  INTRODUCTION—The Three General Periods of the History of Philosophy, 1 The Comparative Lengths of the Three General Periods, 1 The Real Differences of the Three General Periods, 1 Table of the Subdivisions of the Three General Periods, 4 BOOK I. ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER I. The Early Greek in Ancient Philosophy, 5 The Divisions of Ancient Philosophy, 5 The Literary Sources of Ancient Philosophy, 6 The Environment of the Early Greek, 7 1. His Geographical Environment 7 2. His Political Environment 7 The Native Tendencies of the Early Greek, as seen (1)In the Development of his Religion, (2)in his Reflections upon Physical Events, and (3)in his Interest in Human Conduct, 9–11 The Three Periods of Greek Philosophy, 12 CHAPTER II. The Cosmological Period: The Philosophy of Nature, 15 The Peril in the Greek Political Situation: Persia and Carthage, 15 The Peril in the New Religion: The Mysteries and Pythagoras, 16 Characteristics of the Cosmologists, 18 Table of Cosmologists, 20 How the Philosophical Question arose, 20 Map showing the Cities where the Cosmologists lived, 21 Summary Comparison of the Monistic Philosophies, 22 1. The Milesian School, 24 The Milesian Philosophy, 25 2. Xenophanes, the Religious Philosopher, 26 The Philosophy of Xenophanes, 27 3. Heracleitus, “the Misanthropist” and “the Obscure,” 28 a. Heracleitus’ Doctrine of Absolute and Universal Change, 28 b. Fire is the Cosmic Substance, 29 c. The Definite Changes of Fire, 30 d. The Practical Philosophy of Heracleitus, 31 4. The Eleatic School, 32 a. Parmenides, 32 (1) The Cosmic Substance is Being, 33 (2) Other Things than the Cosmic Substance (Being) have no Real Existence, 34 b. Zeno, 35 The Philosophy of Zeno, 36 The Results of the Conflict between Heracleitus and Parmenides, 37 CHAPTER III. Pluralism, 39 Efforts toward Reconciliation, 39 The New Conception of Change of the Pluralists, 40 The New Conception of the Unchanging of the Pluralists—The Element, 40 The Introduction of the Conception of the Efficient Cause, 41 Summary of Similarities and Differences IN the Theories of the Reconcilers, 41 The Pluralistic Philosophers: Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus, and the Later Pythagoreans, 42 The Philosophy of Empedocles, 44 The Philosophy of Anaxagoras, 45 The Philosophy of the Atomists—Leucippus and the School at Abdera, 47 The Later Pythagoreans, 48 1. The Pythagorean Conception of Being, 49 2. The Pythagorean Dualistic World, 51 3. Pythagorean Astronomy, 52 Historical Retrospect, 53 CHAPTER IV. The Anthropological Period: The Philosophy of Man, 55 An Historical Summary of the Anthropological Period, 55 The Persian Wars and the Rise of Athens, 56 The Greek Enlightenment, 58 1. The Impulse for Learning, 58 2. The Practical Need of Knowledge, 59 3. The Critical Attitude of Mind, 61 The Significance of the Sophists, 64 The Prominent Sophists, 67 The Philosophy of the Sophists, 68 1. The Relativism of Protagoras, 69 2. The Nihilism of Gorgias, 70 The Ethics of the Sophists.—The Application of their Critical Theory to Political Life, 71 Summary, 73 CHAPTER V. Socrates, 74 Socrates and Aristophanes, 74 The Personality and Life of Socrates, 75 Socrates and the Sophists, 80 The Unsystematic Character of the Socratic Philosophy, 82 The Ideal of Socrates, 83 What the Socratic Ideal Involves, 85 The Two Steps of the Method of Socrates, 88 Socrates and Athens, 91 The Logical Expedients of Socrates, 92 Socrates and the Lesser Socratics, 93 The Cynic School, 95 The Cyrenaic School, 96 CHAPTER VI. The Systematic Period, 98 The Waning of the Greek National Spirit, 98 The Place of the Three Systematic Philosophers in Greek History, 98 The Fundamental Principle of the Systematic Period, 100 A Summary of Greek Philosophy, 102 Greek Philosophy (objective), 103 Democritus and Plato—Their Similarities and Differences, 104 The Life of Democritus, 106 The Comprehensiveness of the Aim of Democritus, 108 The Enriched Physics of Democritus—Hylozoism becomes Materialism, 109 The Materialistic Psychology of Democritus, 111 Democritus’ Theory of Knowledge—The World of Twofold Reality, 114 The Ethical Theory of Democritus, 116 CHAPTER VII. Plato, 119 Abdera and Athens, 119 The Difficulties in Understanding the Teaching of Plato, 120 The Life and Writings of Plato, 121 1. Plato’s Student Life, 121 2. Plato as Traveler, 122 3. Plato as Teacher of the Academy, 124 Concerning the Dialogues of Plato, 126 The Factors in the Construction of Plato’s Doctrine, 128 1. His Inherited Tendencies, 128 2. His Philosophical Sources, 130 The Divisions of Plato’s Philosophy, 131 