charge of Bombs and Howitzes.

	Bombs of			Howitzes.
	12-inches	10-inches	8-inches.	8-inches.	6-inches.
Charge
of full bombs,	17 lbs.	10 lbs.	4 lb. 1 oz.	4 lb. 1 oz.	1 lb.	6 oz.
sufficientto}
burst them.}	5	3	1	1	0	12

---

CHAPTER V.

OF INCENDIARY FIRE-WORKS.

Under this head are included all artificial preparations, designed, as the name expresses, to communicate fire to buildings, shipping, &c. and for other purposes, connected with the operations of war.

At different periods, even from the remotest antiquity, incendiary works have been used. Of these preparations, we may enumerate the following: shells, howitzes, and grenades; fire-stone to put into shells and howitzes, intended to produce conflagration; incendiary matches, used in the same manner; carcasses and fire balls, to be thrown from a mortar, designed to light up the works in front of a besieged fortress, and to burn buildings; incendiary, or fire-balls, to be thrown from cannon or by hand, used in besieged fortresses to light up the enemy's works; pitched tourteaux and fascines, to illuminate the passage of rivers and defiles; powder bags, to throw upon troops mounting to the assault; powder barrels, to roll from the top of a breach, or from the head of a sap from the glacis; thundering barrel, employed for the same purpose; burning or illuminating barrel; petard, to break down the gates and barriers of small towns, and even thin walls; torches or flambeaux, to give light during night marches, and other purposes; rockets, fougettes, and murdering and the Congreve war rocket, for various uses; rocket carcass of Congreve, as an incendiary; rocket light ball, to illuminate the horizon near the enemy; murdering marrons; Roman incendiary candles, and incendiary stars; tarred and pitched ropes; fire rain; marine fuses, &c. to which we may add the ancient Greek fire, and red-hot balls.

In this chapter, under the different heads, we purpose to describe these, and other fire-works, used in war. We may remark, also, that animals are sometimes used as incendiary agents. Rats, for instance, have been employed in certain enterprizes, as for the purpose of setting fire to magazines of gunpowder. On these occasions, a lighted match is tied to the tail of the animal. The courier pigeon of the French, or carrier pigeon, is not used in this way; but only as a carrier of letters, to which it is trained and used in Persia and Turkey.

Sec. I. Of Fire Stone.

The fire stone (Roche À feu) is a compact, or solid composition. It is calculated to burn slowly, and when put into shells and howitzes, and thrown into cities, produces conflagration.

This stone is composed of sulphur, saltpetre, meal-powder, and sometimes grain-powder, &c. The sulphur is melted in a kettle, or glazed earthen vessel, over a clean charcoal fire; the saltpetre being pulverized, is then thrown into it, and the spirits of turpentine, if any is used. These articles are stirred with a spatula, and the fire must be so regulated, as to prevent the composition from boiling over, or taking fire. When these are well melted and mixed, they are taken off the fire, and permitted to cool a little; the gunpowder is then thrown in, and the composition poured upon a cold surface, where it consolidates. It is then broken into small lumps, to be made use of when required.

We may here remark, that, as the goodness of this composition depends upon the accuracy with which the mixture is made, too much care cannot be paid to this circumstance.

For the purpose of rendering this incendiary more inflammable, it is recommended to roll the pieces in meal-powder, before they become fully hard. If the same composition be mixed with suet and spirits of turpentine, it is used for the same purpose, but not in the same manner.

The invention of the fire stone is said to have originated from the fire-rain of Casimir Siemienowicz, an ingenious Polander, and Chevalier of Lithuania, &c.; and in fact, according to Ruggieri, the composition was taken from his treatise.

Incendiaries to be put into bombs or shells, are sometimes in rolls in the form of a sausage, which continue to burn after the shell has burst. They infallibly set fire to whatever combustible substance they touch. When thus made they are from .88 parts of an inch, to an inch in diameter, and from 3 to 4 inches long. Carcass composition is generally used. It is run into cylinders, which are pierced in the middle, and the hole is filled with the composition of bomb fuse. They are also furnished with cotton matches.

Composition of Fire Stone.

			PARTS OF
			Sulphur.	Salt-	Meal	Powder	Char-
				petre.	Powder.	ingrain	coal.
Composition	frequently	made use of,	16	4	4	3	0
Do	do	do	28	5	4	4	0
Dofor	particular	purposes,	9¼	16?	0	0	?
Do	do	do	11	29	0	0	1
Do	do	(spirits of	}
turpentine,	12 oz.)	and	} 6	1	4

Fire stone may be considered the wild-fire; but this term is applicable to any composition, as the Greek fire, which, when inflamed, burns with rapidity, and communicates its fire to surrounding objects with quickness. In such cases, the combustion is so rapid, that buildings, &c. are immediately wrapt in flames, which seem almost to defy all human power to extinguish. Such was the nature of the Greek fire, of which we shall speak hereafter.

Sec. II. Of Incendiary Matches.

These are better for the purpose of putting into shells and howitzes, than fire-stone alone, which does not burn as well. Their preparation consists in boiling common slow match in a solution of 20 parts of saltpetre, in six parts of water; then drying and cutting it into pieces of two or three inches long, and immersing it into fire-stone, in a state of fusion. Before the match has become solid, let it be rolled in meal-powder, or in grain powder. Fifty pounds of fire-stone will be sufficient for 1500 matches.

Sec. III. Of Carcasses and Fire-Balls.

Carcasses and fire-balls are made of a composition of combustible substances, and are used to produce light, as well as to fire buildings. The difference between them is, that the carcass has bands or hoops of iron, that form its shell. These hoops are made at right angles with each other, in an oval form, and fastened together with a base of iron. The fire-ball is made of a sack of strong tow cloth, or of a bag of basket work, in an oval form, and covered with strong cord, to give it a body. Both, however, are well wrapped with cord, to make them more solid.

The Rev. J. P. Coste, in 1794, invented a carcass composition, which he submitted to the French national convention. It appears that its fire was very violent, which nothing could extinguish, and could be thrown 800 paces from a caliber of 24 in. and to a greater distance, if required. An account of this carcass is given in the Moniteur, No. 342.

Oblong carcasses were formerly in use. The round carcass is more applicable for mortars and howitzers. The 13-inch round carcass weighs about 212 lbs., 10-inch 96 lbs., 8-inch 48 lbs., and 5¹/₂-inch 16 lbs. Carcasses are seldom or ever fired from guns or carronades, in the land or sea service. In bomb vessels, they are only fired from mortars. After the first invention of bombs, that of carcasses and grenades naturally followed. They are said to have been first used in 1594, and afterwards by the bishop of Munster, at the siege of Groll, in 1672, where the Duke of Luxemburg commanded.

The carcass for 12 and 10-inch mortars has six bands of iron; that for an 8-inch mortar, no more than four. These bands are of an oval shape, and fixed with nails, either clenched or rivetted to a bottom, of the shape of a segment of a sphere; then to a hoop, placed horizontally at one-third of their height; and at top, to another that closes the opening.

The sacks, that contain carcasses and fire-balls, are of a cylindrical form, and their diameter and height are equal, being the same as that of the carcass at one-third its height. They are sewed upon a circular bottom, like the woollen bags of gun-cartridges. When the ball is wound with thread, the folds will disappear. The sacks of fire balls are an inch less than the caliber of the mortar, and those of carcasses four inches more.

Table relative to the Dimensions of Carcasses, to fire from the Mortar.

CALIBERS OF	12-inch.	10-inch.	8-inch.
	Inch.	Inch.	Inch.
The spherical segment.
radius,	55/12	4?	1
height,	2	1?	1
Diam. of the circle,
at ? of the height	10	8½	7
at the opening	6	5	41/6
Height
Of the iron mounting	12	10	8
Of the charged carcass, the ear not included	16	14	12
Of the enveloping sacks	16	14	12
	Pounds.	Pounds.	Pounds.
The weight of the iron, for the mounting of the carcass, about	20	18	7

Composition of Carcasses and Light Balls.

	Pitch.
		White Pitch. (Turpentine.)
			Mutton Tallow.
				Rosin.
					Sulphur.
						Saltpetre.
							Grain-powder.
								Meal-powder.
									Camphor.
										Charcoal.
											CarabÉ.
Moist composition.	24	12	4	0	0	0	36	0	½	0	0
Idem.	18	0	1	0	0	0	30	0	0	0	0
Dry composition.	0	0	0	12	1	2	0	2	0	0	0
Idem.	0	0	0	12	2½	11	0	0	0	1½	0
Another.	12	6	2	0	0	0	30	0	½	0	0
Ditto.	0	0	1	12	0	2	20	0	2	0	1
Ditto.	12	0	3	0	0	6	30	0	0	0	0
Ditto.	15	0	3	0	0	6	30	0	0	0	0
Ditto.	0	2½	0	1	1	1½	0	2	0	0	0
Ditto, particular, for setting fire to magazines, buildings, &c.	0	0	0	1	4	2	0	10	0	0	0
Ditto, same purpose.	0	0	0	4	16	32	0	48	0	1	0*
Ditto. do.	7	0	1	6	6	0	0	8	0	0	0
											Antim.
Ditto. do.	5	0	0	8	25	50	0	0	0	0	5
* Also, iron or steel filings, 2; and fir-tree sawdust boiled in a solution of saltpetre, 2.

We may remark, that the four first formulÆ are given by Bigot, and are used in the French service. Therefore, although the others have been employed, we may consider the proportions in these, as best adopted for the carcass and light-ball composition. About 49 lbs. of composition and two lbs. of fine tow, are required for a carcass of 12 inches.

Luminous or light balls are sometimes made of the following compositions.

Composition for Luminous Balls.

1.	Sulphur	6 oz.
	Antimony	2 —
	Saltpetre	4 —
	Rosin	4 —
	Charcoal	4 —
2.	Saltpetre	2 oz.
	Rosin	2 —
	Charcoal	2 —
	Antimony	1 —
	Sulphur	1 —
	Pitch	1 —

In the formation of luminous, or light balls, whatever may be the composition, we may remark, that the only ingredients which appear to be essentially necessary are nitrate of potassa and inflammable substances. In some preparations, antimony is used, for the same reason as in the Bengal lights. Rosin, pitch, and charcoal are all inflammable; and sulphur, although it takes fire more instantaneously than these, enters into the composition of such fires more on account of its flame than any other.

As a general rule for the preparation of carcass composition, the following particulars must be attended to. After melting the pitch, turpentine, rosin, and sulphur, add the tallow and camphor, and then the nitre and charcoal, in powder. They are then to be stirred, and mixed intimately. Care must be taken to regulate the fire, and prevent the composition taking fire. After the kettle is withdrawn from the fire, the gunpowder is then gently added, and stirred with a stick or spatula. The kettle is then again put over the fire, and afterwards withdrawn. Tow is now added in small quantities at a time, stirring the mixture well that it may be thoroughly incorporated.

The preparation of the carcass, or fire-ball, is as follows; observing, that, if it is a carcass, the iron-frame must be first placed in the sack. Four cords are taken, each four lines in diameter, four feet long for the calibers of 10 and 12 inches, but only 3 feet for the calibers of 8 inches.

The middle of these four cords are laid one upon the other in the form of an eight-pointed star. Each end of the ropes is then fixed to a nail, and a bottom is formed, similar to basket-work, by interlacing a cord, two lines in diameter, three or four times round the central point. The small cord is then tied with a knot, and the bottom of the basket completed, by tying the four large cords together with four half knots. The bottom of the sack, containing the iron carcass, or of an empty sack, if a fire-ball is to be made, is placed upon the middle of this, and the filling performed in the following manner, namely: A sufficient quantity of the composition is taken from the kettle to fill the empty carcass, or sack, three or four inches high; a few loaded grenades, with the fuse down, or a howitz placed in the same way, are laid upon this first layer. The filling is continued to the top, putting the composition and grenades, in alternate layers. When it is done, the sack is tied with twine. In order to tie up the fire-ball in its cord net, the cords are raised from their nails, over the sack, and tied in such a way as to suspend it about the height of a man's head, and to permit it to be easily turned round. An artificer fixes the end of a small cord to one of the larger ones, at the distance of 1¹/₂ inches from the bottom; he makes a half knot upon this, and carries the small cord round to the others, to which he ties it in the same way, forming a spiral round the ball. The large cords are kept regularly stretched in such a way, that each turn of the spiral may be 1¹/₂ inches from that beneath it. When the spiral has reached the top of the ball, he unites the small cord, called the traverse, with the ends of the four others, called uprights. He divides the latter into two parcels, and forms a loop of them, through which a lever may be passed for the convenience of carrying it. At two or three inches from the upper end, and upon two sides, diametrically opposite to each other, two pins of hard dry wood, well greased, are driven in. These pins are 6 inches in length, one in diameter at the head, and half an inch at the point. They must be inclined in such a way, as to meet in the axis of the fire ball, at about half its height.

The carcass or fire-ball, when finished, is dipped into the following composition:

Composition of Pitch for Fire-Balls.

Pitch,	32 parts.
Turpentine,	16 ——
Rosin,	8 ——
Linseed oil,	6 ——
Mutton Tallow,	1 ——

Grenades answer the purpose of dispersing the fire of the carcass in different places; and the shell will not burst, till the carcass has burnt for a sufficient length of time. Sometimes the ends of gun barrels, or pistols, loaded with ball, are put in.

Carcasses and fire-balls are primed before they are used, by drawing out the pins, and filling the holes with the composition for the fuses of shells; taking care to use for ramming, only wooden or copper rammers. Four cotton matches are placed in each hole, 6.4 inches long, in order to convey the fire.

Carcasses and fire-balls are discharged from mortars, in the same manner as a bomb. When the carcass is intended to give light to discover the enemy's works, then the small charges are to be put into the chamber of the mortar, and but little elevation given, for fear it should bury itself in the ground. If, on the contrary, the intention is to set fire to houses or magazines, a greater elevation is given to the mortars, in order that it may reach and destroy the buildings, upon which it is intended to fall.

The composition used by the Austrians at the siege of Valenciennes, which is called after it, has the same effect as carcass. It is composed of saltpetre 50 parts, sulphur 28, antimony 18, and rosin 6.

An English writer observes, that the best way of making light balls, is to take thick brown paper, and make a shell the size of the mortar, and fill it with a composition of equal parts of sulphur, pitch, rosin and meal-powder.

Before closing this article, we may add, that carcasses are sometimes made to weigh two hundred and thirty pounds, and those for the naval service differ from a shell only in the composition, and in the four holes, from which it burns when fired.

Sec. IV. Of Incendiary Balls, or Fire Balls, to be thrown from Cannon or by Hand.

Balls of this kind are employed chiefly in beseiged fortresses to light up the enemy's works. In order to burn ships, hollow balls filled with incendiary matter and red-hot shot are preferable.

Composition of Incendiary Balls.

	Meal-powder.
		Saltpetre.
			Sulphur.
				Rosin.
					Tallow.
						Alum.
							Antimony.
								Char-
								coal
Ordinary composition, moistened with spirits and linseed oil, meal,	4	4	3½	¾	0	0	0	0
Another,	8	8	24	0	4	2	1	0
Do.	0	7	4	3	0	0	0	½

The first composition is reduced to a paste with good brandy or other spirits, in which gum arabic and camphor have been dissolved; and after leaving it a few hours to dry, moisten it with linseed oil, and make it into balls a little less than the calibers of the guns, from which they are to be fired or weighing about four pounds, if they are to be thrown by hand. They are tied up in a cloth and steeped in a bath of pitch in the same way as carcasses. They are usually covered a second time with cloth and dipped in the same way. If they are to be fired from guns, they are enveloped in a netting of wire, to prevent them from being broke by the action of the charge. These balls when fired are put down over a small charge without ramming. Two holes are made in them in the same way as in carcasses and fire balls and they are primed in the same manner.

In employing the second and other compositions, the materials must first be melted, such as rosin, tallow, and sulphur, and the powder, alum, and antimony, added; when the melted matter is removed from the fire. After they are all mixed, the mixture is then poured into wooden moulds of two pieces, that are greased on the inside; the ball is taken from the mould when cool, and wrapped up in cloth or in tow. It is dipped in melted pitch. When it is to be used, holes are made in it with a gimblet, and it is primed like the others.

We may remark here, that the Congreve incendiary rocket is armed with carcass composition, which produces all the effects of the usual carcass. The rocket carcass will be considered under the head of war-rocket.

Sec. V. Of Smoke Balls.

Smoke balls are composed of the same substances as carcasses and light balls, with this difference, that they contain five to one of pitch, rosin, and sawdust. This composition is put into shells made for the purpose, having four holes to let out the smoke. Smoke balls are thrown out of mortars, and continue to smoke from twenty-five to thirty minutes.

Sec. VI. Of Stink Balls.

Stink Balls are prepared with a composition of mealed powder, rosin, saltpetre, pitch, sulphur, rasped horses' and asses' hoofs, burnt in the hoof, assafoetida, seraphim-gum, stinking herbs, &c. made up into balls in the same manner as light-balls, according to the size of the mortar, out of which they are to be thrown.

Sec. VII. Of Poisoned Balls.

With respect to poisoned balls, we are informed, that, although they have not been used by European nations, the Africans and the Indians have always been very ingenious at poisoning several kinds of fire compositions. At the commencement of the French revolution, poisoned balls were exhibited to the people, pretended to have been fired by the Austrians, particularly at the seige of Lisle. They contained glass, small pieces of iron, &c. and were said to be mixed with a greasy composition, which was impregnated with poisonous matter. In 1792, they were deposited in the archives of Paris.

Poisoned balls, according to authors, are composed of meal powder four parts, pitch six, rosin three, sulphur five, assafoetida eight, extract of toads' poison twelve, other poisonous substances twelve, made into balls in the manner we have mentioned. See Poisoned Arrow.

Sec. VIII. Of Red-hot Balls.

It will be sufficient to observe, that red-hot shot, as an incendiary, are considered fully adequate to perform the effect which they are designed to produce. The balls are ignited in a coal fire on an iron grate, in a furnace constructed for the purpose; and, when thus heated, are thrown from guns, the space between the powder and ball being filled up with a piece of wood of the exact diameter of the gun, or with wet hay or grass, to prevent the ball from setting fire to the powder.

With respect to chain balls, composed of two balls linked together by a chain from twelve inches to four feet in length, and designed to destroy palisadoes, wooden bridges, and chevaux-de-frize of a fortification; stang-balls, or bar-shot, called by some, balls of two heads, made by uniting, by means of a bar, half shot; and anchor balls, filled with the same composition as light-balls, with some trifling variation in the ball itself, &c.—they are all used as destructive weapons, which belong more particularly to the service of artillery.

Sec. IX. Of Pitched Tourteaux and Fascines.

Tourteaux are employed to illuminate the passages of rivers and defiles. They are placed in portable lanterns or in fire-grates. They are used chiefly to light up the works of the beseiger, when he approaches the covert way, and to burn the gabions and fascines, with which he constructs his passage to the ditch. Tarred links are nothing more than old junk or matches, dipped into a composition of pitch, suet, linseed oil and turpentine; the junk being cut into lengths of about five feet, which is called a link. The Tourteaux goudronnÉs of the French are the same, and formed of old rope, which is untwisted, immersed in pitch or tar, and afterwards left to dry. The French make the Tourteaux goudronnÉs in the following manner: Take twelve pounds of tar or pitch, six pounds of tallow, and three pints of linseed oil; melt them together and dip twisted pieces of rope of any length into the boiling mixture. If they are required to burn slow, six pounds of rosin and two pounds of turpentine are added. Sometimes to the composition of pitch, tallow, and linseed oil, are added two parts of saltpetre, one part of sulphur, and half a part of antimony. Tourteaux, according to Bigot, are made in the following manner: Old cords or pieces of match are beaten with mallets to take out the dirt, and prepare them to receive the composition. They are untwisted a little for the same purpose. They are then cut into pieces about five feet in length, and each is intertwined to form a circle of five or six inches of external diameter, making a hole at the same time in the middle for the passage of the point of the lantern.

The rope, being thus prepared, is next boiled in the composition given below, for the space of ten or fifteen minutes, and then laid upon a wet plank. They are a second time dipped into the composition, and thrown into cold water, to give them again, by hand, the circular figure they may have lost. Flower of sulphur is now put over them, and they are dried in the shade.

Composition for Tourteaux.

