The importance of recognizing or diagnosing the seat and nature of the morbid change occurring in an organ or group of organs cannot be overestimated. Laymen do not comprehend the difficulty or importance of correctly grouping the signs or symptoms of disease in such a way as to enable them to recognize the nature of the disease. In order to be able to understand the meaning of the many symptoms or signs of disease, we must possess knowledge of the structure and physiological functions of the different organs of the body. We must be familiar with the animal when it is in good health in order to be able to recognize any deviation from the normal due to disease, and we must learn from personal observation the different symptoms that characterize the different diseases. Stockmen should be able to tell when any of the animals in their care are sick as soon as the first symptom of disease manifests itself, by changes in the general appearance and behavior. But in order to ascertain the exact condition a general and systematic examination is necessary. The examiner, whether he be a layman or a veterinarian, must observe the animal carefully, noting the behavior, appearance, surroundings, and general and local symptoms.

Before making a general examination of the animal it is well, if the examiner is not already acquainted with the history of the case (care, feed and surroundings), to learn as much about this from the attendant as is possible. Inquiry should be made as to the feeding, the conditions under which the animal has been kept, the length of time it has been sick, its actions, or any other information that may be of assistance in forming the diagnosis and outlining the treatment.

The general symptoms inform us regarding the condition of the different groups of body organs. A careful study of this group of symptoms enables us correctly to diagnose disease and inform ourselves as to the progress of long, severe affections. These symptoms occur in connection with the pulse, respirations, body temperature, skin and coat, visible mucous membranes, secretions and excretions, and behavior of the animal.

The local symptoms are confined to a definite part or organ. Swelling, pain, tenderness and loss of function are common local symptoms. A direct symptom may also be considered under this head because of its direct relation to the seat of disease. It aids greatly in forming the diagnosis.

Other terms used in describing symptoms of disease are objective, which includes all that can be recognized by the person making the examination; indirect, which are observed at a distance from the seat of the disease; and premonitory, which precede the direct, or characteristic symptoms. The subjective symptoms include such as are felt and described by the patient. These symptoms are available from the human patient only.

Pulse.—The character of the intermittent expansion of the arteries, called the pulse, informs us as to the condition of the heart and blood-vessels. The frequency of the pulse beat varies in the different species of animals. The smaller the animal the more frequent the pulse. In young animals the number of beats per minute is greater than in adults. Excitement or fear, especially if the animal possesses a nervous temperament, increases the frequency of the pulse. During, and for a short time after, feeding and exercise, the pulse rate is higher than when the animal is standing at rest.

The following table gives the normal rate of the pulse beats per minute:

Horse 36 to 40 per minute
Ox 45 to 50 per minute
Sheep 70 to 80 per minute
Pig 70 to 80 per minute
Dog 90 to 100 per minute

In sickness the pulse is instantly responsive. It is of the greatest aid in diagnosing and in noting the progress of the disease. The following varieties of pulse may be mentioned: frequent, infrequent, quick, slow, large, small, hard, soft and intermittent. The terms frequent and infrequent refer to the number of pulse beats in a given time; quick and slow to the length of time required for the pulse wave to pass beneath the finger; large and small to the volume of the wave; hard and soft to its compressibility; and intermittent to the occasional missing of a beat. A pulse beat that is small and quick, or large and soft, is frequently met with in diseases of a serious character.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.—The X on the lower border of the jaw indicates the place where the pulse is taken.]

The horse's pulse is taken from the submaxillary artery at a point anterior to, or below the angle of the jaw and along its inferior border (Fig. 3). It is here that the artery winds around the inferior border of the jaw in an upward direction, and, because of its location immediately beneath the skin, it can be readily located by pressing lightly over the region with the fingers.

Cattle's pulse is taken from the same artery as in the horse. The artery is most superficial a little above the border of the jaw. It is more difficult to find the pulse wave in cattle than it is in horses, because of the larger amount of connective tissue just beneath the skin and the heavier muscles of the jaw. A very satisfactory pulse may be found in the small arteries located along the inferior part of the lateral region of the tail and near its base.

The sheep's pulse may be taken directly from the femoral artery by placing the fingers over the inner region of the thigh. By pressing with the hand over the region of the heart we may determine its condition.

The hog's pulse can easily be taken from the femoral artery on the internal region of the thigh. The artery crosses this region obliquely and is quite superficial toward its anterior and lower portion.

The dog's pulse is usually taken from the brachial artery. The pulse wave can be readily felt by resting the fingers over the inner region of the arm and just above the elbow. The character of the heart beats in dogs may be determined by resting the hand on the chest wall.

RESPIRATION.—The frequency of the respirations varies with the species. The following table gives the frequency of the respirations in domestic animals:

Horse 8 to 10 per minute
Ox 12 to 15 per minute
Sheep 12 to 20 per minute
Dog 15 to 20 per minute
Pig 10 to 15 per minute

The ratio of the heart beats to the respirations is about 1:4 or 1:5. This ratio is not constant in ruminants. Rumination, muscular exertion and excitement increase the frequency and cause the respirations to become irregular. In disease the ratio between the heart beats and respirations is greatly disturbed, and the character of the respiratory sounds and movements may be greatly changed (Fig. 4).

[Illustration: FIG. 4.—Auscultation of the lungs can be practised to an advantage over the outlined portion of the chest wall, only.]