Summary of Plato’s Doctrine, 132 The Formation of Plato’s Metaphysics, 132 The Development of Plato’s Metaphysics—The Development of Plato’s Ideas in the Two Drafts, 136 Brief Comparison of the Two Drafts of the Ideas, 137 Comparison of the Two Drafts of Ideas in More Detail, 137 1. The Number of Ideas in the Earlier and Later Drafts compared, 137 2. The Relation of the Ideas and the World of Nature in the Two Drafts compared, 138 3. The Relation among the Ideas in the Two Drafts compared, 140 Plato’s Conception of God, 141 Plato’s Conception of Physical Nature, 142 Plato’s Conception of Man, 144 Plato’s Doctrine of Immortality, 146 1. The Immortality of Pre-Existence, 146 2. The Immortality of Post-Existence, 149 The Two Tendencies in Plato, 150 Platonic Love, 151 Plato’s Theory of Ethics, 153 1. Development of Plato’s Theory of the Good, 153 2. The Four Cardinal Virtues, 154 3. Plato’s Theory of Political Society, 155 Appendix—Jowett’s Selection of Passages from Plato for English Readers, 158 CHAPTER VIII. Aristotle, 166 Aristotle in the Academy and Lyceum, 166 Biography of Aristotle, 168 Brief Chronological Sketch of Aristotle’s Life, 168 Aristotle’s Biography in Detail, 169 1. First Period—Early Influences, 169 2. Second Period—Traveler and Collector, 171 3. Third Period—Administrator of the Lyceum, 172 The Writings of Aristotle, 173 1. The Popular Writings, published by Aristotle himself, 174 2. The Compilations, 175 3. The Didactic Writings, 175 Aristotle’s Starting-Point, 176 The Fundamental Principle in Aristotle’s Philosophy, 177 Aristotle’s Logic, 180 Aristotle’s Metaphysics, 185 1. Development is Purposeful, 185 2. Aristotle’s Two Different Conceptions of Purpose, 187 3. Aristotle’s Conception of God, 190 4. Aristotle’s Conception of Matter, 191 5. Aristotle’s Conception of Nature, 192 The Mechanical Series,—Aristotle’s Theory of Physics, 194 The Teleological Series: The Qualitative Changes of Phenomena, 196 1. The Psychology of Aristotle, 196 2. The Ethics of Aristotle, 199 (a) The Practical Virtues, 200 (b) The Dianoetic Virtues, 201 The Political Philosophy of Aristotle, 202 CHAPTER IX. The Hellenic-Roman Period, 204 Its Time Length, 204 The Fall of the Greek Nation and the Persistence of its Civilization, 204 Map of the Empire of Alexander, showing the Extension of Hellenism, 205 The Two Parts of the Hellenic-Roman Period, 208 1. The Ethical Period, 208 2. The Religious Period, 208 The Undercurrent of Skepticism in the Hellenic-Roman Period, 209 The Fundamental Problem of the Hellenic-Roman Period, 211 The Centres of Hellenism, 213 1. Athens, 213 2. Alexandria, 215 General Characteristics of the Ethical Period, 215 1. The Abandonment of Metaphysical Speculation, 216 2. The Growth of Science, 216 3. Ethics became the Central Interest, 217 The Schools, 218 Map of Athens, showing the Location of the Four Schools, 219 The Old Schools—The Academy and the Lyceum, 220 1. The Academy, 220 2. The Lyceum, 221 The New Schools—The Epicureans and the Stoics, 222 A Summary of the Agreements and Differences of the Stoics and Epicureans, 225 CHAPTER X. Epicureanism, 227 The Life of Epicurus, 227 The Epicureans, 228 Some Types of Hedonism,—Aristippus, Epicurus, and Rousseau, 228 The Epicurean Ideal, 230 The Place of Virtue in Epicureanism, 233 The Epicurean Wise Man, 234 The Epicurean Wise Man in Society, 235 The Great Obstacles to Happiness, 236 Epicurus’ Conception of the Physical World.—Qualified Atomism, 238 CHAPTER XI. Stoicism, 241 The Position of Stoicism in Antiquity, 241 The Three Periods of Stoicism, 242 1. Period of Formulation of the Doctrine, 242 2. Period of Modified Stoicism, 242 3. Period of Roman Stoicism, 243 The Stoic Leaders, 243 The Stoic Writings, 246 The Stoics and Cynics, 246 The Two Prominent Stoic Conceptions, 247 The Conception of Personality, 248 1. The Stoic Psychology, 248 2. The Highest Good, 250 The Conception of Nature, 251 1. Nature is an All-pervading World-Being, 253 2. Nature is an All-compelling Law, 253 3. Nature is Matter, 254 The Conceptions of Nature and Personality supplement Each Other, 256 The Stoic and Society, 257 Duty and Responsibility, 259 The Problem of Evil and the Problem of Freedom, 260 The Modifications of the Stoic Doctrine after the First Period, 261 CHAPTER XII. Skepticism and Eclecticism, 264 The Appearances of Philosophic Skepticism, 264 The Three Phases of Philosophic Skepticism, 265 1. The First Phase of Philosophic Skepticism is called Pyrrhonism, 265 2. The Second Period of Philosophic Skepticism—The Skepticism of the Academy, 266 3. The Third Period of Philosophic Skepticism—Sensationalistic