Pitch,	24	parts.
Turpentine,	12	——
Rosin,	6	——
Mutton tallow,	4	——
Linseed oil,	1	——
Venice turpentine,	1	——

Another, for Tarred Links and Fascines, according to the Strasbourg formula.

Pitch,	18	parts.
Turpentine,	9	——
Suet, or tallow,	4	——
Linseed oil,	1	——
Spirits of turpentine,	1	——

When a great quantity of links are to be made, either for illumination or for lighting a city, the oil may be omitted. The links will cost less, and they will answer the purpose equally well.

Fascines are made of strips of wood, or dry twigs, or wine shoots, which are the best, of the length of fourteen or sixteen inches. They are tied in bundles of four or five inches in diameter, with a cord or iron wire, and then boiled in the composition for tourteaux, and thrown into water to cool. They are principally used to give light to the works of an enemy, and to set fire to the passage of the ditch.

Fascines are of different kinds. In fortification, they are a kind of fagot, made of small branches of trees or brush wood, tied in three, four, five, or six places, and are of various dimensions, according to the purposes intended. Those that are to be pitched over for burning lodgements, galleries, or any other work of the enemy, should be one and a half or two feet long.

Sec. X. Of Torches or Flambeaux.

We have already spoken of torches, but in connection with military pyrotechny, we may add, that they are used to give light during night marches, and for other purposes. They are made in the following manner.

Boil, in a mixture of equal parts of water and saltpetre, old cords or old match, well cleaned and untwisted. Take them out and dry them; then cut them in pieces of four and a half feet in length, and tie four of these pieces with twine to a cylindrical piece of wood, of the same length, and an inch in diameter; so that the whole together may be from two to two and a half inches thick. Dip this torch into a liquid made of equal parts of meal-powder and sulphur, mixed together with brandy, in which some gum has been dissolved. Fill the intervals of the pieces of cordage, with a paste, composed of three parts of sulphur, and one of quicklime. Dry the torch, and when dry, turn it gently round, and finish it by pouring on it the following composition.

Composition for Flambeaux.

Turpentine,	32	parts.
Venice turpentine,	4	——
Beeswax,	32	——
Sulphur,	12	——
Camphor,	6	——

Another.

Pitch,	6	parts.
Turpentine,	6	——
Venice turpentine,	1	——

Torches or flambeaux may also be made without the central piece of wood.

Torches ought to have the quality of burning, let the weather be what it may. The following method of making them is also recommended.

Take four large cotton matches, three or four feet long, boil them in saltpetre, and arrange them round a pine stick; after which cover them with priming powder and sulphur, made into a thin paste with brandy. When dry, cover the matches with the following composition; viz. 2 lbs. of yellow wax, as much white pitch, 12 oz. sulphur, 6 oz. camphor, and 4 oz. of turpentine: melt the whole together.

Sec. XI. Of Powder Bags.

Powder bags are little sacks, that contain four pounds of powder.

They are of great use in besieged places. They are cast by the hand, set fire wherever they fall, and very much intimidate troops making an assault. They are made with good coarse cloth. Their width and size are not determined. It is sufficient that they can be easily thrown. The sides only are sewed up. In charging them, we begin by tying one end with strong packthread. Then turn it inside out, so that the ligature may be within, and fill it with powder, ramming it down with a cartridge form, proportioned to the bag, until it is full. Then put in the fuse, the large end inwards, and tie the bag tight. Afterwards the outside is covered with tar, or pitch.

Sec. XII. Of the Powder Barrel.

A powder barrel is a common barrel, filled with powder, to roll from the top of a breach, or upon the head of a sap from the glacis. The barrel contains from 100 to 200 pounds of powder, and is covered with a cloth. A hole is made at each end, in which a fuse may be fixed, of such a size, that the fire may be communicated to the powder, at the moment when the barrel, rolled from the top of the breach, is met by the troops mounting to the assault.

English writers state the diameter of powder barrels at 16 inches, and 30 or 32 inches in length, and capable of holding 100 pounds of powder. The quantity of powder put into them is 90 lbs; into a half-barrel, 45 lbs; and into a quarter-barrel, used for rifle powder, only 22¹/₂ lbs. This proportion leaves a space for the powder to separate when rolled, or otherwise it would always be in lumps, and liable thereby to damage.

Sec. XIII. Of the Burning or Illuminating Barrel.

This barrel differs from the thundering barrel, which we shall describe in the following section, only in having no grenades; and when it is placed upon a glacis, it lights up or discovers the works of the besieger. It has a fuse in only one of its ends.

When shavings are boiled in the composition for links and fascines, or of tourteaux, and arranged layer by layer, scattering, over each stratum, some priming-powder, the combustion must be rapid, when the barrel is set on fire.

Fire barrels, we may observe, are of different kinds. Some are mounted on wheels, filled with composition, and intermixed with loaded grenades, and their outsides full of sharp spikes. Some are placed under ground, and have the effect of small mines; and others, as the kind we have mentioned, are used to roll down a breach to prevent the entrance of the enemy. The following composition has been used for the same purpose.

Composition for Fire-Barrels.

Grained powder,	30	lbs.
Pitch,	12	—–
Saltpetre,	6	—–
Tallow,	3	—–

Sec. XIV. Of the Thundering Barrel.

This is employed for the same purpose as the preceding, or to light up the works of the besieger at the foot of the glacis. It has the same dimensions with the other, but has no cover. It is filled with chips, (dipped into the composition of the tourteaux), which are arranged in layers, putting, between each layer, meal-powder, and grenades, furnished with their fuses, or with pieces of musket barrels. The first and last layers are made with tow, boiled in the carcass composition. The barrel being filled, it is then closed and primed in the same way as the powder barrel, with a bomb fuse at each end. Holes are made along the barrel to assist the combustion. Grenades are employed in particular to prevent the approach of persons to extinguish the flame.

The invention of bombs is said to be owing to Scotland, and to the siege of St. Andrews. In the Art of War (says the Anthologia Hibernica, vol. iii, p. 174) printed at Venice, we are shown the representation of a hogshead, coated with conical headed nails, in which there is enclosed a barrel of gunpowder, suspended in the centre by an iron tube, which communicates at both ends with the open air. This engine, we are told by the author, killed 558 persons by its explosion in the fosse.

Sec. XV. Of the Petard.

The petard is used to break down the gates and barriers of small towns, and even their walls, by hanging it against them, and setting fire to the fuse. Its invention is ascribed to the French Huguenots in 1579, who, by means of petards, took Cahors, in the same year. It was invented, as others inform us, by the celebrated Coehorn.

The petard is a hollow piece of iron, either cast or wrought, of the figure of a truncated cone, and usually eight inches high, and nine and a half inches diameter at the base, the metal being five-sixths of an inch thick at top, and half an inch at bottom. It is open at the large end; and the small end, which is rounded, is pierced with a hole, in which is placed a brass fuse, filled with composition, in lieu of which, however, an ordinary bomb-fuse, or a quick-match may be used. It is furnished with four trunnions, (one and a half inches by one), to receive the iron staples, that are attached to an oaken plank, eighteen inches square, and two and a half inches thick, and reinforced below by two iron bands, in the form of a cross, nailed and dove-tailed in. It has two iron handles to carry it by, and to hook it to a screw, fixed in the gate intended to be broken. It is filled with gunpowder.

When the petard is to be loaded, it is filled with powder to within three inches of the bottom. Some folds of cartridge paper are then put in, and a bed of tow well rammed. It is finished with a hot cement made of one part of rosin, and two parts of ground brick, or Spanish brown. A plate of iron four or five lines thick is set into this, that fits the inside of the petard at that part. It is furnished with three iron points, to be driven into the plank. A petard, ready for use, weighs eighty-five pounds, and contains nine pounds of powder.

Dimensions of the Petard.

			Inches.
Exterior diameter of the opening.			9½
Exterior height.			8
		At the height,	5/6
Thickness of the metal,		In the middle,	¾
		At the bottom,	½
Trunnions,		Length,	1½
		Height,	1
		Length,	45/12
Fuses,		Diam. under the screw,	11/12
		Diam. of the screw,	1?
Plank,		Length and width,	18
		Thickness,	2½

According to Ruggeri, a petard is filled, after warming it, with three fingers of powder, which is moistened with brandy, and then compressed without crushing it. On this powder, a quick match is placed, which is also compressed; after which, it is filled with composition previously melted. The composition is as follows:

Composition for Petards.

Pitch	4	parts.
Sulphur,	3	——
Saltpetre,	1	——
Antimony,	1	——

After introducing one-half of this mixture, when melted, we put in the iron plate, which rests on the composition, and then add the rest of it, which finishes the operation.

Sec. XVI. Of the Stink-Fire Lance.

This lance (Lance À feu puant of the French) is prepared in the same manner as stink-pots, and is principally used by miners. When a miner or sapper has so far penetrated towards the enemy, as to hear the voices of persons in any place contiguous to his own excavation, he first of all bores a hole with his probe, then fires off several pistols through the aperture, and lastly forces in a lance À feu puant. He takes care to close up the hole on his side, to prevent the smoke from returning towards himself. The explosion and fetid gas and vapour, which issue from the lance, and remain on the side of the enemy, infect the air so much, that it is impossible to approach the quarter for three or four days. Sometimes, indeed, they have had such instantaneous effect, that, in order to save their lives, miners, who would persevere, have been dragged out in an apparent state of suffocation.

The composition of ordinary fire-lance has been given. They are sometimes used to set fire to fuses.

The fire-pot is a vessel made of clay, with two handles, in which a grenade with powder is confined, and which is thrown against an enemy, after the match has been lighted; but a stink-pot is a vessel, filled with combustible and other matter, used in boarding ships, &c.

The suffocating pot is another contrivance, as its name expresses, to produce suffocation; and, as the materials consist only of sulphur and nitre, the gas which principally produces this effect is the sulphurous acid.

Composition for Suffocating Pots.

Sulphur,	6	parts.
Nitre,	5	——

Connected with this subject, we may mention another composition, to produce smoke, which is used either in pots, or balls. Hence, the smoke-pot, and smoke-balls. The following is the composition.

Composition for Smoke-Balls.

Grained-powder,	10	lbs.
Nitre,	2	—–
Pitch,	4	—–
Sea-coal,	3	—–
Tallow,	1	—–

The coal and pitch produce the smoke, and the gunpowder and nitre promote the combustion, and, with the tallow render the product of combustion more offensive.

Sec. XVII. Of the Combustible Substances used in, and the Manner of preparing, a Fire-Ship.

A fire-ship is a vessel, filled with combustible substances, and fitted with grappling irons, to hook, and set fire to the enemy's ships in battle, &c.

With respect to the preparation required, some knowledge may be had by considering the following particulars. From the bulk-head at the fore-castle, to a bulk-head to be raised behind the main chains, on each side, and across the ship at the bulk-heads, is fixed, close to the ship's sides, a double row of troughs, two feet distance from each other, with cross troughs quite round, at about two and a half feet distance, which are mortised into the others. The cross troughs lead to the sides of the ship, to the barrels, and to the port-holes, to give fire both to the barrels and to the chambers, to blow open the ports; and the side troughs serve to communicate the fire all along the ship, and the cross troughs.

The timbers, of which the troughs are made, are about five inches square; the depth of the trough, half their thickness; and they are supported by cross-pieces at every two or three yards, nailed to the timbers of the ship, and to the wood-work, which encloses the fore and mainmasts. The decks and troughs are all well payed with melted rosin. On each side of the ship, six small port-holes are cut, from fifteen to eighteen inches large, (the ports opening downwards), and are close caulked up.

Against each port is fixed an iron chamber, which, at the time of firing the ship, blows open the ports and lets out the fire. At the main and fore chains, on each side, a wooden funnel is fixed over a fire-barrel, and comes through a scuttle in the deck, up to the shrouds to set them on fire. Both funnels and scuttles must be stopped with plugs, and have sail-cloth or canvass nailed close over them to prevent any accident happening that way by fire to the combustibles below.

The port-holes, funnels, and scuttles, not only serve to give the fire a free passage to the outside and upper parts of the ship and her rigging, but also to allow the inward air (otherwise confined) to expand itself, and push through those holes at the time of the combustibles being on fire, and prevent the blowing up of the decks, which otherwise must happen from the sudden and violent rarefaction of the air.

In the bulkhead behind on each side, is cut a small hole, large enough to receive a trough of the same size as the others, from which, to each side of the ship, lies a leading trough, one end coming through a sally port, cut through the ship's side, and the other fixing into a communicating trough, that lies along the bulk head, from one side of the ship to the other; and being laid with quick-match, at the time of firing either of the leading troughs, it communicates the fire, in an instant, to the contrary side of the ship, and both sides burn together.

Having thus described this preparatory arrangement, we shall consider, in the next place, the combustibles made use of in fitting up a fire-ship.

Fire-barrel. The fire-barrels for this purpose are cylindrical, on account of that shape answering better both for filling them with reeds, and for stowing them between the troughs. Their inside diameters are about 21 inches, and their length 33. The bottom parts are first filled with double-dipt reeds, set on end, and the remainder with fire-barrel composition, made of the following substances.

Composition for fire-barrels, for fire-ships.

Grained Powder	30	lbs.
Pitch	12	—–
Saltpetre	6	—–
Tallow	3	—–

There are 5 holes of three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and 3 inches deep, made with a drift of that size, in the top of the composition, while it is warm; one in the centre, and the other four at equal distances, round the sides of the barrel.

When the composition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by well driving these holes, full of fuse composition, to within an inch of the top; then fixing in each hole a strand of quick-match twice doubled, and in the centre hole, two strands the whole length; all which must be well driven with meal-powder. Then lay the quick-match all within the barrel, and cover the top of it with a dipped curtain, fastened on with a hoop to slip over the head, and nailed on.

Bavins. Bavins are made of birch, heath, or other sort of brush wood, that is both tough and quickly fired. Their length is 2¹/₂ to 3 feet. The bush ends are all laid one way, and the other ends, tied with two bands each. They are dipped, and sprinkled with sulphur, the same as reeds; with this difference, that the bush ends only are dipped, and should be a little closed together by the hand as soon as done, to keep them more compact, in order to produce a stronger fire, and to preserve the branches from breaking in shifting and handling them.

Composition for Bavins.

Rosin	120	lbs.
Sulphur, coarse, or roll	90	—–
Pitch	60	—–
Tallow	6	—–
Meal-powder	12	—–

Iron Chambers. These are ten inches long, and 3.5 in diameter; breeched against a piece of wood, fixed across the holes. When loaded, they are almost filled with grained powder, with a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles. They are primed with a small piece of quick-match, thrust through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hanging out; and, when the ship is fired, they blow open the ports, which either fall downwards, or are carried away, and accordingly give vent to the fire out of the sides of the ship.

Curtains. Curtains are made of barras, about three-quarters of a yard wide, and one yard in length. When they are dipped, two men, with each a fork, must run the prongs through the corner of the curtain at the same end. Then dip them into a large kettle of composition, (which is the same as the composition for bavins,) well melted; and, when well dipped and the curtain extended to its full breadth, whip it between two sticks of about 5.5 feet long, and 1.5 inches square, held close by two other men, to take off the superfluous composition hanging to it. Then immediately sprinkle sawdust on both sides, to prevent it from sticking, and the curtain is finished.

Reeds. They are made up in small bundles of about 12 inches in circumference, cut even at both ends, and tied with two bands each. The longest sort are 4 feet, and the shortest 2.5, the only lengths which are used. One part of them is single dipped, only at one end; the rest are double dipped, that is, at both ends. In dipping, they must be put about 7 or 8 inches deep into a copper kettle of melted composition, of the same kind as that for bavins; and, when they have drained a little over it, to carry off the superfluous composition, sprinkle them, over a tanned hide, with pulverized sulphur, at some distance from the copper. With respect to the stores, required for a fire ship of 150 tons, the following complement is given: viz.

		No.
Fire barrels		8
Iron chambers		12
Priming composition barrels		3½
Quick-match barrels		1
Curtains dipped		30
Long reeds, single dipped		150
Short reeds	{ double dipped	75
	{ single dipped	75
Bavins, single dipped		209

The quantity of composition, for preparing the stores of a fire ship is as follows:

For 8 barrels; grained powder 960 pounds, pitch 480 pounds, tallow 80 pounds.

For 3 barrels of priming composition, saltpetre 175 lbs. sulphur 140 lbs. grained powder 350 lbs. rosin 21 lbs. oil-pots 11.

For curtains, bavins, and reeds, and sulphur to salt them, as artificers call it; sulphur 240 lbs. pitch 350 lbs. rosin 175 lbs. tallow 50 lbs. tar 25 lbs.

Total weight of the composition 3017 pounds, equal to 26 cwt. 3 qr. 21 lbs.

The composition, required for the rods and barrels, is one-fifth of the whole of the last article, which is equal to 160 lbs. making in the whole, 3177 lbs. or 28 cwt. 1 qr. 13 lbs.

Adye (Bombardier and Pocket Gunner) has given two general formulÆ for the composition, used in fire-ships, which we will here insert.

Composition for dipping reeds, bavins, and curtains.

Rosin,	120	lbs
Coarse sulphur,	90	—
Pitch,	60	—
Tallow,	6	or 8
Mealed powder,	12	—

Composition for priming.

Pulverized saltpetre,	22	lbs.	8	oz.
Rosin,	2	—	11	—
Sulphur,	18	—
Meal-powder,	45	—
Linseed oil,	1	pint.

The composition put in cases, to set fire to fascine batteries, is sometimes used in fire-ships, viz.

Composition for setting fire to Fascine Batteries.

Meal-powder,	1 lb.	4 oz.
Saltpetre,	6 —
Sulphur,	1 —	8 oz.

There is also another composition, which might be used advantageously for the same purpose, and which is employed for hoops, fire-arrows, and lances, namely:

Composition for Hoops, Fire-Arrows, &c.

Meal-powder,	1 lb.
Saltpetre,	3 —
Sulphur,	8 oz.
Linseed oil,	8 —

The composition of kitt, used for the last covering of carcasses, may also be employed. It must be applied when very thin and hot.

Composition of Kitt.

Rosin,	9 lbs.
Bees' wax,	6 —
Pitch,	6 —
Tallow,	1 —

Sec. XVIII. On Infernal Machines.

The Machines Infernales of the French, which have excited so much attention in Europe, we deem of sufficient importance to describe.

This invention is by no means new, although it has been attributed to the French. It appears that Fredric Jambelli, an Italian engineer, was the first that used them, when Alexander, of Parma, besieged Antwerp. The Prince of Orange likewise had recourse to the destructive effects of an infernal machine, in order to bombard Havre-de-Grace, and to set it on fire. The Dutch and English, in conjunction, attempted to destroy St. Malo by the same means. The first instance, however, upon record, in which the French made use of this machine, was when Louis XIV ordered a vessel, carrying an enormous shell, full of every kind of combustible matter, to be despatched to Algiers, for the purpose of demolishing its harbour. This, it is supposed, suggested the use of fire-ships, which have frequently been used against maritime places.

The author of the Œuvres Militaires, tom. xxii, p. 222, speaking of the infernal machine, observes, that, if he were to be in a situation, which required the use of so dreadful an explosion, especially to destroy a bridge, he would prefer having the machine made simply with different strong pieces of wood, joined together, so as to be in the shape of an egg, or of a cone reversed.

The whole must then be made compact with cords twisted round. This method, in his opinion, is not only the best, but can be executed in the most easy and expeditious manner. He further adds, that, in order to burn or blow up wooden bridges, and even to destroy such as are constructed upon arches, several sorts of barges or boats might be used, which should be filled with fire-works, bombs, petards, &c. It would, likewise, be easy to construct these machines upon floating rafters, carrying several thousand pounds weight of gunpowder, which might be confined within strong pieces of wood, put together in the manner already described.

These machines should be piled one above another, and long iron bars must be thrown across the floats, or be fixed like masts; so that, when the whole of the combustible material is beneath the centre of the bridge, the rafters may be stopped. Great care must be taken to dispose the matches in such a manner, that no fire may be communicated to the gunpowder before the machine reaches the exact spot, which is to be destroyed.

In 1804, an infernal machine was used at Boulogne, which is described as follows:

This machine appears to be as simple in its construction, as it is calculated to be effectual in its operations. It is composed of 2 stout planks, 17 feet long, which form its sides, and are distant from each other about 7 feet.