Severe exercise and diseased conditions of the lungs cause the animal to breathe rapidly and bring into use all of the respiratory muscles. Such forced or labored breathing is a common symptom in serious lung diseases, "bloat" in cattle, or any condition that may cause dyspnoea. Horses affected with "heaves" show a double contraction of the muscles in the region of the flank during expiration. In spasm of the diaphragm or "thumps" the expiration appears to be a short, jerking movement of the flank. In the abdominal form of respiration the movements of the walls of the chest are limited. This occurs in pleurisy. In the thoracic form of respiration the abdominal wall is held rigid and the movement of the chest walls make up for the deficiency. This latter condition occurs in peritonitis.

A cough is caused by irritation of the membrane lining the air passages. The character of the cough may vary according to the nature of the disease. We may speak of a moist cough when the secretions in the air passages are more or less abundant. A dry cough occurs when the lining membrane of the air passages is dry and inflamed. This may occur in the early stage of the inflammation, or as a result of irritation from dust or irritating gases. Chronic cough occurs when the disease is of long duration or chronic. In pleurisy the cough may be short and painful, and in broken wind, deep and suppressed. In parasitic diseases of the air passages and lungs, the paroxysm of coughing may be severe and "husky" in character.

The odor of the expired air, the character of the discharge and the respiratory sounds found on making a careful examination are important aids in arriving at a correct diagnosis, and in studying the progress of the disease.

[Illustration: FIG. 5.—Fever thermometer.]

Body Temperature.—The body temperature of an animal is taken by inserting the fever thermometer into the rectum. In large animals a five-inch, and in small animals a four-inch fever thermometer is used. It should be inserted full length and left in position from one and one-half to three minutes, depending on the rapidity with which it registers (Fig. 5).

The average normal body temperatures of domestic animals are as follows:

Horses 100.5\260 F.
Cattle 101.4\260 F.
Sheep 104.0\260 F.
Swine 103.0\260 F.
Dog 101.4\260 F.

There is a wide variation in the body temperatures of domestic animals. This is especially true of cattle, sheep and hogs. In order to determine the normal temperature of an animal, it may be necessary to take two or more readings at different times, and compare them with the body temperatures of other animals in the herd that are known to be healthy.

Exercise, feeding, rumination, excitement, warm, close stables, exposure to cold and drinking ice cold water are common causes of variations in the body temperatures of domestic animals.

Visible Mucous Membranes.—The visible mucous membranes, as they are termed, are the lining membranes of the eyelids, nostrils and nasal cavities, and mouth. In health they are usually a pale red, excepting when the animal is exercised or excited, when they appear a brighter red and somewhat vascular. In disease the following changes in color and appearance may be noted: When inflamed, as in cold in the head, a deep red; in impoverished or bloodless conditions of the body and in internal haemorrhage, pale; in diseases of the liver, sometimes yellowish, or dark red; in diseases of the digestive tract (buccal mucous membrane), coated; if inflamed, dry at first, later excessively moist; and in certain germ diseases a mottled red, or showing nodules, ulcers and scars.

Surface of the Body.—When a horse is in a good condition and well cared for, the coat is short, fine, glossy and smooth and the skin pliable and elastic. Healthy cattle have a smooth, glossy coat and the skin feels mellow and elastic. The fleece of sheep should appear smooth and have plenty of yolk, the skin pliable and light pink in color. When the coat loses its lustre and gloss and the skin becomes hard, rigid, thickened and dirty, it indicates a lack of nutrition and an unhealthy condition of the body. In sheep, during sickness, the wool may become dry and brittle and the skin pale and rigid. When affected with external parasites, the hair or wool becomes dirty and rough, a part of the skin may be denuded of hair, and it appears thickened, leathery and scabby, or shows pimples, vesicles and sores.

During fever, the temperature of the surface of the body is very unequal. In serious diseases or diseases that are about to terminate fatally, the skin feels cold and the hair is wet with sweat.

When animals are allowed to "rough it" during the cold weather, the coat of hair becomes heavy and rough. This is a provision of nature and enables them, as long as the coat is dry, to withstand severe cold.

Horses that are in a low physical condition, or when accustomed to hard work, if then kept in a stall for a few days without exercise, commonly show a filling of the cannon regions of the posterior extremities. This condition also commonly occurs in disease and in mares that have reached the latter period of pregnancy. Sheep that are unthrifty and in a poor physical condition, especially if this is due to internal parasites, frequently develop dropsical swellings in the region of the jaw, or neck.

Body Excretions.—The character of the body excretions, faeces and urine may become greatly changed in certain diseases. It is important that the stockman or veterinarian observe these changes, and in certain diseases make an analysis of the urine. This may be necessary in order properly to diagnose the case.

Behavior of the Animal.—When the body temperature is high, the animal may appear greatly depressed. If suffering severe pain, it may be restless. In diseases of the nervous system, the behavior of the animal may be greatly changed. Spasms, convulsions, general local paralysis, stupid condition and unconsciousness may occur as symptoms of this class of disease.

QUESTIONS

1. What information is necessary in order to be able to recognize or diagnose disease? 2. What are the general symptoms of disease?

3. What are the subjective symptoms of disease?

4. Describe method of taking the pulse beat in the different animals and
its character in health and disease.

5. Give the ratio of the heart beats to the respirations in the different
species of animals.

6. What are the normal body temperatures in the different domestic animals?

7. What are the visible mucous membranes?

8. Is the condition of the coat and skin any help in the recognition of disease?