Skepticism, 268 The Last Century and a Half of the Ethical Period, Eclecticism, 269 CHAPTER XIII. The Religious Period, 273 The Two Causes of the Rise of Religious Feeling, 273 The Need of Spiritual Authority, 275 The Rise of the Conception of Spirituality, 277 The Revival of Platonism, 279 The Divisions of the Religious Period, 280 The Hellenic Religious Philosophies, 282 The Introductory Period of Hellenic Religious Philosophy. The Turning to the Past for Spiritual Authority, 282 1. The Greek-Jewish Philosophy of Philo, 282 2. Neo-Pythagoreanism, 285 The Development Period of Hellenic Religious Philosophy. The Turning to the Present for Spiritual Authority. Platonism and Neo-Platonism, 287 Neo-Platonism and the Two Introductory Philosophies, 288 Neo-Platonism and Christianity, 288 The Periods of Neo-Platonism, 290 The Alexandrian School. The Scientific Theory of Neo-Platonism. The Life and Writings of Plotinus, 290 The General Character of the Teaching of Plotinus, 291 The Mystic God, 292 1. The Supra-Consciousness of God, 292 2. The Conception of Dynamic Pantheism, 293 The Two Problems of Plotinus, 293 The World of Emanations.—The Metaphysical Problem of Plotinus, 294 The Spirit, 294 The Soul, 295 Matter, 295 The Return of the Soul to God.—The Ethical Problem of Plotinus, 297 The Syrian School.—The Systematizing of Polytheisms.—Jamblichus, 298 The Athenian School.—Recapitulation.—Proclus, 299 CHAPTER XIV. Patristics.—The Hellenizing of the Gospel, 302 The Early Situation of Christianity, 302 The Philosophies influencing Christian Thought, 305 The Periods of Early Christianity, 306 The Apologists, 307 The Gnostics, 310 The Reaction against Gnosticism.—The Old Catholic Theologians, 312 Origen and the School of Catechists, 314 BOOK II. THEMIDDLE AGES CHAPTER XV. Characteristics and Conditions of the Middle Ages, 319 Comparison of the Hellenic-Roman Period and the Middle Ages, 319 The MediÆval Man, 320 How the Universe appeared to the MediÆval Man, 322 Maps of the Ptolemaic Cosmography, 323, 325 The MediÆval Man at School, 325 A MediÆval Library, 326 1. Books most commonly read, 327 2. Books that the scholars might use, 327 3. The Books most influential philosophically upon the time, 328 The Three Periods of the Middle Ages, 328 Summary of the Political and Educational Worlds of the MediÆval Man, 330 CHAPTER XVI. The Early Period of the Middle Ages, 334 The General Character of the Early Period, 334 An Early MediÆval Geographical Map, 335 The Historical Position of Augustine, 335 The Secular Science, 339 The Life of Augustine, 339 The Two Elements in Augustine’s Teaching, 340 The Neo-Platonic Element: the Inner Certainties of Consciousness, 341 The Authority of the Church according to Augustine, 345 The Dark Ages, 347 The Revival of Charlemagne, 349 John Scotus Erigena: Life and Teaching, 350 The Greek Principle which Erigena formulated for the Middle Ages, 352 The Last Century of the Early Period, 353 CHAPTER XVII. The Transitional Period, 354 The General Character of the Transitional Period, 354 What is Scholasticism? 355 Anselm: Life and Position in MediÆval Philosophy, 359 Anselm’s Arguments for the Existence of God, 361 Roscellinus: Life and Teaching, 361 Storm and Stress, 362 The Life of Abelard, 363 Abelard’s Conceptualism. Universals exist in the Particulars, 364 Abelard’s Rationalism.—The Relation between Reason and Dogma, 365 CHAPTER XVIII. The Period of Classic Scholasticism, 368 The General Character of this Last Period, 368 The Two Civilizations, 369 Map showing the Growth of Mohammedan Civilization in the Middle Ages, 370 The First Contact of the Two Civilizations, 372 The Conflict between the Two Civilizations.—The Crusades, 374 The Revival of Learning, 375 Diagram of Dante’s Poetic Conception of the Universe, 376 The Strength and Burden of Aristotle to the Church, 378 1. The Strength of Aristotle to the Church, 378 2. The Burden of Aristotle to the Church, 379 The Predecessors of Aquinas, 379 The Life of Thomas Aquinas.—The Founder of the Dominican Tradition, 380 The Central Principle of Thomas’s Doctrine—The Twofold Truth, 381 The Problem of Individuality—The Relation of Particulars and Universals, 383 The Primacy of the Will or the Intellect, 385 Duns Scotus, The Founder of the Franciscan Tradition—Life and Philosophical Position, 386 Duns Scotus’s Conception of the Twofold Truth.—The Separation of Science and Religion, 387 The Inscrutable Will of God, 388 The Problem of Individuality, 389 After Duns Scotus, 390 William of Ockam: Life and Teaching, 391 After Ockam, 393 INDEX, 395 |
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