These planks are connected by transverse timbers, screwed to the planks; so as to keep the whole firm and compact, and to prevent the danger of their being separated at sea. Of these transverse timbers, two are at the fore extremity, and three behind. This may be called, the frame or hull of the machine; the remainder of the work, being either for the stowage of the combustible matter, or for the accommodation of the seamen, who row the machine. Along the transverse timbers, at both extremities, are laid parallel to the sides, five longitudinal bars of nearly the same strength as the transverse timbers, which form a kind of grate, on which the coffers, containing the combustible matter, are placed. The grate behind is double the size of the one before, on the principle of giving facility to the motion of the whole, by making the machine lighter at the head. In the centre, between the planks forming the sides, from the inner extremity of the grate behind, to the outer extremity of the grate before, there is fixed a plank, somewhat broader than the side planks, which is well secured to them by three stout transverse timbers, which pass under the centre plank, to prevent its giving way to pressure.

In this plank, two triangular apertures are cut for men who row, to dispose of the lower extremities, whilst they ply the machine. Their seats, however, are so contrived, that each man's pressure is directly over that part of the plank, which is supported by the transverse timbers. The seats lie nearer to the head than to the hind part of the machine; perhaps to be some counterpoise for the greater weight of the combustible matter behind. Near each seat are fastened by rings to the sides, two oars, one on each side, and each man plies a pair. When the machine is worked to its destination, the men set the combustibles in a train for explosion, and abandon their posts.

The whole is so regulated, as to weight of materials, that the machine floats, or, more probably, moves under the surface of the water; so that little more than the heads of the men are seen. This secures the men and the machine from the fire of the enemy; and as the oars must be constantly plied under water, there is less danger of their being discovered by their noise, as they approach.

Infernal machines have also been made, to be used on land. Such is the machine we are told, which was intended for the destruction of Bonaparte. They may be made to explode at a given time, by clock-work, or by a match, calculated to burn a certain time!

Sec. XIX. Of the Catamarin.

The catamarin, properly so called, is a floating raft, originally used in China, and among the Portuguese as a fishing-boat. The Indian catamarin consists of two logs of wood, upon which the natives float, and go through the heaviest surf.

The military or naval catamarin is a different thing. It is properly a case, filled with combustibles, and contrived to remain so low in the water as to be almost imperceptible. This, being towed to the building, or ship, against which the attack is to be directed, is left to explode, by means of machinery within itself, when its operation is sometimes very destructive.

English writers acknowledge, that the catamarin, submitted by the late Mr. Pitt to the English government, and which cost in its construction a considerable sum, was originally invented by our countryman, the late Mr. Fulton, of whose invention we will speak hereafter.

Some observations on a boat, named, by the French, Chelingues, and the Indian catamarin, may be seen in the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, article Bateau.

Several diving machines have been invented in France and elsewhere. M. Castera (Archives des DÉcouvertes, iii, p. 185) describes a plunging boat, which resembles in figure a cone. It is furnished with a reservoir, calculated to hold water, and may be filled or emptied by means of pumps. By means of glasses and copper handles, the navigator is enabled to see and to take hold of objects. It is also furnished with tubes for the transmission of the air necessary for respiration, that communicate from the interior of the vessel with the atmosphere; and a double bellows, designed as well for receiving, as expelling air. Besides oars or paddles, necessary to move it under water, there is a contrivance for detaching the boat from the reservoir, either wholly or in part, according to circumstances.

M. Castera, in a memoir on sub-marine navigation, has noticed several applications of the plunging boat, which may be seen in the Bulletin de la SociÉtÉ d'Encouragement, No. 71. In No. 61, of the same work, is the first notice of Castera's invention, an extract of which may be seen in the Archives des DÉcouvertes, ii. p. 121. A description of Lutgendorf's boat may be seen in the Magazin der Erfindungen, No. 46.

Sec. XX. Of the American Turtle.

It is well known that the diving-bell, and similar contrivances, have been used for naval purposes, in connection with naval warfare.

Divers, or those who made it a business, by long habit and experience, to remain under water, and go to a great depth, were often employed in war to destroy the works and ships of the enemy. When Alexander was besieging Tyre, divers swam off from the city, under water, to a great distance, and, with long hooks, tore to pieces the mole, with which the besiegers were endeavouring to block up the harbour. The invention of the diving-bell, the campana urinatoria of some, is generally assigned to the sixteenth century; but it is evident, from the writings of Aristotle and others, that, in his time, divers used a kind of kettle to enable them to continue longer under water.

At the pearl fisheries, in the Bay of Condalzchy, in Ceylon, divers usually remain under water two minutes. There are some who can stay five minutes; and a diver from Anjano, engaged in this fishery in 1797, was able to remain six minutes under water. But their efforts are so great, that, when they come up, blood frequently issues from their mouths, ears, and nostrils. Notwithstanding this, they frequently dive from forty to fifty times a day, and bring up in a bag-net a hundred oysters each time.

It may be proper to observe, that the subject of sub-marine navigation was largely descanted upon by Mersennus, (Tractatus de Magnetis Proprietatibus), and by Bishop Wilkins (Mathematical Magic, 1648), who, by the way, is rather visionary. The conveniences and advantages he enumerates, are: 1. 'Privacy, as a man may thus go to any part of the world invisibly, without being discovered or prevented. 2. Safety, from the uncertainty of tides and tempests, &c. 3. It may be used to blow up, or undermine a navy: 4. Or to relieve a blockaded place, &c. But, with regard to the use of sub-marine vessels in war, Mr. David Bushnel, of Saybrook, Connecticut, appears to be entitled to the credit of the invention. His account of it may be seen in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. The intended object of this vessel was to destroy shipping, by the explosion of a magazine of gunpowder.

In Silliman's Journal of Science and Arts, vol. II, p. 94, is a communication by Mr. Griswold, on the subject of Bushnel's machine, with an account of the first attempt with it, in August, 1776, by Ezra Lee, a sergeant in the American army, to destroy some of the British ships then lying at New York. Mr. Griswold remarks, that, considering the invention of Mr. Bushnel as the first of its kind, it will be pronounced to be remarkably complete throughout in its construction, and that such an invention furnishes evidence of those resources and creative powers, which must rank him as a mechanical genius of the first order.

He has given a description of it; but the outline which we give is taken from Nicholson's Journal, quarto, iv, p. 229.

It is a decked boat, to go underwater: and several persons have gone under water many leagues. The difficulty is, to provide the persons in the boat with fresh air for respiration; and this is contrived, by having a reservoir of air, of suitable dimensions to the size of the boat, and the number of persons in it. By means of a condensing pump, the air, in this reservoir, is condensed about 400 times; and by a spring, the air is let out at intervals, as circumstances require, the carbonic acid produced by respiration being absorbed by quicklime. Within this boat are flaps, like those of a rundle, to move the boat, two rudders, one vertical, the other horizontal, and a pump to empty the hold, or air reservoir. The person within, can, at pleasure, come to the top of the water. The different experiments made by Mr. Bushnel may be seen in the Transactions referred to, or in Nicholson's Journal, quarto, iv, 229.

During the late war, Mr. Fulton, Mr. Mix, and some others, made various experiments with submarine machines; and during the revolution, the incendiary kegs, well known by the name of the "battle of the kegs," excited no small attention, and, had it not been for some unforeseen circumstance, they would, in all probability, have produced the effect for which they were intended.

Of Bushnel's vessel, we may observe, that, in the fore part of the brim of the crown, as it is called, was a socket, and an iron tube passing through the socket. The tube stood upright, and could slide up and down in the socket, six inches. At the top of the tube was a wood screw, fixed by means of a rod, which passed through the tube, and screwed the wood screw fast upon the top of the tube. By pushing the wood screw up against the bottom of a ship, and turning it at the same time, it would enter the planks. When the wood screw was firmly fixed, it could be cast off by unscrewing the rod, which fixed it upon the top of the tube.

Behind the submarine vessel, was a place, above the rudder, for carrying a large powder magazine. This was made of two pieces of oak timber, sufficiently large, when hollowed out, to contain 150 lbs. of powder, (130 lbs. according to Griswold,) with the apparatus used in firing it, and was secured in its place by a screw, turned by the operator. A strong piece of rope extended from the magazine to the wood screw above mentioned, and was fastened to both. When the wood screw was fixed, and to be cast off from its tube, the magazine was to be cast off likewise by unscrewing it, leaving it hanging to the wood screw; it was lighter than the water, that it might rise up against the object, and apply itself when fastened.

Mr. Griswold remarks, that the most difficult point of all to be gained, was to fasten this magazine to the bottom of a ship.

Within the magazine, was a machine, constructed to run any proposed length of time under twelve hours. When it had run out its time, it unpinioned a strong lock resembling a gun-lock, which gave fire to the powder. This apparatus was so pinioned, that it could not possibly move, till, by casting off the magazine from the vessel, it was set in motion.

This skilful operator could swim so low on the surface of the water, as to approach very near a ship in the night without fear of discovery, and might, if he chose, approach the stem or stern above water, with very little danger. He could sink very quickly, keep at any depth he pleased, and row a great distance in any direction he desired, without coming to the surface; and, when he rose to the surface, he could soon obtain a fresh supply of air; when, if necessary, he might descend again and pursue his course. The projector found some time and attention to be requisite for the gradual instruction of this operator, and, after various attempts, he found one, on whom he thought he could depend. He sent this man from New York to a 50 gun ship, lying not far from Governor's island. He went under the ship, and attempted to fix the wood screw in her bottom, but struck, as he supposed, a bar of iron, which passes from the rudder's hinge, and is spiked under the ship's quarter. Had he removed a few inches, which he might have done without rowing, the projector has no doubt but he might have found wood, where he might have fixed the screw; or if the ship were sheathed with copper, he might easily have pierced it. But, not being well skilled in the management of the vessel, in attempting to row to another place, he lost the ship. After seeking her in vain some time, he rowed to some distance, and rose to the surface of the water, but found day light had advanced so far, that he durst not renew the attempt. He says, he could easily have fastened the magazine under the stern of the ship above the water, as he rowed up to the stern, and touched it before he descended. Had he fixed it there, the explosion of 150 lbs of gunpowder (the quantity contained in the magazine) must have been fatal to the ship. In his return from the ship to New York, he passed near Governor's island, and thought he was discovered by the enemy on the island. Being in haste to avoid the danger he feared, he cast off the magazine, as he imagined it retarded him in the swell, which was very considerable. After the magazine had been cast off an hour, the time the internal apparatus was set to run, it blew up with great violence.

Mr. Griswold gives an account of an attempt to destroy a ship of war; and having received his information from Mr. Lee, one of the adventurers, we have thought proper to introduce it from that source.

"It was in the month of August, 1776, when Admiral Howe lay with a formidable British fleet in New York bay, a little above the narrows, and a numerous British force upon Staten Island, commanded by General Howe, threatened annihilation to the troops under Washington, that Mr. Bushnel requested General Parsons, of the American army, to furnish him with two or three men to learn the navigation of his new machine, with the view of destroying some of the enemy's shipping.

"General Parsons immediately sent for Lee, then a sergeant, and two others, who had offered their services to go on board a fire ship; and on Bushnel's request being made known to them, they enlisted themselves under him for this novel piece of service. The party went up into Long Island sound with the machine, and made various experiments with it in the different harbours along shore; and after having become pretty thoroughly acquainted with the mode of navigating it, they returned through the sound; but, during their absence, the enemy had got possession of Long Island and Governor's Island. They, therefore, had the machine conveyed by land across from New Rochelle to the Hudson river, and afterwards arrived with it at New York.

"The British fleet now lay to the north of Staten Island, with a large number of transports, and were the objects against which this new mode of warfare was destined to act. The first serene night was fixed upon for the execution of this perilous enterprize, and sergeant Lee was to be the engineer. After a lapse of a few days, a favourable night arrived, and, at 11 o'clock, a party embarked in two or three whale boats, with Bushnel's machine in tow. They rowed down as near the fleet as they dared, when sergeant Lee entered the machine, was cast off, and the boats returned.

"Lee now found the ebb tide rather too strong, and before he was aware, had drifted him down past the men of war. He, however, immediately got the machine about, and by hard labour at the crank for the space of five glasses by the ship's bells, two and a half hours, he arrived under the stern of one of the ships at about slack water. Day had now dawned, and by the light of the moon he could see the people on board, and hear their conversation. This was the moment for diving: he accordingly closed up over head, let in water, and descended under the ship's bottom. He now applied the screw, and did all in his power to make it enter; but owing probably in part to the ship's copper, and the want of an adequate pressure, to enable the screw to get a hold on the bottom, his attempts all failed. At each essay, the machine rebounded from the ship's bottom, not having sufficient power to resist the impulse thus given to it. He next paddled along to a different part of her bottom, but, in this manoeuvre, he made a deviation, and instantly rose to the water's surface on the east side of the ship, exposed to the increasing light of the morning, and in imminent hazard of being discovered. He immediately made another descent, with a view of making one more trial; but the fast approach of day, which would expose him to the enemy's boats, and render his escape difficult, if not impossible, deterred him; and he concluded the best generalship would be, to commence an immediate retreat. He now had before him a distance of more than four miles to traverse, but the tide was favourable. At Governor's island, great danger awaited him; for his compass having got out of order, he was under the necessity of looking out from the top of the machine very frequently, to ascertain its course, and at first made a very irregular zigzag track. The soldiers at Governor's island espied the machine, and curiosity drew several hundreds upon the parapet to watch its motions. At last a party came down to the beach, shoved off a barge, and rowed towards it. At that moment, sergeant Lee thought he saw his certain destruction, and as the last act of defence, let go the magazine, expecting they would seize that likewise, and thus all would be blown to atoms together. Providence, however, otherwise directed it: the enemy, after approaching within 50 or 60 yards of the machine, and seeing the magazine detached, began to suspect a yankee trick, took alarm, and returned to the island. Approaching the city, he soon made a signal; the boats came to him, and brought him safe and sound to the shore. The magazine, in the mean time, had drifted past Governor's island into the East river, where it exploded with tremendous violence, throwing large columns of water, and pieces of wood that composed it, high into the air. General Putnam, with many other officers, stood on the shore, spectators of this explosion.

"In a few days, the American army evacuated New York, and the machine was taken up the North river. Another attempt was afterwards made by Lee, upon a frigate that lay opposite Bloomingsdale. His object now was to fasten the magazine to the stern of the ship, close at the water's edge. But while attempting this, the watch discovered him, raised an alarm, and compelled him to abandon his enterprize. He then endeavoured to get under the frigate's bottom; but in this he failed, having descended too deep. This terminated his experiments."

With regard to diving bells, several machines, for the purpose of descending under water, &c. have been invented. Some experiments have been made by the French with similar contrivances, without any adequate result; and the difficulty of carrying them into execution, in real practice, will prevent their introduction.

Dr. Caustic, (Terrible Tractoration, p. 65), in a note, in reference to Bushnel's invention, observes, that if you consult the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, "you will see what Mr. D. Bushnel, of Connecticut, has done, and had like to have done, by virtue of submarine explosions. You will find, that several English ships have been put in jeopardy, and one schooner actually blown up and demolished by Mr. Bushnel's submarine explosions."[33]

Sec. XXI. Of the Torpedo.

The late Mr. Fulton applied himself to the improvement of the Turtle during the late war, and brought it to such perfection, that if it came in contact with a ship's bottom, it would inevitably blow up the vessel. From the account we have given of the turtle, we may readily imagine the construction of the torpedo. These were of several kinds; some (or rather the magazine attached to them,) were designed to be screwed under the bottom, and others to explode by coming in contact with the vessel, or any resisting body. The time of explosion was so determined, by clock-work machinery, in the manner of Bushnel's contrivance that it would invariably explode at the minute or second required.

Mr. Fulton wrote a number of essays on this torpedo, and other contrivances for annoying the enemy, such as the harpoon, &c. The torpedo, at which the British ships, stationed on our coast, were so much alarmed, is in fact a powerful weapon of destruction. It is to be observed, that the magazine, accompanying the bell, in some instances, was detached; so that the latter was removed out of danger, when the former was fixed to the ship's bottom. In order to prevent the torpedo from floating against the sides of a vessel, the precaution of having netting spread at some considerable distance round the vessel, and of keeping up a constant guard of boats, which were rowed round the ship both day and night, was used. Not having the writings of Mr. Fulton before us, we can give no precise description of his improvements. They are described to be an apparatus, of which the principal piece is a copper box, and prepared with an interior spring, which sets fire to the powder; at the same time that the whole is enclosed in a covering of cork, or some other light wood, to make the torpedo float under the surface of the water.

It will be sufficient to remark, that they have produced the effect of causing a constant, and, in our opinion, painful anxiety to the British. Of this we have abundant proof. We may add, however, the result of some of the experiments, by which it will appear, that they are eminently calculated, like the infernal machine, to produce death and destruction.

In consequence of some essays, published by Mr. Fulton, on the practicability of destroying ships by torpedoes, several persons turned their attention to this subject; among whom was a Mr. Mix of the navy. Mr. Mix's intention was to destroy the ship of war Plantagenet, of 74 guns, lying in Lynnhaven bay. Having made a torpedo, Mr. Mix, accompanied by two gentlemen, one of whom was a midshipman, proceeded in a boat, on the night of the 24th of July, 1813, and, having reached within 100 yards of the ship, dropped the torpedo. It was swept along by the side, but exploded a few seconds before it would have come in contact with the vessel. It produced, however, great consternation and confusion on board the vessel, and induced several of the crew to take to their boats. The ship was greatly agitated, and some damage done by the violent motion of the water. The noise, occasioned by the explosion, was loud and tremendous; and the appearance of the water, thrown up in a column of thirty or forty feet high, awfully sublime. It has not been ascertained, that any lives were lost.

The case of a Mr. Penny, of Easthampton, Long Island, is connected with the subject of torpedoes. He was carried on board the Ramilies, and put in irons; because his name had been entered on the books of one of the frigates, as having been "employed in a boat, contrived for the purpose, under the command of Thomas Welling, prepared with a torpedo, to destroy this (Capt. Hardy's) ship."

The affair of Stonington, also, shows, that the British were determined to punish the inhabitants for having, as captain Hardy expresses it, prepared torpedoes; and the captain stated, in his reply to the deputation from the town, that the bombardment should cease, in case the inhabitants would engage that no torpedoes should be fitted out by them. No torpedoes, however, were fitted out at Stonington.[34]

Mr. Fulton made a number of experiments with the torpedo, in the harbour of New York; and one vessel was completely cut in two. These experiments were very satisfactory to all who witnessed them.

The greatest difficulty he experienced was in giving them a proper direction, so as to hit the vessel intended to be destroyed. This he acknowledged to a friend, professor Eaton, of Troy, who informed us of the fact. He entertained no doubt whatever of the effect of the torpedo, when once brought in contact with a vessel.

At Havre, in France, Mr. Fulton constructed a sub-marine boat, sufficient to contain several men, and air for eight hours, and strong enough to bear submersion to the depth of one hundred feet, if necessary. In this boat, he remained an hour under water, made half a league of way in that time, with his boat horizontally situated, and at various depths, where he found that the compass traversed exactly, as on the surface. To the boat he attached a machine, by means of which he blew up a lighter in Brest Harbour.

While in France, in the time of the Republic, Mr. F. directed his attention to this subject. His Bateau-poisson, described in the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, vol. i, p. 265, is of the same character. A number of experiments performed with it are given.

Sec. XXII. Of the Marine Incendiary Kegs, &c.

We purpose to notice, under this head, two contrivances, which have been used, the one in the revolution, and the other, during the late war with Great Britain.

The piece of poetry, called the Battle of the Kegs, written by the late Francis Hopkinson, Esq. of Philadelphia, narrating the incendiary kegs, is founded on this contrivance.

For the purpose of destroying the shipping at Philadelphia, which was then in possession of the British, some forty or more kegs were fitted up at Burlington, N. J. or in its neighbourhood, containing a quantity of gunpowder. These kegs were connected in such a manner, that, while they formed one float, when one exploded, the whole would go off. This arrangement was also made with another, if our information is correct, which consisted in a trigger connected with a gun-lock, (one or more kegs having the same); so that, when the triggers went off, by the casks coming against any thing, in floating down the tide, the whole would explode at the same time. There is one of the original kegs in the magazine of Fort Mifflin. We apprehend, however, that the contrivance was more like that of clock-work, set to a given time, like the torpedo of Fulton; but of this we have no certain account. These kegs were towed down the river, within a mile or two of the city, and were seen about sunrise opposite to it. They did no execution; but, if they had been taken to a given spot, instead of being left to the direction of the running current, and then properly adjusted, no doubt the effect would have been as the contriver calculated. It excited, however, no small sensation at the time.

Of the other contrivance, we have the following account: A Mr. Scudder (History of the late War, &c. p. 187) formed a design of destroying the British ship Ramilies, of 74 guns, off New London. For this purpose, 10 kegs of powder were put into a strong cask, with a quantity of sulphur mixed into it. At the head of the cask were, fixed two gun-locks, with cords fastened to the triggers, and to the under side of the barrels in the hatchway; so that it was impossible to hoist the barrels, without springing the locks each side of the powder. On the top were placed a quantity of turpentine and spirits of turpentine, which in all probability were sufficient to destroy any vessel that ever floated. These kegs were put on board the smack Eagle, which sailed from New York on the 15th of June, for New London; but which the crew abandoned, on being pursued by the boats of the enemy. It was expected, that the vessel would be brought alongside the Ramilies, and, by exploding, destroy that ship. The wind dying away, and the tide being against them, she could not, very fortunately for the enemy, be brought alongside. When the Eagle exploded, there were four boats alongside, and a great many men on board of her. After the explosion, there was not a vestige of the boats to be seen. A body of fire rose to a vast height, and then burst like a rocket. Every man, near or about her, was probably lost, as the boats sent from the Ramilies were seen to return without picking up anything.

In relation to similar enterprizes, what could have been a more daring and hazardous enterprize, than that of lieutenants Wadsworth, Summers, &c. who, by a previous agreement, determined, if they were likely to be captured by the Turks, to blow themselves up in the fire-ship, which they had prepared to destroy the enemy's shipping, in the harbour of Tripoli? Their fate is too well known, lamentable as it is!

The marquis of Worcester, in his Century of Inventions, inventions nine and ten, speaks of certain contrivances for the destruction of vessels, which seem to have been of the kind mentioned: viz. "An engine, portable in one's pocket, which may be carried and fastened on the inside of the greatest ship, tanquam aliud agens; and, at an appointed minute, though a week after, either of a day or night, it shall irrecoverably sink that ship;" and "a way from a mile off, to drive and fasten a like engine to any ship, so as it may punctually work the same effect, either for time or execution."

Sec. XXIII. Of Sea Lights.

The fanaux de mer, or sea lights, are so called, from the particular application of this fire.

It is sometimes required at sea to throw light upon the water, and around the vessel, in order to perceive the approach of an enemy. This is effected by the composition for sea lights.

A tube must be formed of not less than three inches in diameter, and eleven inches in length. A shield is then adapted, of four times the exterior diameter of the tube or case, which shield is to be made of wood, and attached at about the distance of one-fourth of the length of the tube, and near the end of the orifice.

The case or tube is then charged with the following composition:

Composition for Sea Lights.

Saltpetre,	16	parts.
Sulphur,	8	——
Meal-powder,	3	——
Antimony,	3	——

The tube, which may be made of iron, pasteboard, or wood, by boring it out, after being charged, is primed in the usual manner, inserting in the end, at the same time, a piece of quick-match. When dried, it is wrapped in paper for better preservation.

Sec. XXIV. Of Signal and War-Rockets.

Rockets, we have said, are cylindrical cases, formed generally of pasteboard, and filled with a peculiar composition, made of meal-powder, saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal; or without powder, and sometimes with the addition of pulverized cast iron. In some, as the Congreve rocket, iron cases are substituted for those of paper. The outer diameter is usually from one and a half to two inches, the length of the charge five diameters, and the interior diameter two-thirds as much as the exterior. The tools necessary are, a rod or former of wood, to mould the case upon; an artificer's tool to roll the paper close; a conical spit or piercer, by means of which the rocket when loaded has a hollow through the middle, which piercer should be four and two-thirds times as long as the outer diameter of the rocket, one-third of this diameter at the base, and one-sixth at the small end; three rods for loading, having a conical aperture to receive the piercer, and one massive; and a ladle or measure, whose diameter is equal to that of the inside of the rocket, and its length three times as much. The construction of the cartouch case, or paper cylinder, consists in using pasteboard of three or more thicknesses, which is rolled on the former, until the case becomes sufficiently thick. The choaking of the cylinder is performed by means of a cord, of three lines in diameter, one end of which is firmly fixed into a wall, and the other tied to a stick, against which the artificer who bestrides the cord rests. The rocket is loaded or charged, by introducing at a time, a ladle full of composition, first fixing the case over the piercer, and using the appropriate rammer and mallet, in the manner stated, &c.[35]

Signal rockets are sometimes trimmed with serpents, stars, and petards. The serpents are made of cases in the manner already mentioned; viz. by rolling playing cards in the direction of their length, upon a former, three lines in diameter, and covered with three coats of paper, the last of which is pasted. The cases are choaked at one end, and in the niche is placed a strand of tow, and a priming of meal-powder, moistened with brandy. They are loaded, by means of a rod, three-fourths full of the composition, and again choaked at half their height. The remainder is filled up with powder, to make a report. If a serpent with stars is to be made, only half the case is filled with the serpent-composition, and the rest with that for stars. Serpents are placed upright in the pot, the priming down.

Composition for Serpents, for trimming Signal Rockets.

Meal-powder,	16	parts.
Saltpetre,	3	——
Sulphur,	2	——
Charcoal,	½	——

The star composition is the same as before given.[36] It is mixed and made into balls or cubes, in the same manner. The petards or crackers are small cubes of paper, filled with grained gunpowder. They are wrapped with two layers of good thread, which is drawn tight in every direction. They are dipped in tar to give them more consistence, and pierced and primed with quick match. We have already given the theory of the flight of rockets in the first part of this work; and also the opinions of Mariotte and Dr. Desaguliers. On this head, therefore, further observation seems unnecessary We have said, however, that it is necessary, for giving the rocket a sufficient degree of motion, that the powder within the rocket be bored with a tapering cavity from the choke, and at the choke this cavity must be as wide as the choke itself, and at the further end, not more than half that width. The length of this bore must be but one inner diameter of the rocket, short of the whole height to which the rocket is rammed. The use of this bore, it is to be observed, is to increase the surface, that takes fire at once; that a greater body of fire may issue out of the mouth of the rocket. From the vehemence with which the fire issues out, the rocket receives its motion. We have seen, that rockets are used in all fire-works that have motion; for cases charged give motion to wheels of various kinds, and act on the same principle. Such works as are thrown into the air after the manner of bombs, are, however, an exception.

The rocket-stick is a necessary appendage. When very heavy, to prevent mischief by their fall, they now bore the sticks, and fill them with powder, that they may shiver in the air before they fall.

That the stick keeps the rocket perpendicular is obvious. If the rocket should begin to tumble, moving round a point in the choke, as being the common centre of gravity of rocket and stick, there would be so much friction against the air, by the stick between the centre and the point, and the point would beat against the air with so much velocity, that the reaction of the medium would restore it to its perpendicularity. When the composition is burnt out, and the impulse upwards has ceased, the common centre of gravity is brought lower towards the middle of the stick. Hence the velocity of the point of the stick is decreased, and that of the point of the rocket increased; so that the whole will tumble down, with the rocket end foremost. During the combustion of the rocket, the common centre of gravity is shifting and getting downwards, and faster and lower as the stick is lighter.

In the Philosophical Transactions, (vol. xlvi, p. 578) and Robins's Mathematical Tracts, (vol. i, p. 317, &c.) are sundry experiments, and observations concerning the flight of rockets; and as these experiments appertain more to military purposes, the following extracts may, on that account, be useful.

Mr. Robins, considering the great use that may be made of rockets, in determining the position of distant places, and in giving signals for naval and military purposes, procured some, with a view of ascertaining the height to which they rise, and the distance at which they may be seen. The greatest part of them did not rise to above four hundred yards; one to about five hundred; and one to six hundred yards nearly. The greatest distance at which these were observed, was from thirty-five to thirty-eight miles. Others were fired at a different time, one of which rose to six hundred and ninety yards; and it was observed, that the largest, which were about two and a half inches in diameter, rose the highest. In some subsequent experiments, conducted by Mr. Da Costa, Mr. Banks, &c. it was found, that, of two rockets, of about three and a half inches in diameter, one rose to about eight hundred and thirty-three, and the other to 915 yards. In another trial, a rocket of four inches in diameter rose to one thousand one hundred and ninety yards. In other experiments, a rocket of one and a half inches rose to seven hundred and forty-three yards; one of two inches to six hundred and fifty nine; one of two and a half inches to eight hundred and eighty; another of the same size to one thousand and seventy-one; one of three inches to one thousand two hundred and fifty-four; one of three and a half inches to one thousand one hundred and nine; and one of four inches rose to seven hundred yards, and, turning, fell to the ground before it went out. Besides these, there was one of the rockets of "twenty-four inches in diameter,"[37] which rose to seven hundred and eighty four yards, and another of the same size, to eight hundred and thirty-three yards. From these experiments, it is inferred, that rockets from two and a half to three and a half inches in diameter, are sufficient to answer all the purposes for which they are intended; and they may be made to rise to a height, and to afford a light capable of being seen to considerably greater distances than those just mentioned.

Before we mention the war-rockets of Congreve, it may not be improper to speak of the Indian rockets, which are used by the native troops of India, and which were employed against the British, with great effect, during the seige of Seringapatam in 1799. These rockets are made of iron, and are lashed to a bamboo cane. The weight is seldom more than two pounds, or less than one. The fougette, or Indian rocket, resembles in shape a sky-rocket, whose flight is gradually brought to run along a horizontal direction. By throwing several fougettes into parks of artillery, and upon caissons, &c. considerable damage might be occasioned from the fire, which would inevitably be communicated to some part. A fougette forces itself immediately forward, cuts as it penetrates, by the formation of its sides, which are filled with small spikes, becomes combustible, and on fire at all its points, and possesses within itself a thousand different means, by which it can adhere to whatever object it is destined to set on fire or destroy. A French writer even asserts, that this weapon would be more effectual, because it might be more variously applied, to defend the mouth of a harbour against an enemy's shipping, than red-hot balls can ever prove; and we are also told, that, by means of their natural velocity, they would do more execution, in a less space of time, than the most active piece of ordnance could effect; and they would also require fewer hands, as the only necessary operation would be to light and dart them forward.

The fougette, called also in French the Baguette À feu, has received improvements in France, which we will notice hereafter. In favour of these improvements and their application, we are told, that, to do execution at a distance, especially in sea-fights, fougettes may be so made as that they may reach shipping at a great distance, and with a given velocity.The Congreve rocket is a new species of war-rocket, invented by Sir William Congreve. This incendiary rocket drew the attention of the European nations, after the attack of the British on Copenhagen; where, we are informed, they did incredible execution. This rocket may be considered to be a carrier of fire. Their effect, however, in the Chesapeake, and elsewhere, during the late war, was very trifling. They seemed, in fact, little calculated to injure and more to intimidate.[38] They differ from the common rocket as well in their magnitude and construction, as in the powerful nature of their composition; which is such, that without the encumbrance of any ordnance, (the rocket containing the propelling power wholly within itself), balls, shells, case-shot and carcasses, may be projected to the distance of one thousand to three thousand yards. The principle of projectile force is so greatly increased, as not only to triple the flight of small rockets so formed, but also to allow of the construction of rockets of such dimensions, as, on the ordinary principles of combination, would not even rise from the ground, and of such powers of flight and burthen, as have hitherto been considered altogether impracticable.

On the basis of this increase of power, Congreve has succeeded in making this rocket. They are formed of various dimensions, as well in length as in caliber, and are differently armed, according as they are intended for the field, or for bombardment and conflagration; carrying in the first instance either shells or case shot, and in the second, for the purpose of destroying shipping, buildings, stores, &c. a peculiar species of composition, which never fails of destroying every combustible material with which it comes in contact. The latter are called carcass-rockets, and were first used at Boulogne in 1805, after many experiments, which were made by Congreve, at Woolwich. The attack in 1806 was merely desultory, in which not more than 200 rockets were fired. The town was set on fire by the first discharge, and continued burning for near two days. After the affair at Copenhagen, which established their reputation, it appears that a committee of officers, who had witnessed their effect in that bombardment, pronounced them to be "a powerful auxiliary to the present system of artillery."

At the seige of Flushing, they appear to have been used with success, and general Monnet, the French commandant, made a formal remonstrance to lord Chatham respecting the use of them in that bombardment. The rocket system was also tried with success, and the crown prince of Sweden was the first general, who bore testimony to their effects in this service. At the memorable battle of Leipzig, they proved, we are informed, a powerful weapon, and also, when the British army under Wellington, crossed the Adour. In 1814, a rocket-corps was established in the British service.

General de Grave transmitted, to the Society of Encouragement of Paris, a Congreve rocket, or an English incendiary rocket, which was found on the French coast. M. Gay-Lussac examined it. The case was made with gray paper, and painted. The inflammable matter was of a yellowish-gray, and the sulphur was distinguishable with the naked eye. It burnt with a quick flame, and exhaled sulphurous acid gas.

According to his analysis, (Archives des DÉcouvertes, ii, 303), the composition gave

Nitrate of potassa,	75.	00
Charcoal,	1.	6
Sulphur,	23.	4
	——	—
	100
	——	—

Gay-Lussac, after determining the proportions of the constituent parts, made a composition of a similar kind, and charged a case, which exhibited the same properties as the English rocket.

The great general point of excellence of the rocket system, if we may judge from the account of English writers, is the facility with which all the natures of this weapon may be conveyed and applied. Its peculiar applicability to naval bombardment is said to rest on this property, that there is no reaction, no recoil in the firing of the largest rocket; so that by this means carcasses, equal to those projected by the largest mortars, may be thrown from the smallest boats. Its peculiar fitness for land service is, that it is a description of extremely powerful ammunition without ordnance, so that the burthen of mortars and guns is dispensed with, and all that is to be carried is actual available missile matter, capable of range, and of many of the most important effects of the heaviest artillery. The rocket system, as a system of ammunition without ordnance, is highly extolled by British writers.

We will now speak of their construction. All rockets designed for service are cylindrical, having strong metallic cases, and armed, as we before observed, either with carcass composition for bombardment and conflagration, or with shells and case shot for field service. They are, however, of various weights and dimensions, from the eight-inch carcass or explosion rocket, weighing nearly three hundred weight, to the six pound shell rocket, which is the smallest size, used in the field. The sticks, which are employed for regulating their flight, are also of different lengths, according to the size and service of the rocket; and which, for the convenience of carriage, are stowed apart from the rocket, and so contrived as to consist of two or more parts, which are connected to it, and to each other, when requisite, with the utmost expedition. The 32 pounder rocket carcass, which is the nature hitherto chiefly used for bombardment, will range 3000 yards with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in the 10 inch spherical carcass, and 2500 yards with the same quantity as that of the 13 inch spherical carcass. The 12 pounder rocket case shot, which is so portable that it may be used with the facility of musketry, has a range nearly double that of field artillery, carrying as many bullets as the 6 pounder spherical case. We may remark here, that the projectile force of the rocket is well calculated for the conveyance of case shot to great distances; because, as it proceeds, its velocity is accelerated instead of being retarded, as happens with any other projectile; while the average velocity of the shell is greater than that of the rocket only in the ratio of 9 to 8. Independent of this, the case shot conveyed by the rocket admits of any desired increase of velocity in its range by the bursting of powder, which cannot be obtained in any other description of case.

Rocket ammunition is divided into three classes, heavy, medium, and light; the former including all those above 42 lbs., which are denominated according to their caliber, as eight-inch, seven-inch, &c. rockets; the medium including all those from 42 lbs. to 24 lbs.; and the light embracing from 18 pounder to 6 pounder inclusive.

The carcass-rockets are armed with strong iron conical heads, containing a composition as hard and solid as iron itself, and which, when once inflamed, cannot be extinguished. A 32 pounder carcass rocket will penetrate 9 feet in common ground. They have been known to pierce through several floors, and through the sides of houses. For field service, the 24, 18, 12, and 6 pounders are commonly used. The ranges of the eight-inch, seven-inch, and six-inch rockets, are from 2000 to 2500 yards, and the quantity of combustible matter, or bursting powder, from 25 lbs. to 50 lbs. These sized rockets are equally efficient for the destruction of bomb proofs, or the demolition of strong buildings. The largest rocket that has yet been constructed has not exceeded 300 weight. It is proposed, however, to make them from half a ton to a ton in weight.

The 42 and 32 pounders, which are used in bombardment, will convey from 7 lbs. to 10 lbs. of combustible matter each, and have a range of upwards of 3000 yards. The 24 pounder is equal to the propelling of the coehorn shell, or 12 pounder shot. It is, from the saving in weight, generally preferred to the 32 pounder. The eighteen-pounder, which is the first of the light nature of rockets, is armed with a nine pound shot or shell; the twelve-pounder, with a six do.; the nine-pounder, with a grenade; and the six-pounder, with a 3 lb. shot or shell.

The following table presents a general view of the ranges, elevations, and other particulars of several of the most useful descriptions of Congreve rockets.

Nature of ammunition.	Armed with				Extreme range.	Elevation for extreme range.
	Carcasses,				yards.
42 Pounder carcass rockets.	large,18lbs.ofcombustiblematter;			}		not less
	small, 12 lbs. do.			}	3,500	than 60°
42 Pounder shell rockets.	Shells, 5½, 12 pr. spherical.			}
32 Pounder carcass rockets.	large, 18 lbs. of combustiblematter;				2,000	60°
	medium 12 lbs. = 13 inch carcass;				2,500	60°to55°
	small, 8 lbs. = 10 inch carcass.				3,000	55°
32 Pounder shell rockets.	shells, 9 pr. spherical.				3,000	50°
32 Pounder case shot rockets.	Case	{	large, 200 carbine balls.		2,500	55°
	shot,	{	small, 100 do.		3,000	50°
32 Pounder explo­sion rockets.	Strongironcontaining				from
	from 5 lbs. to 12 lbs. of powder, to burst by fusÉes.				2500 8000	55°
12 Pounder case shot rockets.	Case	{	large, 72 carbine balls.		2,000	45°
	shot,	{	small, 48 carbine balls.		2,500	45°

From the preceding table, it will be seen, that the 32 pounder carcass rocket will range 3000 yards, with the same quantity of combustible matter as that contained in a ten-inch spherical case, and 2500 yards, with the same quantity as that of the thirteen-inch spherical carcass. The twelve pounder case-shot rocket, which is so portable that it may be used with the facility of musquetry, has a range nearly double that of field artillery, carrying as many bullets as the six pounder spherical case: add to which, that, from the nature of the combination of the rocket, these bullets are projected from it in any part of its track, with an increase of velocity, by which its operation becomes frequently more destructive at that point, where any different species of ammunition ceases to be effective. Of this description of rocket-case-shot, one hundred soldiers will carry into action, in any situation where musquetry can act, 300 rounds, and 10 frames for discharging them; from each of which, four rounds may be fired in a minute. Of the same description of case-shot, four horses will carry 72 rounds, and four frames; from which may be fired 16 rounds in a minute. The rockets used by cavalry are twelve pounders, armed with a 6 pounder shell or case shot; each horse carrying four of these rockets. To detail the arrangement of the rocket corps, the weight of ammunition carried by the troop horse, and other particulars, would require more space than we can conveniently appropriate to these subjects.

We may remark, however, that the heavier species of rockets, as the 32 pounder or 24 pounder, as also the 18 and 12 pounders, are sometimes carried in cars of a peculiar description; which not only convey the ammunition, but are contrived also to discharge each two rockets in a volley, from a double iron-plate trough. This trough is of the same length as the boxes for the sticks, and travels between them; but being moveable, may, when the car is unlimbered, be shifted into its fighting position, at any angle from the ground ranges, or point blank, up to 45°, without being detached from the carriage. The limbers are always in the rear. The rockets are fired with a port-fire and long stick.

When used by infantry, one man in ten, carries a frame of a very simple construction, standing on three legs like a theodolite, when spread. It is mounted at top with an open cradle, from which the rockets are discharged, either for ground ranges, or at any required elevation.

When they are used for bombardment, they are discharged from frames of a different, though simple, construction; and, in many cases, the frames are dispensed with, as they are thrown from a battery, erected for the purpose.

For the defence of a pass, or for covering the retreat of an army, the rockets are laid in batteries of 100 or 500 in a row, according to the extent of the ground to be protected. One man may fire the whole.

With regard to their use in the naval service, some additional remarks may be interesting.

We observed, that, in consequence of there being no reaction in these projectiles on the point of discharge, rockets may be used in the smallest boats of the navy. These rockets carry a quantity of combustible matter, and, according to the ordinary system, would require to be thrown from the largest mortars, and from ships of very heavy tonnage. The 12 and 18 pounder have been fired from a four-oared gig. They may be made to ricochet in the water at low angles. In boarding, they have been recommended, to be thrown into the port holes of the enemy. They have also been recommended for fire-ships, in order to produce an extensive and devastating fire among the ships of the enemy.

Besides the advantages, which rockets possess, and of which we have spoken; namely, that it is a species of projectile, containing within itself the propelling power, by which heavy ordnance is dispensed with, and that an extensive fire may be kept up, by a few men, against any important point; there is another advantage said to be peculiar to them; viz. that they may be employed in a variety of cases, in which the usual artillery, from the nature of the ground, or other impediments, cannot be rendered effective; and that, in several bombardments, in consequence of their trifling reaction, they may be thrown from cutters and small boats, and, therefore, from points, which could never be approached by the vessels, usually employed in that service. With respect to the expense of the formation of war-rockets, calculations have been made, by which it appears, that their cost is less than the usual expense of carcasses.

We are informed on this head, that it is the cheapest of all ammunition, depending on the projectile force of gunpowder. For a 32 pounder carcass rocket costs only 1l. 1s. 11d. complete for service, and its equivalent, the 10 inch spherical carcass, with the charge of powder necessary to convey it 3000 yards, which power is contained in the rocket, costs 1l. 2s. 7d., independent of any charge for the mortar, mortar bed, platform, difference of transport, &c. A vessel of 300 tons will carry 5000 of them at least. But the comparison, as to the expense, is still more in favour of the rocket, when compared with the larger nature of carcasses. The 15 inch spherical carcass costs 1l. 17s. 11¹/₂d. to throw 2500 yards; while its equivalent rocket costs but 1l. 5s. being a saving on the first cost, of 12s. 11¹/₂d.

Notwithstanding all the encomiums, bestowed on the Congreve rockets by the English, the French entertain a different opinion of them. For the following remarks, we are indebted to Ruggeri, (Pyrotechnie Militaire, p. 278), by which it appears, that Congreve was not the original inventor. He acknowledges, however, that they experienced the sad effects of them; and we do not offer this remark with any sort of prejudice, but as an acknowledgment, that the French experienced their "sad effects." Ruggeri says, that the Congreve rocket is nothing more than he described in his Elements of Pyrotechny five years before they were known to the English. It is, therefore, wrong, he adds, that we regard it as an English invention. It was invented, says he, by a naval officer at Bordeaux, and ought not, he further remarks, to be regarded as a useful weapon in war. The reason he gives is, that its utility must depend upon places and circumstances. If it is required, he adds, to attack a fleet, we must employ two or three hundred before making any impression; because we cannot direct a firing rocket, as a cannon or ball. This is certainly a great inconvenience. He makes the cost also much greater than the English calculation; namely, for a single one of them ten times more than for a red-hot shot. Ruggeri, however, is candid enough to say, that, notwithstanding he differs in opinion, he is far from opposing any trials or experiments, made with the view of improving or perfecting it; but is decidedly of opinion, that it can never be employed at sea with the same advantage as bombs and cannon-ball.

Ruggeri published, in the Journal of Paris, in September, 1809, a letter, in reply to a writer, who had published some reflections on incendiary rockets, from which, as it throws some light on this subject, we shall here introduce a few extracts:

"Although Monsieur, the cannonier of Ostend, may not have given the precise construction of the rocket, which we name the sky-rocket, and of which the English have made so criminal a use, I will commence at first by assuring you, that I coincide perfectly with him, in the preference he gives to howitzes, bombs, and other projectiles, which are used by civilized nations. He has very satisfactorily demonstrated their advantages over the Congreve rocket. I will only add, that bombs and howitzes have also the advantage of being one-fifth cheaper, and projected with greater facility.

"The Congreve rocket cannot be of any particular advantage, because it only carries fire to the place where it falls; and if we wish to use them against any vessel whatever, it is impossible to assure ourselves of a direction on a given point, as many difficulties occur in projecting them.

"The merit of the invention of these rockets does not belong to the English.

"This invention was made by a Frenchman, a captain of a privateer, who made the first attempt to use them about seventeen years since, (1795).

"The English have perfected, or rather have modified this rocket.

"It is sometime since I offered a kind of bomb, which may be used with more facility than the common kind. This bomb has the advantage over the Congreve rocket: 1st, Because it is less troublesome to use; 2dly, It may be made of any diameter or size, and consequently suited to all calibers; 3dly, The place and time of its fall is readily determined; and fourth, and lastly, It bursts into pieces, and attaches itself to all combustible bodies, with which it meets.

"It remains for me to say, that it is not the powder which moves the rocket, but a composition almost as strong. The powder, which is used in the Congreve rocket, is intended to destroy the machine after it has produced its destructive effects." See Pyrotechnie Militaire, p. 278.

The difference between incendiary rockets, and common signal rockets, is in the interior. Instead of the furniture, or garnishing pot and head, a conical head of sheet iron is substituted, in which several holes are made to suffer the composition it contains to burn more readily. The composition is the same as that for fire-rockets; but is coarsely pulverized, and mixed with an equal quantity of the composition of fire-lances. These rockets are employed with advantage to burn a city, or vessels in a harbour. The cone, with which they are capped, enables them to penetrate the roofs of houses, and set them on fire.

Sec. XXV. Sky-Rockets (MeurtriÈres.)

The sanguinary or murdering rocket is made in the same manner as the preceding. They have neither head nor pot; but, in their place, they are furnished with a cone of beaten or solid iron. This cone is the appendage, or weapon, which produces such destructive effects. These rockets, when they fall upon the troops of an enemy, wound them very dangerously, without their being able to prevent it. The advantage, more particularly derived, is, that they may be projected from under cover, and to double the distance of ordinary musketry. To make use of these rockets, a box is constructed, whose interior is so arranged as to receive the rockets in regular order. They should be placed in it with their sticks; and, therefore, the case must be made sufficiently large to admit them. By this contrivance, the rockets are sheltered from the fire and water. To discharge them, the box is first inclined on the side next to the heads of the rockets, and in the direction of the place, to which they are to be thrown. A communication is made by leaders, in the manner already mentioned in the preceding part of this work; so that, when the match is fired, or a single rocket, they all are discharged at the same time. The mode of firing rockets either singly or in numbers, the manner of preparing the cases, the different compositions, and the operation of filling, and of furnishing them, &c. are given in the preceding part.

Sec. XXVI. Of the Rocket Light-Ball.

Congreve also invented a species of light-ball, which, when thrown into the air by means of one of his rockets, and having reached the elevation of the rockets' ascent, is detached from it with an explosion, and remains suspended in the air by a small parachute, to which it is connected by a chain. Thus, in lieu of the transient momentary gleam, obtained by the common light ball, a permanent and brilliant light is obtained, and suspended in the air for five minutes at least, so as to afford time and light sufficient to observe the motions of an enemy, either on shore or at sea; where it is particularly useful in chasing, and for giving distant and more extensive night signals. It is to be observed, that nothing of this kind can be obtained by the projectile force of either guns or mortars; because the explosion infallibly destroys any construction, that could be made to produce the suspension in the air.

We have seen no account of any experiments, which have been made with it.

Sec. XXVII. Of the Floating Rocket Carcass.

Congreve also applied his rocket, and the parachute, for the purpose of conveying combustible matter to distances far beyond the range of any known projectile force, at the same time that it is cheap, simple, and portable. The floating carcass, like the light-ball, is thrown into the air, attached to a rocket, from which being liberated at its greatest altitude, and suspended to a small parachute, it is driven forward by the wind, and will, in a moderate breeze, afford ranges at least double those of the common carcass. It may, therefore, for naval purposes, be thrown from a blockading squadron, in great quantities, by a fair wind, against any fleet or arsenal, without the smallest risk, or without approaching within range of either guns or mortars. The rocket containing the carcass is no larger than the 32 pounder carcass rocket; and the whole expense, added to the rocket, does not exceed five shillings. Nor are the approaches of the carcass itself necessarily visible by night; as it may be so arranged, as not to inflame, till some time after it has settled. It is evidently, therefore, capable of becoming a harassing weapon, if the account of it be true; and, among large fleets and flotillas, it may do as much injury as any other carcass, by lodging unperceived in the rigging, or lighting on extensive arsenals, in such situations, where other means of annoyance could not be used.

Sec. XXVIII. Observations on Rockets.

The following remarks on the subject of rockets by M. Bigot, (TraitÉ d'Artifice de Guerre, p. 131,) may be interesting to the reader.

Authors, who have written on rockets, are of opinion, that the height of the different kinds of rockets should not be increased on account of their diameter; because, as the diameter increases, the rocket also increases in weight and surface; and if augmented in height in the same ratio, its power of ascension would be feeble. It is from this reasoning, together with practice, that they have determined the height of empty cases. Some have given the proportion of six times their exterior diameter, and others again have made them a third longer than the piercer. There has resulted from this difference of opinion, such an irregularity in the formation of rockets, that artificers or fire-workers were left in uncertainty as to the best mode to be pursued. To avoid, however, this embarrassment, if we consider the diameter of the base of the piercer of any kind of rocket as one-third of the exterior diameter of the case, the small end must be the one-sixth part of it; and the piercer and the cone are of the same diameter, and the surface of the one is equal to the surface of the other. We might conclude, accordingly, that the increase of the height of the case, should be the same with all kinds of rockets. It appears by different authors, that the ancient and modern fire-workers have fixed the dimensions of rockets and their piercers, by various experiments. If we take for granted all the heights of the piercers, or the rockets themselves, we obtain a curve of double or treble reflection, which is very evidently in opposition to the above principles, and of the law which results from them.

Experiments prove, that to make a good rocket of half an inch in diameter, the piercer must be five times and a third of the same diameter; and for a rocket of three inches, the piercer, or broach, as it is sometimes called, is only four times the diameter in height. To determine, however, the height of the piercer in general, greater than the preceding, it is found necessary to have some satisfactory result, in order to employ, mathematically speaking, less times of the exterior diameter of the rocket. The half-inch and three-inch rocket are the extremes of an increasing arithmetical progression; and their equivalents, 5¹/₃ and 4 diameters is the extreme of a similar, but decreasing progress; but if we insert the same number of arithmetical mean between the two extremes of each of these two progressions, and then continue them indifferently, the terms of the first will express the diameter of as many different cases; and those of the second, the height of the corresponding piercers. They will be, for instance, in the two following proportions:

÷	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14,	&c.	36.
÷	514/45	512/45	511/45	59/45	57/45	57/45	52/45	51/45	444/45	&c.	4.

The first of which has unity for its common difference. It has been found, that, by inserting in each, a mean of 29, the height of the piercers will correspond with the superior diameter, which is less, or regulated by their respective diameters. Besides, as the diameters go on augmenting, the rockets are proportionably increased in height, but only in an inverse order, until the 58th term included, and beyond which they decrease, until they become negative, which appears to indicate that the term appertains to the diameter of the rocket, and without any uncertainty.

It results from the intimate relation of these two progressions, that, in stopping at the 58th term, if we bring back on an axis as it were, the height of the piercers, we obtain a straight instead of a curved line.

Bigot has given two tables relative to the construction of rockets, and, as their use is seen by mere inspection, we here introduce them without remark.

They comprehend the dimensions of rockets of different calibers, compared with the exterior and respective diameter of each kind; and relative to the dimensions of the tools of sky-rockets of different calibers, and also compared with the exterior and respective diameter of each.

It will be seen, on an examination of these tables, that all the data are satisfactorily given; so that, in the construction of rockets, the artificer will find them extremely useful, if not absolutely necessary.

The principles on which these tables are founded, may be depended on, inasmuch as M. Bigot has taken considerable pains on that head; and, consequently, the calculations, which follow, and the proportions, established for the construction of rockets in general, are sufficiently conclusive.

Sec. XXIX. Of the Succouring Rocket.

The succouring, or marine rocket, is a name given to a rocket, which is sufficiently large to convey a small cord or rope to some distance from a vessel, and by its means to save the lives of persons in danger of shipwreck. Rockets for this purpose should be at least two inches in interior diameter. The rod should be of the same length and thickness as a rocket of half this caliber. To this rod is tied the cord, which must be light, and yet strong, and when the rocket is fired, the string should be arranged loose, so that no impediment is experienced in the flight of the rocket.

The applications of the succouring rocket are two in particular: viz. In case a seaman should fall overboard, and in case of shipwreck; in the former, to throw a cord to some distance, and in the latter, to convey a cord from the ship to the shore, should a vessel be stranded on a beach. Several methods have been proposed for the same purpose, namely, that of conveying a line or rope to shore, when the surf is too high for a small boat to live in it.

The invention of lieut. Bell, described in the Annales des Arts et Manufactures, and in the Archives des DÉcouvertes, ii, 120, is designed for a similar purpose as the succouring rocket. Mr. Bell's invention consists simply in throwing a rope from a vessel by means of a mortar, attaching it to a shell, in order to make a communication from a vessel in danger to the shore. For this contrivance, he received one hundred guineas.

Several experiments were made with it, which were satisfactory.

In the essays, published by Mr. Fulton, a contrivance of this kind is suggested, using, however, an instrument similar to a harpoon, to which a rope is attached. This harpoon is thrown by a long gun. It is calculated, also, as the harpoon for this purpose is furnished with several barbs, to pierce and secure an enemy's vessel.

Sec. XXX. Of the Greek Fire.

It is not known precisely what the composition of the Greek fire was. It was invented by Callinicus of Hellipolis, a town in Syria, who used it with so much skill and effect during a naval engagement, that he destroyed a whole fleet belonging to the enemy, in which were embarked thirty thousand men. It is defined to be a sort of artificial fire, which insinuates itself beyond the surface of the sea, and which burns with increased violence, when it mixes with water. Its directions are contrary to the course of natural fire; for the flames, we are told, will spread themselves downwards, to the right or left, agreeably to the moment that is given.

It was used in the year 1679, and was known and used in 1291. It was certainly liquid, and employed in many different ways; but, chiefly, on board ships, being thrown from large engines on the ships of the enemy. This fire was sometimes kindled in particular vessels, which might be called fire-ships, and which were introduced among a hostile fleet. Sometimes it was put into jars and other vessels, which were thrown at the enemy by means of projectile machines; and sometimes it was squirted by soldiers from hand-engines, or, as it appears, blown through pipes. This fire was discharged from the fore part of ships, by a machine constructed of copper and iron, the extremity of which resembled the open mouth and jaws of a lion or other animal. They were painted, and even gilded, and, it appears, were capable of projecting the fire to a great distance.

Professor Beckman, who examined all the ancient authors respecting the Greek fire, expressly says, that the machines which the ancients employed to throw this fire were spouting engines. He also observes (History of Invent. iv, p. 85) that "John Cameniata, speaking of his native city, Thessalonica, which was taken by the Saracens in the year 901, says, that the enemy threw fire into the wooden works of the besieged, which was blown into them by means of tubes, and thrown from other vessels. This passage, which I do not find quoted in any of the works that treat on the Greek fire, proves, that the Greeks, in the beginning of the tenth century, were no longer the only people acquainted with the art of preparing this fire, the precurser of our gunpowder. The Emperor Leo, who about the same period wrote his art of war, recommends such engines, with a metal covering, to be constructed in the fore part of ships; and he twice afterwards mentions engines for throwing out Greek fire. In the east, one may easily have conceived the idea of loading some kind of pump with the Greek fire; as the use of a forcing pump for extinguishing fires was long known there before the invention of Callinicus."

Writers differ considerably as to the composition of Greek fire, properly so called, as there were many preparations, some hundred years after the discovery, which went under the name of Greek fire. Certain it is, that the Greeks had a knowledge of a very highly combustible preparation, which water would not extinguish, and which, from its nature, must have had the property of decomposing water itself, or possessed so much oxygen, as to support the combustion of the inflammable substances, even in contact with water.

Mr. Parke, (Chem. Catechism, p. 465), speaking of some of the uses of nitre or saltpetre, says, that "for the same purposes it was used by the ancients in that destructive composition of antiquity, the Greek fire. Sulphur, rosin, camphor, and other combustibles, were melted with it, and in this melted mass, woollen cords were dipped, which were afterwards rolled up for use. These balls being set on fire were thrown into the tents, &c. of the enemy, and as the combustibles were furnished with a constant supply of oxygen from the nitre, nothing could extinguish them." He also observes: "For many centuries, the method of making this dreadful article of destruction was lost; but it has just been discovered by the librarian of the elector of Bavaria, who has found a very old latin manuscript, which contains directions for preparing it."

It appears, however, that it could only be extinguished by urine, sand, &c. James (Mil. Dic. p. 329) says, "it is composed, or made up of naphtha, sulphur, bitumen, gum, and pitch, and it can only be extinguished by vinegar, mixed with urine and sand, or with undressed leather and green hides."

The author of a French work, Œuvres Militaires, says, that a powerful composition, which is not extinguishable with water, may be made of the following substances: viz. pitch, rosin, tallow, camphor, turpentine, saltpetre, liquid varnish, oil of sulphur, linseed, rock oil, flax, and charcoal finely pulverized. The whole is melted together and boiled, and before it grows cold, quicklime in powder is added. It is said to be susceptible of the most subtile and destructive fire.

Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, who was in Palestine in 1432, as counsellor to the Duke of Burgundy, observes, that the Moors were then in possession of the Greek fire. He was present at Barrat, during one of the Moorish celebrations. "It began," says he, "in the evening at sun set. Numerous companies, scattered here and there, were singing and uttering loud cries. While this was passing, the cannon of the castle were fired, and the people of the town launched into the air, 'bien hault et bien loing, une maniÉre de feu plus gros fallot que je veisse oncques allume.' They told me, they made use of such at sea, to set fire to the sails of an enemy's vessel. It seems to me, that as it is a thing easy to be made, and at a little expense, it may be equally well employed to burn a camp or a thatched village, or in an engagement with cavalry, to frighten their horses.

"Curious to know its composition, I sent the servant of my host to the person who made this fire, and requested him to teach me this method. He returned for answer, that he dared not, for that he should run great danger, were it known; but as there is nothing a Moor will not do for money, I offered him a ducat, which quieted his fears, and he taught me all he knew, and even gave me the moulds in wood, with the other ingredients, which I have brought to France."

Although La Brocquiere may have brought the secret to Europe, yet it does not appear to have been used.

We may justly conclude, that the present gunpowder possesses superior advantages to the Greek fire, and some authors, as Ruggeri, are of opinion, that the account we have of it, that of its fire descending, and the like, are exaggerated.

Porta, (Magie Naturelle), in treating of this subject, observes, that the Greek fire was composed of the charcoal of willow, salt, burnt brandy, sulphur, pitch, frankincense, flax, and camphor, and that camphor alone has the effect of burning in water. He remarks also, that, when Constantinople was attacked, the emperor Leon burnt the vessels, or boats, to the number of 1800, by means of the Greek fire. The Journal des Savants, 1676, p. 148, speaks of the origin and use of the same fire.

In 1249, at the siege of Damietta, the French experienced the fatal effects of it. The Journal des Savants for 1666, mentions a machine, which, when applied against a vessel, communicates fire to it immediately, without injuring the person who uses it. In the French papers for 1797, M. Chevalier announced, that he had invented an inextinguishable incendiary fuse, which is thrown by fire arms, and calculated to set fire to the rigging of ships. In 1759, Dr. DuprÉ published in the French Journals, that he had invented a composition, which had the same properties and effects as the ancient Greek fire, and that he possessed the means of extinguishing it. An experiment was made at Versailles to the satisfaction of all, and the secret was purchased by Louis XV. The Rev. J. P. Coste, in 1794, laid before the French national convention, a new invention, for the purpose of war, consisting of a carcass composition, which nothing could extinguish, and which resembled in that respect the Greek fire.

Thevenot (Travels in the Levant), says, that in the 52d year of the Hegira, (Anno Domini 672), Constantinople was besieged in the reign of Constantine Prognates, by Yesid, the son of Moavia, the first caliph of the family of the Ammiades; when the Greek emperor found himself so pressed, that he was almost reduced to despair. But the famous engineer, Callinicus, invented a kind of wild fire, which would burn under water, and by this means destroyed the whole fleet.

Gibbon (History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vii, p. 282), speaks also of the Greek fire, and observes, that the deliverance of Constantinople may be chiefly ascribed to it. It appears, that Callinicus, the inventor, deserted from the service of the Caliph to that of the Emperor; and Gibbon is of opinion, that this discovery or improvement of the military art, was fortunately reserved for the distressful period, when the degenerate Romans of the east were incapable of contending with the warlike enthusiasm and youthful vigour of the Saracens. He is of opinion, that little or no credit can be given to the Byzantine accounts, as to the composition of this fire; although, from their obscure and fallacious hints, it should seem that the principal ingredient was naphtha, a liquid bitumen which springs from the earth.[39] This was mixed with sulphur, and with the pitch, extracted from the evergreen firs, according to the testimony of Anna Commena, (Alexid, l. xiii, p. 383), and Leo, in the xixth chapter of his Tactics, speaks of the new invention.

Gibbon describes its effects much as we have stated, viz. that the fire was strong and obstinate, and was quickened by water; that sand, urine, and vinegar were the only agents that could damp its fury; that it was used for the annoyance of the enemy, both by sea and land, in battles or in sieges, and was either poured from the rampart in large boilers, or lanched into red-hot balls of stone and iron, or darted in arrows and javelins, twisted round with flax and tow, which had deeply imbibed the inflammable oil; that, at other times, it was deposited in fire ships, or blown through long tubes of copper, fixed on a prow of a galley; that its composition was kept secret at Constantinople, pretending that the knowledge of it came from an angel to the first and greatest of the Constantines, with a sacred injunction not to divulge it under any pretext, &c. He also observes, that, after it was kept secret above four hundred years, and to the end of the 11th century, the method of preparing it was stolen by the Mahometans, who employed it against the crusaders. A knight, it appears, who despised the swords and lances of the Saracens, relates, with heartfelt sincerity, his own fears, at the sight and sound of the mischievous engine, that discharged a torrent of the Greek fire, the feu Gregeois, as it is styled by the more early of the French writers. "It came flying through the air," says Gibbon, quoting Joinville, (Histoire de St. Louis) "like a winged long tailed dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with a report of thunder and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of the night was dispelled by this deadly illumination. The use of the Greek, or as it might now be called, Saracen fire, was continued to the middle of the 14th century, when the scientific or casual compound of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, effected a new revolution in the art of war, and the history of mankind."

Ramsay, our learned historian, (Universal History, vol. ii, p. 150), gives the same account of the Greek fire. Morse, in his Universal Geography, page 588, observes, that naphtha forms springs in Persia, and, when scattered on the sea, it burns, and the flame is often wafted to a great distance.

For remarks respecting the naphtha of Persia, and the universal fire of the followers of Zoroaster, see the article on Naphtha. In naphtha districts, the quantity of inflammable air is so great, that it is used for fuel.

Since writing the above, we have examined Ruggeri, (Pyrotechnie Militaire, p. 289), and find nothing new. He states the composition of Greek fire, on the authority of others, to consist of naphtha, sulphur, bitumen, camphor, and petroleum; that it was invented by Callinicus, and employed against the Saracens as an incendiary; that Pliny, in his time, mentioned a combustible substance, which was thrown upon armed men, and burnt and destroyed them in the midst of the battle; that it was employed successfully by the successors of Constantine, and its composition was kept a state secret; that the Turks used it, or a composition of a similar nature, at the siege of Damieta, in 1249, forty-five years after the death of Roger Bacon; and, finally, that, when the composition and effects of gunpowder became known, the Greek fire, although it laid the foundation of the invention of gunpowder, was no longer in use, and the secret of the original preparation became lost. See Gunpowder.

Sec. XXXI. Of Mines and Mining.

A mine is a subterraneous passage, dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification, for the purpose of blowing it up by gunpowder; and mining is the art of accomplishing this effect.

The art of mining, having become one of the most essential parts of the attack and defence of places, should be well understood; and requires a perfect knowledge of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To this may be added, a knowledge of rocks, clays, soil, &c. and the effect of gunpowder.

Mines were made long before the invention of gunpowder. The ancients made galleries, or underground passages, much in the same manner as the moderns, from without, under the walls of places, which they cut off from the foundation, and supported with strong props. The intervals were filled with all manner of combustibles, which, being set on fire, burnt their props, and the wall, being no longer supported, fell, by which a breach was made.

The besieged also made underground passages, from the town, under the besiegers' machines, by which they battered the walls, to destroy them, proving that necessity has been the inventress of mines.

The first mines we read of, since the invention of gunpowder, were made in 1487, by the Genoese, at the attack of Serezanella, a town in Florence. These, however, failed, and they were neglected, till Peter Navarro, being then engineer to the Genoese, and afterwards to the Spaniards, in 1503, against the French, at the siege of the castle del Ovo, at Naples, made a mine under the wall, and blew it up; in consequence of which the castle was taken by storm. Valliers says, that the engineer was Francis George, an Italian.

The place where the powder is lodged, is called the chamber of the mine, or fourneau, and the passage leading to the powder, is called the gallery. The line of the least resistance, is the line drawn from the centre of the chamber, perpendicular to the surface of the ground; and the excavation, called the crater, is the pit or hole, made by springing the mine.

Counter-mines are those made by the besieged, whereas mines are generally made by the besiegers. Both mines and counter-mines, are made in the same manner, and for like purposes, viz. to blow up their enemies and their works.

Galleries, made within the fortification, before the place is attacked, and from which several branches are carried to different places, are generally 4 and 4¹/₂ feet wide, and 5 or 5¹/₂ feet high. The earth is supported from falling in, by arches and walls, as they are to remain for a considerable time. But when mines are made to be used in a short time, then the galleries are but 3 or 3¹/₂ feet wide, and 5 feet high, and the earth is supported by wooden frames, or props.

The gallery being carried on to the place, where the powder is to be lodged, the miners make the chambers. This is generally of a cubical form, large enough to hold the wooden box, which contains the powder necessary for the charge. The box is lined with straw and sand bags, to prevent the powder from contracting dampness.

The chamber is sunk rather lower than the gallery, if the soil permits; but where water is to be apprehended, it must be made higher than the gallery; otherwise the besieged will let in the water, and spoil the mine.

The fire is communicated to the mine by a pipe, or hose, made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about 1¹/₂ inches, called a saucisson, (for the filling of which, near half a pound of powder is allowed to every foot), extending from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, to the end of which is fixed a match, that the miner who sets fire to it, may have time to retire before it reaches the chamber.

To prevent the powder from contracting any dampness, the saucisson is laid in a small trough, called an auget, made of boards 3¹/₂ inches broad, joined together lengthwise, with straw in it, and round the saucisson, with a wooden cover nailed upon it.

The quantity of powder, required to charge mines, depends upon the nature of the soil. That which is more tenacious, will require the greatest force to separate its parts. The density may be learned, comparatively speaking, by determining the specific gravity of each kind of soil. The requisites in mining may be ascertained by four simple problems, which relate to the nature of the soil, the diameter of the excavation, the line of least resistance, and the charge.

Table of the quantity of Gunpowder, to raise a cubic fathom of different kinds of Soil.

	DENSITY.	TENACITY.
NATURE OF THE SOIL.	Weight of 1 cubic foot.	Quantity of powder to raise 1 cubic fathom.
1. Loose earth or sand.	95 lbs.	8 lbs.
2. Common light soil.	124	10
3. Loam or strong soil.	127	12¼
4. Potters' clay, or stiff soil.	135	13½
5. Clay, mixed with stones.	160	16
6. Masonry.	205	21½

The gallery and chamber being ready to be loaded, a strong box of wood is made of the size and figure of the chamber, being about one-third or one-fourth larger than is required for containing the necessary quantity of powder. Against the sides and bottom of the box is put some straw, and this straw is covered over with empty sand bags, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness. A hole is made in the side, next the gallery, near the bottom, for the saucisson to pass through, which is fixed to the middle of the bottom, by means of a wooden peg, to prevent its loosening from the powder, or to hinder the enemy (if he should reach the entrance) from being able to tear it out. This done, the powder is brought in sand bags, and thrown loosely in the box, and covered also with straw and sand bags. Upon this is put the cover of the box, pressed down very tight with strong props; and, to render them more secure, planks are also put above them, against the earth, and wedged in as fast as possible.

This done, the vacant spaces between the props are filled up with stones and dung, and rammed in the strongest manner. The least neglect in this work will considerably alter the effect of the mine. Then the auget, or small trough, is laid from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, with some straw at the bottom; and the saucisson laid in it, with straw over it. Lastly, it must be shut with a wooden cover, nailed upon it. Great care must be taken in stopping up the gallery, not to press too hard upon the auget, for fear of spoiling the saucisson, which may hinder the powder from taking fire, and prevent the mine from springing. The gallery is stopped up with stones, earth and dung, well rammed, six or seven feet further from the chamber than the length of the line of the least resistance.[40]

Before closing this article, short as it is, compared with a full view of the subject, which belongs exclusively to engineering, we shall notice, from Belidor, the globe of compression in mines. If we imagine a large globe of earth, homogeneous in all its parts, and a certain quantity of powder lodged in its centre, so as to produce a proper effect without bursting the globe; by setting fire to the powder, it is evident that the explosion will act all round, to overcome the obstacles which oppose its motion; and as the particles of the earth are porous, they will compress each other in proportion as the flame increases, and the capacity of the chamber increases likewise: but the particles of the earth next to the chamber will communicate a part of their motion to those next to them, and those to their neighbours; and this communication will thus continue in a decreasing proportion, till the whole force of explosion is entirely spent; and the particles of earth beyond this term will remain in the same state as they were at first. The particles of earth, that have been acted upon by the force of explosion, will compose a globe, which Mr. Belidor calls the globe of compression. He observed, that, when a mine exploded, and threw up the ground over it, its action was, at the same time, felt in a circular direction, throughout the surrounding ground, to a distance at least equal to the oblique line drawn from the centre of inflammation to the edge of the funnel.

Mines and counter-mines are now called offensive and defensive mines. The hole made by the explosion is called the entonnoir, crater, or funnel.

In the system of counter-mines, we have the magistral gallery, or gallery of the counterscarp, which is that extended below the covered way, from which branches are pushed to overthrow the works and batteries of the beseiger, that crown it; the enveloping gallery that communicates with the other passages, called the galleries of communication, and is nearly parallel with the first at the distance of from forty to sixty yards. Other galleries are pushed forward, leaving the enveloping gallery, projecting at least thirty yards, and having spaces between them of about fifty yards in width; so that the enemy's miner, whose work may be heard under ground about thirty yards, may not pass between any two of them without being discovered. These are called listening galleries. It may be observed, that, from these galleries, branches are carried forward to establish chambers under the works of the enemy. Those who wish to acquire information on this, and other subjects, connected with attack and defence, and on some branches of engineering, would do well to consult the French work of Bousmard.

There are likewise small mines called Fougasses, used in the defence of field works. They are seldom more than ten feet beneath the surface, and are placed at the expected points of attack, usually nine feet from the salient angles, and without the counterscarp. The chest of powder and the saucisson are placed as usual. Barrels or casks and even grenades are used.

Sec. XXXII. Of the Means of Increasing the Strength of Gunpowder for Mining.

We mentioned, in the article on gunpowder, that quicklime had the effect of increasing its strength. It has been suggested, to employ quicklime, for this purpose, when gunpowder is used in mining.

BottÉe and Riffault (TraitÉ de l'art de Fabriquer la Poudre À canon, p. 301) have given the result of some experiments on this subject, which we purpose to notice. These experiments, however, are not satisfactory on this head.

Dr. Baine, a physician of Foxano, in Tuscany, was the first who announced the fact, that quicklime would increase the explosive effect of gunpowder. The increase he states to be one-third. The proportions are, twenty-three grammes of quicklime, and one kilogramme of powder.[41] The quicklime is powdered, and mixed with the gunpowder.

Various experiments were made, with the eprouvette of Regnier, which did not establish the truth of Dr. Baine's assertion. The Tuscan hunters use gunpowder mixed with lime.

The experiments were made by M. L. Maitre and colonel Charbonel. They employed pure dry powder, dry powder mixed with quicklime, moist powder pure, and moist powder mixed with lime. The object of these experiments was to ascertain, if the presence of quicklime added to the force of powder; either as a fourth component part and acting chemically, or by absorbing the moisture which the powder contains.

The charge of each was three ounces.

The result of the experiments is thus given:

Powder, dry and pure,	738	feet	2	inches.
Powder, dry, and mixed with quicklime,	690	—	1	—
	——		——
Difference in favor of dry powder,	48		1
Powder, moist and pure,	714	feet	1	inch.
Powder, moist, and mixed with quicklime,	642	—	2	—
	——		——
Difference in favor of moist powder,	71		11

It has been asserted, that the force of gunpowder is increased by water, alcohol, and ether, in consequence of the great expansibility of these fluids; but, according to the experiments of BottÉe and Riffault, the range of the ball was much less when the three fluids were used successively, than when the dry and pure gunpowder alone was employed. We are informed by a gentleman, who saw the experiment made, that when gunpowder is mixed with an equal weight of fine saw dust, and fired, it will give the same range to a ball as the same weight of unmixed powder.

We find that col. Gibbs, (American Journal of Science, i. 87), in a letter to professor Silliman, mentions the use of lime in increasing the strength of gunpowder. He gives a certificate of the person, whom he employed in blowing rocks, in which he used quicklime along with powder, in the proportion of one part of the former to two of the latter. In the certificate, it is stated, that a charge of this mixture was found to be equally powerful, or to "answer equally well with a like quantity of gunpowder," having made upwards of fifty blasts in this manner, and, as he states, several hundred in the usual way. He remarks, however, that, when the powdered lime was mixed with the gunpowder the day before, the effect was diminished. The colonel attributes the effect to the desiccation of the powder by the lime; and, as gunpowder absorbs more or less water, the lime, in its caustic state, takes it from the powder. If the lime should remain too long, he is of opinion that it would probably attack the water of crystallization of the saltpetre, and, according to count Rumford's idea, destroy a great part of the powder. "The examination of this subject," says Gibbs, "led me to consider the increase of the power of gunpowder in various situations, and of its use in the field. It is well known, that, after a few discharges, a cannon becomes heated, and the range is much greater, as well as the recoil. The charge of powder is, therefore, reduced about one-quarter, to produce the original effect. As I have not heard or seen any explanation of this fact, I shall take this opportunity of mentioning, that it appears to arise from the same cause as the first explained, viz: the desiccation of the powder, &c."

M. Humboldt, (Bulletin de la SociÉtÉ Philomatique, floreal, an. 3) it appears, suggested an improvement in mining, not by increasing the force of gunpowder, but in the charging of it; to leave a space occupied only by air, a fact well known to those who are accustomed to this work, although not always adopted. He states the effect of powder on a shell; that, if it be filled, it breaks only into two or three pieces; but if only half filled, it is shattered into a great number, which he attributes to the presence of air in the shell.

Sec. XXXIII. Of Incendiary Bombs.

These are used in sieges, and on water. Ruggeri gives the preparation of these bombs as follows, observing to melt the substances in the order they are mentioned.

1. Three parts of sulphur;
2. One part of pitch;
3. Two parts of nitrate of potassa;
4. One part of mutton suet.

After melting these substances, and mixing them intimately, the mixture is removed from the fire, and two pounds of gunpowder are added, and thoroughly blended. It is again submitted to heat, and a sufficient quantity of quick match, to cover a good sized marron, is immersed. The marron is furnished with a fuse. The composition hardens on the match. The match is employed as before described. Water does not extinguish the fire, produced by the combustion of this composition. See Carcasses and Fire-Balls.

Sec. XXXIV. Of Murdering Marrons.

Marrons, which take this name, are those, whose effect is different from the incendiary bomb. The latter is calculated to set fire to houses, &c. while the former is designed to destroy the lives of persons.

To make a murdering marron, we prepare, in the usual manner, a cylindrical case, and fill it with gunpowder, and then wrap round it, a quantity of pack-thread. In winding on the thread, care must be taken to cross it in the manner mentioned in a former article. It is then finished by coating it with a mixture of glue and wax, or, in preference, pitch. This prevents the thread from unwrapping, and renders the case firm and less liable to break. A hole is then made in its side to the powder, in which we insert a piece of quick-match, to communicate fire to the contents of the case. A small fuse, similar to that of a bomb fuse, but shorter, and made of pasteboard, is also used; and, after it is fixed to the marron, musket balls, previously pierced with holes, are nailed round the marron, the nails passing through the balls into the case. After thus fixing as many balls as the surface of the case will admit, we cover them with a composition made of three parts of glue and one part of wax. When this coating is dry, a hemispherical case is adapted. This case is a small sack of paper, made round, and filled with gunpowder. It is placed at the bottom of the marron, and secured there with paper and glue. The match is conveyed to the orifice of the fuse of the marron; and, in short, a communication is so made from the one to the other, that, at a given time, the fire passes by means of the fuse to the marron, which then explodes, and throws the balls, with which it is furnished, in every direction.

Shells, made by uniting two hemispheres, containing powder, and furnished with balls and a fuse, are also a destructive weapon of the same character.

Sec. XXXV. Of Incendiary Rope.

We have mentioned, under the head of Tourteaux, or tarred links and fascines, the compositions made use of for these preparations. The composition for incendiary rope is as follows:

Sulphur	12	parts
Saltpetre	6	——
Rosin	2	——
Camphor	2	——
Meal-powder	4	——
Grained powder	2	——

The rosin, sulphur, camphor, and saltpetre are melted, and mixed thoroughly together, and the kettle, which contains them, is removed from the fire; the gunpowder is then added, and intimately blended.

The mixture is again heated, and the rope is then immersed in it, and suffered to remain until it has imbibed sufficiently. It is then taken out, and allowed to cool.

After this operation, we melt, in a separate kettle, the following substances:

Rosin	4	parts.
Pitch (or tar)	4	——
Mutton suet	2	——

When they are melted, and mixed, the rope previously prepared as above, is thrown into the mixture, and then removed and hung up.

After this second process, we make, in an earthen vessel, a priming mixture, in which the rope is sometimes immersed, or such parts of it, as are to take fire promptly. This priming paste is composed of,

Meal-powder	4	parts.
Saltpetre	4	——
Sulphur	2	——
Spirit of wine, (or brandy), a sufficient quantity.
Gum arabic	½	——

Incendiary rope is used more generally in the form of a ball, which is enclosed in a sack, and fired out of a common mortar. It was invented by an officer at Toulon. See Carcasses.

Sec. XXXVI. Of Balloons of Grenades, of Bombs, and of Flints or Stone.

Balloons of this kind are cases, or sacks, made sufficiently large, containing powder, and enclosing grenades, shells, and stones.

The balloon of grenades holds twelve charged grenades, containing different quantities of powder. They are finished like powder sacks, and corded with small cord, twine, or thread. The balloon of flints, river stones, or small pebbles, is made by enclosing these substances along with powder in a sack, as before stated. These balloons are employed for the defence of works, &c. See Powder Sacks.

The Ballon À Bombes, of the French, is the same. It is a bag, in which are placed beds of smaller bombs, that are charged and interlaid with gunpowder. The bag is put into another covering, that is pitched, with the neck closely tied up with pack thread, in which a fuse is fixed, as in ordinary bombs. The English say, that Colonel Shrapnel's invention of the spherical case shot, is of a superior kind. We purpose, therefore, to notice them in the following section.

Sec. XXXVII. Of Spherical Case-Shot.

Ordinary case shot is a tin case or cannister, filled with iron balls, so as to make up the weight of the shot. The balls are seldom less than 1¹/₄ oz, in weight. Little effect is to be expected from firing case shot beyond 300 yards, from the very great divergency of the balls. The following summary of the effects and advantages of this species of shot, which, as invented by Col. Shrapnel, is called the Shrapnel shell, will be sufficient for our purpose. It is extracted from a book lately published.

1st. The whole charge takes effect on the enemy at any distance. By the present mode of firing, the greatest part of the charge disperses as soon as it leaves the muzzle of the gun, and cannot be directed.

2nd. Grape, or case shot, may be fired with effect equally close and collected, to any distance within the range of the piece; and the artillery need not advance within musket shot of the enemy, to make use of this kind of fire with its full effect, and are not so subject to have their guns charged either by cavalry or infantry.

3d. It requires less precision and exactness, to point a piece of ordnance charged with spherical case shot than with round shot; because case shot is a wide and dispersed fire, and the difficulty in elevation consequently less.

4th. Its comparative destruction with that of round shot will be, generally, as the number of the shot within the shells to one; that is to say, a three pounder, twenty-two to one in its favour; a six pounder, fifty to one, &c.; in which calculation is not enumerated any effect from the splinters of the shell.

5th. Small balls cannot be projected to very considerable distances, unless enclosed in heavy spherical cases, which, from their form and weight, are not much influenced by the resistance of the air, or diverted from their direction.

6th. The explosion of the shell makes no change in the direction of the shot within; they consequently complete the shell's track, or curve, which has sometimes been observed to be 400 yards.

7th. From the unevenness of the ground, such as hillocks, banks, fallow fields, &c. all shot which graze, most commonly lodge: whereas, by using this shell, the whole charge will be carried over these irregularities, and reach the object with its full contents of balls.

Sec. XXXVIII. Of the Fire-Rain, according to Casimir Siemienowicz.

The composition, which produces fire-rain, which we purpose to notice in this place, is taken from the "Artis MagnÆ ArtilleriÆ" of Casimir Siemienowicz. He seems, however, to have taken it from a German author.

The fire rain is an incendiary fire-work, and calculated, like other incendiaries, for firing the houses of a besieged place or city, which are covered with shingles, laths, stubble, or reeds. Besides several other compositions, designated by artificers, that of fire-rain was so called from its supposed resemblance to a shower of rain.

To prepare this composition, the following method is used: We take 24 parts of sulphur, and melt in a copper, or iron pot, over live coals without flame, and then throw in 16 parts of saltpetre, and mix it with an iron spatula, to incorporate the whole. The pot is now removed from the fire, and when the composition is become rather cold, stir into it 8 parts of grained powder. The composition is then poured on a marble slab, or metallic plate, where it is allowed to cool. It is then broken into pieces of the size of a walnut, which, when used, is interspersed with quick match, covered with gunpowder, and put into shells or bombs.

These bombs are made in the same manner, as those, which are formed in fire-works for exhibition.

Wood, covered with this composition, will burn in the same manner as the shells. The globe of fire is also similar to those for exhibition. The mortar is elevated at an angle of 45°, in order that the globe may go to the greatest height, and the greatest range; for the fall of the inflamed matter, which is dispersed in all directions by the powder, is more or less vertical, and, in that state, lights upon houses, &c. This effect, that of setting fire to one or more houses, depends greatly on the accuracy of their discharge from the mortar.

The following compositions are also used for the same purpose, observing to follow the same manner of mixing the ingredients:

1.	Sulphur	3 parts.
	Saltpetre	1 ——
	Meal-powder	1 ——
	Iron filings	½ ——
	Green Vitriol	½ ——
2.	Sulphur	1 part.
	Saltpetre	1 ——
	Grained powder	1 ——
3.	Sulphur	1 part.
	Galbanum	4 ——
	Saltpetre	4 ——
	Grained powder	1 ——
4.	Sulphur	5 parts.
	Saltpetre	2 ——
	Rosin	1 ——
	Meal-powder	1 ——

These compositions may be used in the manner already described. Two wooden hemispheres, filled with the preparation and joined together, is the usual mode of forming a fire bomb. The bomb or globe is then covered with strong canvass, and finished by dipping it, or smearing it with melted pitch. Over this, two or three covers of canvass are sometimes sewed. When the bomb is dry, we put it in a case, in the same manner as directed for the murdering, and incendiary bombs. The case is charged with fine meal-powder, &c.

The modern improvements, which are many, supersede the rain-fire. Fire stone, for instance, is a more powerful preparation. The incendiaries made with this composition, and the ordinary carcass, are more effectual for this purpose. That the Greek fire was an active composition, and produced very destructive effects on towns and shipping, there can be no doubt; notwithstanding the invention of gunpowder has completely changed the art of war, and superseded, as we have shown in our articles on gunpowder and Greek fire, the use of the incendiary composition of the Greeks.

Sec. XXXIX. Of the Effect of Mirrors in inflaming Bodies at a Distance.

As this subject may be of some interest to the reader, at least in relation to an important fact, that of the concentration of the calorific rays of the sun, which has had the effect of burning bodies at some distance, we deem the following facts not irrelevant.

The effects of burning glasses, both by refraction and reflection, are noticed by Empedocles and Euclid, who composed a treatise on the ancient optics and catoptrics. It has been thought, that the Romans had a method of lighting their sacred fire by some such means. Aristophanes, in one of his comedies, introduces a person as making use of a globe, filled with water, to cancel a bond that was against him, by thus melting the wax of the seal. Plutarch, in his life of Numa, says, that the instruments used to kindle fires, were metallic dishes, which were placed opposite to the sun, and the combustible matter in the centre, by which, it is probable, he meant the focus, conceiving that to be at the centre of the mirror's concavity.

Father Kircher was the first, who thought of substituting, for a concave mirror, several plane mirrors, so disposed, that the sun's rays reflected at their surface might converge towards the same point. He employed five only of these mirrors, which he so arranged, that the concurrence of the rays should take place at a distance of more than one hundred feet, and he found the heat there to be scarcely supportable. "Now," says Kircher, "if five mirrors produce so considerable an effect, what would a hundred or a thousand do, arranged in the same manner? They would excite so violent a heat, that it would set fire to every thing, and reduce all to ashes."

Orpheus compares his jaspis to rock crystal, and says that it kindles fire, and that he knew how to use rock crystal as a burning glass. Diodorus calls some kinds of jasper transparent, and sky-coloured. The jaspis, described in the Revelation of St. John (chapter xxi, verse 11, 18, 19,) may have been the same stone.

It is not our intention, however, to notice the history of mirrors, from the time of Moses, (Exodus, chap. xxxviii, verse 8,) or of Job, (Job, chap. xxxvii, verse 18) through different periods of time, to the present day; as the reader may find an interesting account on this head in Beckman, (History of Inventions, vol. iii, p. 154); but to state in particular the celebrated experiment of Archimedes, which has indeed astonished men of science, who have lived since that period. There can be no doubt of the fact, if we reflect for a moment, that some modern experiments have justified the conclusion which has been drawn; and, therefore, that the solar rays may be concentrated to such a degree, as to inflame bodies at some distance off: and as the heat produced is much greater than that of our hottest furnaces, incredible as it may appear, there can be no question as to the effect, which may be produced by a system of mirrors.

By means of burning mirrors, Archimedes burnt the Roman ships, which were beseiging Syracuse, and reduced them to ashes.

Descartes, among others, discredited the story as fallacious; but Kircher made many experiments, with a view of establishing its credibility. He tried the effect of a number of plane mirrors, and with five mirrors of the same size, placed in a frame, he contrived to throw the rays reflected from them to the same spot, at the distance of more than one hundred feet; and, by this means, he produced such a degree of heat, as led him to conclude, that, by increasing their number, he could have set fire to inflammable substances at a greater distance. He likewise made a voyage to Syracuse, in company with his pupil, Schottus, in order to examine the place of the supposed transaction; and they were both of opinion, that the galleys of Marcellus could not have been more than thirty paces from Archimedes.[42]

Proclus is also said to have destroyed the navy of Vitalian, beseiging Byzantium, near Constantinople, by means of burning glasses.

Among the moderns, the most remarkable burning mirrors have been those of Magine; of Septala of Milan, which was nearly three and a half feet in diameter, and which burnt at the distance of fifteen or sixteen paces; of Vilette, and Tschirinhausen; the new complex one of M. Buffon; that of Trudaine, and that of Parker. Tschirinhausen's burning glass was between three and four feet in diameter, and its focus was rendered more powerful by a second one.

It may not be improper to notice the construction, as well as the effect of some of these mirrors. La Brocquire, a traveller of the 15th century, says, that, at Damascus, they made mirrors of steel that magnify objects, and one of them, when exposed to the sun, reflected the heat so strongly, as to set fire to a plank fifteen or sixteen feet distant.

M. Buffon constructed a machine consisting of a number of mirrors, by which he seems to have revived the secret of Archimedes, and to have vindicated the credit of history in this point. The experiment was first tried with twenty-four mirrors, which readily set on fire a combustible matter prepared of pitch and tow, laid on a deal board at a distance of sixty-six French feet. He then pursued the attempt, and put together a kind of polyhedron, consisting of one hundred and sixty-eight pieces of plane looking glass, each six inches square; and by means of this, some boards of beech wood were set on fire at a distance of one hundred and fifty feet, and a silver plate was melted at the distance of sixty feet. This machine, in the next stage of its improvement, contained 360 plane mirrors, each 8 inches long, and 6 broad, mounted on a frame 8 feet high, and 7 feet broad. With 12 of these mirrors, light combustible matters were kindled at a distance of 20 feet; with 45 of them, at the same distance, a large tin vessel was melted; and with 117, a thin piece of silver. When the whole machine was employed, all the metals were melted at the distance of twenty-five, and even of forty feet. Wood was kindled in a clear sky, at the distance of 210 feet. Mr. Buffon afterwards constructed a machine, which contained four hundred mirrors, each six inches square, with which he could melt lead and tin at the distance of 140 feet.

Mr. Parker, an eminent glass manufacturer, in Fleet street, London, constructed the most powerful burning mirror ever made. He erected an out building at the bottom of his garden for the purpose of carrying on his operations. He succeeded in forming a most powerful burning lens. Its diameter was three feet. Platinum, iron, steel, flint, &c. were melted in a few seconds, on being exposed to its immense focus. A diamond weighing thirty grains was reduced to six grains, in the space of thirty minutes. It opened and foliated like the leaves of a flower, and emitted whitish fumes, (carbonic acid gas;) when close again, it bore a polish, and retained its form. Garnets, clay, &c. soon melted.

Seven hundred guineas were subscribed to indemnify the inventor, it having cost him seven hundred pounds. It was purchased, however, and presented by lord Macartney to the Chinese government, and remains now at Pekin.

M. Payard, (Archives des DÉcouvertes, &c.) has invented a burning mirror, consisting of several plane mirrors so arranged as to concentrate the solar heat into a focus with great precision. The arrangement, it may be proper to state, is different from that heretofore used, and the effect is said to be very powerful.

A polygonal mirror, from a suggestion of the celebrated Buffon, was erected in the Botanic Garden at Paris, in 1747, and had also a very powerful effect. This mirror was composed of one hundred and sixty-eight plates of tinned or silvered glass, capable of moving in every direction and of being fixed at different degrees of inclination, so that there could be given to the whole, a form more or less concave, and the focus be thrown to different distances. This mirror set fire to wood at two hundred feet, and fused metals at forty-five feet.

As caloric, like light, follows the same laws with respect to its motion, and as the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, the radiation of heat, conducted after the manner of Pictet's experiment, has not only occasioned the combustion of gunpowder, but of other inflammable substances. But, for this purpose, the mirrors must be large and extremely bright. That heat radiates in all directions, and is reflected, and that the calorific rays may thereby be concentrated, are facts which are now universally admitted. The application of this principle, by using concave mirrors sufficiently large, has, we are informed, produced the explosion of gunpowder. They were placed about twelve feet apart. In the focus of one a live coal was put, which was constantly blown with a double bellows, and in the focus of the other some gunpowder. In all our experiments with the ordinary reflectors, we could never produce any thing like the heat necessary to inflame gunpowder. That the principle is substantiated by experiment is evident; for the rays of a heated body, or a substance which produces heat, as a lamp or candle, placed in the focus of a concave mirror, are reflected in parallel lines, and if another concave mirror be placed opposite to it at some distance, the calorific rays will be thus intercepted and reflected back in a focus. This focus, therefore, like the focus of a burning glass, is the concentration of all the parallel rays of heat.

Sec. XL. Of Incendiary and Poisoned Arrows.

The bow is a very ancient weapon of offence, made of steel, wood, horn, or other elastic substance, which, after being bent by means of a string fastened to its two ends, in returning to its natural state, throws out an arrow with great force. That the bow was a weapon of offence among the nations of antiquity, the inhabitants of Asia and Africa, and the Aborigines of this country, and that it was used in Europe, before the invention or use of fire-arms, are facts, of which we have abundant proof. Bows are much the same in all countries. It has generally two inflections or bendings, between which, in the place where the arrow is drawn, is a right line. The Grecian bow was adorned with gold or silver. The Scythian bow was distinguished from those of the Grecians and other nations, by its incurvation, which was so great, as to form a half moon, or semi-circle. The Persian bows were made of reed. The Indians used the same material, as well for their bows as their arrows. The Lycian bows were made of the cornel tree; and those of the Ethiopians, which surpassed all others in magnitude, were made of the palm tree. The Romans, although they did not admit bows in the infancy of their republic; yet they considered them as hostile weapons. They employed auxiliary archers in all their wars. The Amazonians, as well as the primitive Grecians, in drawing their bow, did not pull back their hand towards their right ear, according to the fashion of the ancient Persians, and of modern ages; but, placing their bow directly before them, returned their hand upon their right breast.

While noticing this subject, we may also observe, that Louis XI first abolished the use of bows in France, introducing, in their place, the halberd, pike, and broadsword. The long bow was much in use by the English archers, and many laws were passed encouraging its use. In the time of Henry VIII, the parliament complained of the disuse of long bows.

The bow is now laid aside altogether as a war weapon. The arrows, made use of, were armed with barbed iron, and, among the aborigines of this and other countries, with a stone, formed in a particular manner, many of which are picked up in this country. We have found them at West Point. The natives were in the habit of poisoning their arrows, by using a particular composition, not known; the effect of which, however, when the arrow penetrated into the flesh, is always destructive.

Roggewein, (Voyage for the Discovery of Southern Lands) speaking of Batavia, observes, that, at this place, there are some of the Macassars, so famous for their little poisoned arrows, which they blow through a trunk. This poison is the juice of a tree, that grows in Macassar, and in the Bougie islands. They dip the points of their arrows in this juice, and then let them dry. The wound they give is mortal.

The natives of Ceylon are very dexterous with the bow and arrow; so also are the Hottentots, according to Kolben, in his Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope. A Hottentot arrow consists of a small tapering stick or cane, of about a foot and a half in length, pointed with a small thin piece of iron bearded, and joined to the stick or cane by a barrel. Their bows are made of olive, or iron wood, and the strings, of the sinews and entrails of beasts. When they attack a lion, tiger, or leopard, which they do with wonderful resolution and dexterity, they employ slings (hassagayes) and arrows, which for that purpose are usually poisoned.

Ellis (Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage) speaks of the bows and arrows of the Eskimaux Indians, and the facility with which they use them, but not of poisoned arrows. Moore, (Travels into the interior of Africa) observes, that a native took him to his house, and showed him a great number of arrows, daubed over with a black mixture, said to be so venomous, that, if the arrow did but draw blood, it would be mortal, unless the person who made the mixture had a mind to cure it. For the man observed to him, that there were no poisonous herbs, whose effects might not be prevented by the application of other herbs.

Poisoned arrows, according to various historians, were used in the remotest periods of antiquity. The mode of treating wounds in the twelfth century, by using membrane like the present gold-beaters' skin, may be mentioned in relation to this circumstance. The Emperor, John Commenus, accidentally wounded himself in the hand with a poisoned arrow, while hunting, and applied a piece of skin to the wound. The emperor, however, died in consequence of the wound, after it had become inflamed under the pellicle; which, in large wounds, and when the skin is suffered to remain too long, is commonly the case, though the poison alone we are informed, would have been a sufficient cause of death. Other instances are also mentioned of death being occasioned by the poisoned arrow.

On the subject of poisoned arrows, the following outline is given on the authority of the author of the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, vol. 3, p. 50.

The juice of the Mancenilier, or the Lianes des Marais, called in Guyanne Curare, is employed by some savages. The Arabs use the juice of a milky shrub, which they name chark, and called by the Persians gulbut samour. Indian arrows are said to be poisoned with the venom of serpents. The islanders of Java rub their darts with the blood and venom of the lizard Gecko, which they kill by whipping it to death. The needles of the Macassars, they poison with the juice of a tree, which is said to belong to the ahouai of America. At Ceylon they extract the venomous matter from the Nerium, or laurel rose. The ancient Gauls are said by M. Paw to have poisoned their arms with the juice of the Caprisiguier. In some cantons of the Pyrenees and Alps, they express the juice of the roots of the Aconitum, (thora), which they put on weapons.

M. Charles Coquebert, in a memoir read to the Philomatic Society, in 1798, observes, that the ancient European inhabitants employed three plants to poison their arrows; namely, Veratrum album, Helleborus viridis, and Aconitum Lysocitonum.

There have been obtained from the Society Islands some poisoned arrows, and a pot of the composition, in which they are dipped. It has the appearance of a black fluid extract, and seems to be an infusion or decoction of some plants, probably mixed with other substances.

With respect to the poisons obtained from the animal kingdom, they are principally liquid juices. Fontana, in particular, has paid attention to this subject. The poison of the viper, which is contained in two small vesicles of the mouth, when the animal bites, is forced, through the fangs, into the wound. If the vesicles be extracted, or the liquor prevented from flowing into the wound, the bite is harmless. Sharp instruments, as arrows, when they penetrate the skin, being covered with the poison, will have the same effect. Fontana made a set of experiments on the dry poison of the viper, and a similar set on gum arabic, and obtained the same results! Small birds and quadrupeds die immediately, when they are bitten by a viper; but to a man, the bite is not always fatal. The experiments and observations of Francini, (Abridg. Phil. Trans. ii, 8,) Mead, (On Poisons, p. 35,) Tyson, (Phil. Trans. vol. xii,) Fontana, Redi, Russel, the late Dr. Ramsay, of Charleston, (Phil. Mag. xvii, 125,) and Dr. B. S. Barton, (Amer. Phil. Trans. vol. ii, p. 100,) furnish an abundance of facts on the venom of the viper, and some on the antidotes to the bite. Dr. F. G. Gren, late professor at Halle, in Saxony, (Principles of Modern Chemistry, ii, p. 47), observes, in speaking of the experiments of Fontana, as the poison of the viper exhibits all the characteristic properties of gum, whether the gum be merely the vehicle of a peculiar venomous substance, which, upon investigation, escapes the notice of the senses? or whether this action upon living bodies, so different from its usual nature, be imparted to the gum, merely by a change in the proportions of its radicals, so slight as to be unobservable in its chemical analysis?

Mr. Misson (Travels through Germany and Italy) observes, that, at the arsenal at Venice, he saw some pocket cross bows, and steel arrows, with which the late lord of Padua used to kill such as passed by, without their knowing from whence they received their wounds.

Arrows were sometimes employed by the Grecians, for conveying their Greek fire. It seems, according to Gibbon, (History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. vii, 284), that, among the different means of discharging it, that with the bow and arrow was one. For this purpose, flax or tow was dipped in the composition, and wrapped round the arrow, which was discharged the moment it was inflamed.

The Indians, and Africans in particular, have been very ingenious in poisoning several kinds of warlike instruments. The blades of swords, the barbs of arrows, balls, &c. they have prepared in such a way, as to be extremely poisonous.[43] See Poisoned Ball.

With respect to incendiary arrows, it will be sufficient to remark, that the barb, for this purpose, was furnished with a composition, which, when inflamed, was projected by the bow to the spot designed to be set on fire. They were not much employed, and at the present day, are entirely out of use. Tow, for instance, previously prepared with pitch, meal-powder, and turpentine, or a composition equally combustible, when wrapped round the head of an arrow, and thrown at the moment of its inflammation, would, in many cases, set fire to buildings. But, as the present system of employing incendiary fire-works, presents advantages decidedly in its favour, it is hardly probable, that the bow and arrow will ever be employed by civilized nations for that purpose. The ancient catapulta was particularly calculated for throwing incendiary compositions.

The catapulta was an engine, contrived for throwing arrows, darts, and stones, upon the enemy. Their power was so great, that they would project a stone of a hundred weight with an almost incredible force. Josephus, in noticing this machine, says, that the stones thrown out of it, beat down the battlements, knocked off the angles of the towers, and had a force sufficient to level a deep file of soldiers.

Sec. XLI. Of Pyrotechnical Sponge.

This name is applied to the German black match, or tinder, used chiefly to receive the file from flint and steel. We have, on a former occasion, noticed the preparation of the substance called spunk; namely, by immersing the fungus in a solution of saltpetre, and then drying it.

There are various species of agaric. The mushroom is a genus belonging to the order Fungi, and the boletus igniarius, spunk, or touch-wood, called also female agaric, is employed, not only as a match, but as a styptic. The fungous excrescences, which grow upon old oaks, ash trees, firs, &c. are all used for the same purpose. The Germans take the soft inner substance in preference to the hard, and after beating with a hammer to render it still softer, they boil it in ley, then dry it, and boil it again, in a solution of nitrate of potassa, and finally dry it in an oven for use.

The amadou of the French, is the same as our spunk, or pyrotechnical sponge. It is always made, like the latter, from various kinds of agaric, which constitute the spongy excrescence of trees. The French prepare it for use in the manner before stated. They prepare amadou, also, by soaking blue paper in a solution of nitre. They sometimes employ it in the state of tinder, and, for this purpose, burn it to a coal.

In the East Indies, there is a white spongy plant, which, when reduced to a kind of charcoal, furnishes a very good tinder.

Spunk, or pyrotechnical sponge, is generally made in Germany.

In the preparation of ordinary tinder, the best mode of carbonizing the old linen, instead of burning and then smothering the flame, is to char the rags in close iron vessels. It may be made more quick by soaking it in a solution of nitre, and then drying it.

Dry turf, or peat, is susceptible of inflammation by the spark, and, if previously soaked in a solution of nitre, the effect, we are told, is much the same as with spunk. Professor Beckman (History of Inventions, i, p. 333), remarks, that a spark falling accidentally on a turf moor, during a dry summer, often sets it on fire; and the conflagration it occasions, often lasts so long, that it cannot escape notice. Of the earth taking fire in this manner, there are many instances to be found in the ancients. One of the most remarkable, is that mentioned by Tacitus, (Annal., lib. xiii, cap. 57), who relates, that not long after the building of the city of Cologne, the neighbouring land took fire, and burned in such a manner, that the corn, villages, and every production of the fields, were destroyed by the flames, which advanced even to the walls of the city. This was certainly a morass set on fire.

Gmelin (Travels in Russia, 1768-69, vol. i, p. 22) speaks of a morass in Siberia, where a village was erected, which, on account of its situation, the inhabitants deserted. This morass was set on fire, and when he was there, had been burning for more than six months; and being very inflammable, produced much devastation.

Turf, which consists of a congeries of vegetable roots or fibres, partly in a dry and decomposed state, or partly carbonized, when separated from earthy matter, and treated in the same manner as the medullary excrescence of wood, may be advantageously employed in like manner; but it is to be remarked, that for this purpose, the small and more friable, and consequently the more decomposed part, should be preferred. That turf, or peat, has been used for fuel, from time immemorial, there can be no doubt; since it is furnished in some countries very abundantly, and its inflammability has been long known.

Sec. XLII. Of Extinguishing Flame with Fired Gunpowder.

The different methods for extinguishing fire in chimnies, by using salt, sulphur, &c. to smother the flame, as it is called, depend on one principle, that of producing either a gas or vapour, which supplies the place of atmospheric air, and as it is a non-supporter of combustion, extinguishes the flame. Carbonic acid gas would have the same effect as the sulphurous acid gas, produced by the combustion of sulphur, or the vapour of salt.

So long, however, as the air is permitted to have a draught, the fire will continue to burn; and hence, without making any remarks on the bursting of chimnies, by closing all the avenues, by which the air enters, as the fire must exert a lateral pressure, this plan is generally adopted.

It has been suggested, and in fact the suggestion is by no means new, that the smoke of fired gunpowder would extinguish flame. Some recommend firing a pistol up a chimney for this purpose, and others again, throwing gunpowder into the fire.

In the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, iii, p. 31, I find some remarks on this subject. Besides the use of gunpowder, the vapour of water is recommended; but having some objections, among which, that of accelerating the current of air in particular, it is laid aside. Intercepting the passage of air seems to be preferred.

It appears, that the person, who first suggested the use of gunpowder for this purpose, was a Zachariah Greyl, of Augsburgh, in 1720.

The effect was attributed to the vapour of the gunpowder destroying the elasticity of the air; and the same effect is said to take place when the vapour of sulphur, or of volatile acids, is employed. It is hardly necessary to add, that this conclusion, of the diminution of the elasticity of the air, on which depends its fitness for combustion, (according to the theory then advanced), is altogether hypothetical; and the cause of the extinction of the flame, must be sought for in the substances themselves, producing an atmosphere, which is decidedly a non-supporter of combustion.

The Journal de Paris for 1785, and the Affiches de Province of the same year, recommend the use of brimstone. In the same work, page 454, it is said, that marine salt is employed with success for the extinguishing of fires; and that, when a certain quantity is thrown upon the fire, it evaporates in an instant, and displaces, by its fumes, the atmospheric air. In 1723, M. Hoffer invented his machine; and in 1781, M. Cadet de Vaux made some experiments before Leroy, Lavoisier, and Macquer, on the means of rendering bodies incombustible by saline substances, and different modes of extinguishing flame.

In 1722, the Germans announced, that, by means of a certain quantity of gunpowder, flame at all times might be extinguished. The secret, for such it was then considered, has been revived; for the same plan has lately been recommended by a modern writer. M. de Reaumur communicated to the French academy, an account of this contrivance, by which it appears, that the machine was a large box, or cask, that contained a large quantity of water; in the centre of which, was placed a case of sheet tin, containing some pounds of cannon powder. To this was attached a fuse. When it was inflamed, the gunpowder would burst the vessel, and disperse the water in every direction. See the Journal des Savants, 1725, p. 671.

In the Dictionnaire de l'Industrie, a prompt and certain method is recommended for cleaning the tunnel of chimnies. This is rather a novel plan. Of its efficacy we know nothing. It consists in taking a powder, composed of three parts of saltpetre, two parts of salt of tartar, and one part of flowers of sulphur, (or fulminating powder), and exploding it on a shovel up the chimney. The explosion indeed may detach the loose pieces of soot; but it cannot remove the harder crust, and besides, it would endanger the chimney taking fire.

We know that various contrivances have been used for the same purpose; and of the chimney cleansing machines, calculated to diminish the number of infant victims of a filthy and disgusting operation, that of Mr. Smart appears to possess every advantage, which (or a plan similar to it) is now in use in our cities. A description of this machine, and another by Hornblower, are given in Gregory's Mechanics, vol. ii, p. 138. The invention of Mr. Hornblower consists of a vessel, into which air is condensed, that communicates with a tube, charged with small gravel, which being blown up the chimney, brings down the soot.

Sec. XLIII. Of the Inflammable Dart.

This dart is made in the following manner. We take a common rocket case, of one inch exterior diameter, and charge it solid with the ordinary rocket composition. Some use one spoonful of earth, and three spoonfuls of the composition for fire lances, piercing the case, and attaching a quick match. This, however, appears altogether unnecessary, as the rocket composition is sufficient for the purpose. The match, in either case, is fixed in the end to set it off. To the end of the case is attached a dart, made of iron, and very sharp. This dart is secured in the head, in such a manner as to be kept firm. A stick is then lashed to the case in the usual way. It may be sent in the direction required. It appears, however, that, although it is calculated to be thrown on an enemy, it has not been much used; nor can it be considered an active weapon, compared with others, employed for similar purposes. One use for which it is recommended, is for the defence of buildings.

Sec. XLIV. Of the Firebrand.

The boute-feu of the French, which we have translated into firebrand, as the most appropriate term in the present instance, is used as an incendiary, and is nothing more than a long stick, furnished at one of its ends with two iron prongs, with sometimes the figure of a dragon's head, on which is rolled thick rope, previously prepared in the same manner as tourteaux. One end of this rope passes between the iron prongs. The boute-feu is calculated to set fire to buildings, &c. after the retreat of an enemy. It is only a convenient and expeditious mode of communicating fire. One end of the stick is pointed, and usually covered with iron, so as to stick in the ground.

Sec. XLV. Of the Fire Flask.

The fire flask, or fire bottle, is a bottle, either square or round, and charged with grain-powder, mixed with fire-stone, which is introduced and compressed with a stick. The bottle is then covered with a cloth, sewed on it, which is coated with pitch. The mouth is secured with parchment. When used, a match is inserted, and inflamed. It is then thrown by the hand.

Sec. XLVI. Of the Trompe-Route.

The trompe-route of the French is a light made use of at sea, to deceive the enemy. It is nothing more than a common fire lance, one inch in diameter, and twelve inches long, fixed in the centre of a round plank, which, when lighted, is let down upon the water. As it floats from the ship, the lights of the latter being darkened, the enemy, in pursuit, will follow the light, and by this means the ship escapes.

Sec. XLVII. Of Fire-Pots for Ramparts.

Rampart fire-pots are used, when an enemy approaches a work. They are furnished with grain-powder, and charged grenades without fuses, and sometimes also with fire stone. The pots are ordinary potters' ware, and, when they contain the ingredients, are covered with parchment. A match passes through the opening of the pot, and when used, is inflamed with a port-fire. The following composition is also used for rampart pots.

Composition for Rampart Fire-Pots.

Saltpetre,	12	parts.
Meal-powder,	12	——
Sulphur,	4	——
Antimony,	4	——

These ingredients are mixed in a mortar with the oil of petroleum, or, if this cannot be had, good spermaceti oil, and made into a thick paste, about the consistence of dough, and then rolled into balls. The pots generally hold two rows of these balls, distributing through them grained powder. They are then finished by using fire stone composition, beaten into pieces, and mixed with an equal quantity of grained powder, and covered with meal-powder to facilitate the inflammation.

The pots are covered over with parchment, as in the former case. It is doubtful, whether fire pots, prepared in this way, have any advantages over those, made in the manner first described.

As to the shape of fire-pots, some are cylindrical, and others of the common figure. Sometimes they are furnished with an iron hoop, with a hook of iron, by which they are suspended. They are used, when equipped in that way, more for sea service, as a defence against small boats. They are hung over the side of the vessel, so as to come in contact with the boats. When designed in particular for that use, they are charged with the following composition:

Composition for Fire-Pots, for sea service.

Grained powder,	6	lbs.
Meal-powder,	2	—
Saltpetre,	1	—
Sulphur,	½	—
Charcoal,	10	oz.

With this composition, grenades are used, which are put into the pot with powder, fire-stone, &c. and a match is fixed as before mentioned.

We are told, that fire-pots, prepared in this manner, are a defensive, as well as a dangerous weapon, and that a vessel in the Indian seas was actually saved by them, when attacked by pirates. It appears, that she endeavoured to escape from her pursuers, and finding it in vain, the crew thought of making, and employing fire-pots, for their defence; as the number of the pirates was greater than their own crew. The effect was, that, not expecting that kind of reception, they were obliged to abandon their enterprize.

There is an incendiary fire-pot, which differs from that used in fire-works for exhibition, by being made of copper and very stout. It is charged with pieces of fire-stone, previously rolled in a paste of meal-powder and brandy. A charge of powder is put in the pot, and quick-match is fixed, which must be sufficiently long to hang over the pot, and then the fire-stone is thrown in. When the match is inflamed, the powder takes fire, and disperses the fire-stone. The better plan is to have a communication to the powder below, as in the pots of ordnance, or mortars for throwing fire-balloons. We see no particular advantage to be derived from the use of this pot; as a carcass or fire-ball, thrown out of a mortar, will do more execution, and at a greater distance than any of these contrivances. The carcass rocket, however, may be an exception, if we believe the account we have of it. As an incendiary, the fire-stone, put in a shell with powder, is more effectual than the fire-pot, we have just described.

Sec. XLVIII. Of Inflammable Balls.

Count Rumford (BibliothÈque Physico-Economique, 1812) has invented a composition, which is very inflammable, and, as it is used in balls, is for that reason so called. Equal parts of clay, pitcoal, and charcoal of wood, are mixed together, (having previously reduced them to powder), and made into a consistence with water fit to roll into balls. These balls are then dried for use.

They may be rendered more inflammable, by soaking them in a strong solution of saltpetre.

Count Rumford, when he recommended the use of clay with coal, was aware, that, in the combustion of coal, a considerable part of the heat was lost; whereas, although clay is incombustible, a greater part of this heat is retained by the clay, and given out gradually.

The inflammable ball may be considered more in the character of an economical fuel than in any other.

The only inconvenience attending these balls is, that, when prepared without nitre, which must add to the expense, they do not readily inflame; and, therefore, a fire must first be kindled, before they are used.

While noticing the use of clay in this manner, we may remark, that the economical brick, as it is called, is made nearly in the same way.

Two parts of clay, separated from stones, are mixed with one part of pitcoal. After the fire is kindled, the coal burns in the same manner, and the clay bakes.

Another composition is given in the BibliothÈque Physico-Economique, for March, 1812. It is composed of potters' clay, cow dung, street dirt, saw-dust of wood, turf, horse dung, straw, and tan. Besides these, pitch, tar, oils, and other combustible substances, are occasionally used, either with the above, or mixed with pitcoal in powder.

Observations on this preparation may be seen in the work quoted, or in the Archives des DÉcouvertes, v, p. 137.

Sec. XLIX. Of Pauly's Inflammable Powder.

We mentioned, in a note to the article on guns, that M. Pauly had invented a musket, or fowling piece, which was discharged by percussion, instead of flint and steel, by using a priming powder made of chlorate of potassa.

It may be proper, however, to state, that the Rev. Dr. Forsyth made use of a similar powder, and for the same purpose, many years ago, of which we have already spoken. M. Thenard also has given a formula for a preparation of a similar powder.

A description of M. Pauly's improvement may be seen in the Archives des DÉcouvertes, for 1812, p. 158, and in that of 1814, p. 174, where the composition of the powder is noticed; and also in the Bulletin de la SociÉtÉ d'Encouragement, for 1814.

This powder is composed as follows:

Chlorate, or hyperoxymuriate of potassa	8 oz.
Flowers of sulphur	3 —
Charcoal of light wood	2 —

They are mixed together with Cologne water, or in its place with brandy, to which a small quantity of the solution of gum arabic is added.

The ingredients must be made as fine as possible, and intimately blended together.

This powder may be inflamed by a hammer, or by the condensation of air in a piston, a mode recommended by Pauly.

We have seen a fowling-piece, constructed according to M. Pauly's plan, and also the priming powder used.

Sec. L. Of Extemporaneous Fire.

There are several preparations, which have the effect of producing fire either by friction, or chemical action. Some of these preparations, we have noticed. The causes of spontaneous combustion may be referred to chemical decomposition, and the change of quiescent into distributable heat. We remarked, that a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sugar is inflamed, when brought in contact with sulphuric acid; that, in the slaking of quicklime, the heat is sufficient to inflame oils; that pyrites by decomposition very frequently sets fire to combustible bodies; that oil of turpentine is inflamed by nitric acid; that pyrophorus, when exposed to the air, takes fire, and also phosphorus by slight friction; and that, in all cases of combustion, either friction, an increase of temperature, or the action of some body, which is brought in contact, are necessary to produce the effect.

Water, when added to some substances and preparations, will produce fire. Thus potassium readily decomposes it, and the potassuretted hydrogen gas, which is produced in flames. The same may be said of phosphuret of lime and water; for the phosphuretted hydrogen gas inflames, when it comes to the air.

On some occasions, these substances may be employed as incendiaries.

Hanzelet remarks, that the following composition will produce inflammation with water.

Extemporaneous Fire.

Linseed Oil	3 lbs.
Spirit of Turpentine	1 —
White of egg	¼ —
Quicklime	8 —

It is doubtful, however, whether this composition will have that effect; although the heat produced by the slaking of quicklime is very considerable, and, as we remarked, spontaneous combustion, in several instances, has been referred to its agency. Lime, in the act of slaking, absorbs, and chemically unites with, water, which becomes solidified, converting it into a hydrate, whilst its latent caloric is set at liberty. This is a process, which puts quiescent heat in motion, to become distributable heat. See Introduction.

If the quantity of free caloric, thus generated, be sufficient, the turpentine and oil will necessarily inflame.

We may add, therefore, that a rapid transition of caloric, from a latent to a free state, as in combustion, is all that is required to produce effects of this kind; and, in short, all cases of spontaneous combustion may be accounted for on this principle; by considering the cause, which acts in those instances so powerfully, and in some instances instantaneously, and which changes caloric from a quiescent to a distributable state.

Dr. Irvine refers all cases of combustion to a change in the capacity of bodies for caloric; which depends on the nature of the products: if they have a greater capacity, no flame ensues, and the caloric remains more or less quiescent; if they possess a less capacity, flame is the consequence. There are exceptions to this doctrine.

In the emission of caloric, Dr. Black supposes, that it is given out, in consequence of the resulting attraction of the new compound for caloric being less than that of its ingredients, when separate. M. Curadou (Journal de Physique, 1809) observes, that, in preparing the artificial stone, one-half of which is composed of water, by mixing one part of sulphuric acid with two parts of clay, and a sufficient quantity of water, a higher temperature is produced than that of boiling water. In this instance, we find that, in the formation of sulphate of alumina, which envelopes the silica, the water is solidified, as in many other cases, and, while it forms a solid substance, the caloric of fluidity is liberated. The heat, he remarks, is sometimes so great as to set fire to inflammable substances.

Sec. LI. Of the Indian White Fire.

This preparation (feu blanc Indien of the French) is described in the Archives des DÉcouvertes, &c. vol. ii, p. 300. It appears, that it was kept secret in France, and was used by the French astronomers for signals.

In 1807, M. de Zach published some account of it, in his Astronomical and Geographical correspondence.

The case, in which the composition is put, is ten inches in diameter and four in height; but may be of any size, according to the quantity of the composition to be burnt, and the degree of light required. It was seen 40 miles at sea. General Ray lighted, on the English coast, a case of this fire, which was seen very distinctly on the French coast.

Composition of White Fire.

Saltpetre	24 parts.
Sulphur	7 ——
Red arsenic	2 ——

This powder lights without explosion, and illuminates with great brilliancy. Care must be taken not to breathe the Arsenical vapours, which are produced by the combustion.

A case of six inches in diameter, and six inches high, burns three minutes. The light is said to injure the eyes.

The price of this powder is equal to that of ordinary gunpowder.

The match, which accompanies this preparation when it is sold, is made in the following manner: Pulverize four parts of saltpetre, two parts of gunpowder, two parts of charcoal, and one part of sulphur, and pass them through a sieve. Provide then a number of paper cases, made in the usual manner, or a roller, about the diameter of a quill, and two feet in length, and charge with the composition.

This match, when used, is attached to a stick. It will resist the action both of wind and rain.

An artificer of Marseilles proposes the following composition for matches.

Sulphur	8 parts.
Saltpetre	4 ——
Gunpowder	2 ——

Sec. LII. Of the Pyrophore of Defence.

An apparatus for defence, called the Pyrophore, was announced in a French publication in 1815. It may be applied, according to the author, in 24 hours for the defence of towns, roads, passages, and defiles.

The pyrophore itself is a square box furnished with a lid, and sufficiently large to contain fifty pounds of gunpowder. When it is filled, and to be used, it is fixed with cords, or chains, in such a manner as to be conveyed to a given point. The lid is furnished with cross pieces, which open it when necessary.

At the sides of the box are rings, made very strong and fixed in bolts, which go through the sides, and clenched. To each of these rings, a cord or chain is attached, furnished at each end with a crotchet.

This cord or chain runs upon two fixed pulleys, placed for instance, at the two extremities of a battery, and is managed by artillerists. The pyrophore is under cover. When it is conveyed to a certain place, where a bar or grate is fixed, it is stopped, by the contrivance before mentioned, the lid is raised, and the powder falls into a kind of funnel or gutter, at the end of which the explosion is made, to take effect.

It appears that the inventor had in view the conveyance of a given quantity of powder to a particular place, and by carrying a light to it by means of a cord, similarly fixed, to inflame it, when it had arrived at its destination.

It is impossible to make a machine of this kind effective; for the difficulty in arranging, and finally managing it, the enemy taking means to guard against it, are certainly obstacles, and strong objections to its use. Other means of defence, which we have pointed out, are preferable; although we admit, that, in some situations, a contrivance of this sort might be advantageously used, where, for instance, we wish to deposite a quantity of powder, to be in readiness for the approach of an enemy, without exposing men to an attack. What is more destructive than the thundering barrel, which is furnished with grenades, &c. &c. if set off among the assailants? See, for a minute account of this contrivance, the "Pyrophore, ou Moyen de defense gÉnÉrale, par un garde national: 20 pages grand in 8vo. avec un planche. Paris Dondey DuprÉ, 1815," and also the Archives des DÉcouvertes, tome 8. p. 281.

---