  94. The following is the Complete Grammar of Esperanto, as given by Dr. Zamenhof at page 254 of his "Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto," which he says is "a book that should be in the hands of every earnest student who desires to acquire a correct Esperanto style." This book contains a series of Exercises, Fables, Legends, Stories, Extracts from Scientific Articles, Articles on Esperanto, Poetry, Translations from Hamlet and The Iliad, showing how well Esperanto is adapted for every kind of subject. It will be seen that the whole Grammar consists of sixteen short Rules, which can be learnt in less than an hour. The Esperanto is given alongside the translation. Remarks on the Rules, with examples, will be found by referring to the paragraphs given after each Rule. COMPLETE GRAMMAR OF ESPERANTO. Alphabet. The twenty-eight letters and their pronunciation are given in pars. 1–4. N.B.—Printing offices which do not possess the letters c, g, h, j, s, u, can use instead of them ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u. PLENA GRAMATIKO DE ESPERANTO. Alfabeto. Aa, Bb, Cc, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Gg, Hh, Hh, Ii, Jj, Jj, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Rr, Ss, Ss, Tt, Uu, Uu, Vv, Zz. Rimarko.—Presejoj, kiuj ne posedas la literojn c, g, h, j, s, u, povas anstatau ili uzi ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u. Rules. I.The Article.—There is no indefinite article; there is only a definite article (la), alike for all sexes, cases, and numbers. N.B.—The use of the article is the same as in other languages. People to whom the use of the article presents a difficulty need not at first use it at all. (See pars. 96–102.) Reguloj. I.Artikolo nedifinita ne ekzistas; ekzistas nur artikolo difinita (la), egala por ciuj seksoj, kazoj kaj nombroj. Rimarko.—La uzado de la artikolo estas tia sama, kiel en la aliaj lingvoj. La personoj, por kiuj la uzado de la artikolo prezentas malfacilajon, povas en la unua tempo tute gin ne uzi. II.The Substantive.—Substantives have the termination o. For the formation of the plural the termination j is added. There are only two cases: nominative and accusative; the latter is obtained from the nominative by the addition of the termination n. The other cases are expressed by the help of prepositions (the genitive by de, the dative by al, the ablative by per or other prepositions according to sense). (See pars. 103–106.) II.La substantivoj havas la finigon o. Por la formado de la multenombro oni aldonas la finigon j. Kazoj ekzistas nur du: nominativo kaj akuzativo; la lasta estas ricevata el la nominativo per la aldono de la finigo n. La ceteraj kazoj estas esprimataj per helpo de prepozicioj (la genitivo per de, la dativo per al, la ablativo per per au aliaj prepozicioj lau la senco). III.The Adjective.—The adjective ends in a. Cases and numbers as with the substantive. The comparative is made by means of the word pli, the superlative by plej; with the comparative the conjunction ol is used. (See pars 107–114.) III.La adjektivo finigas per a. Kazoj kaj nombroj kiel ce la substantivo. La komparativo estas farata per la vorto pli, la superlativo per plej; ce la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion ol. IV.The Numerals.—The cardinal numerals (they are not declined) are: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, nau, dek, cent, mil. The tens and hundreds are formed by the simple junction of the numerals. For the signification of ordinal numerals, the termination of the adjective is added; for the multiple—the suffix -obl, for the fractional—on, for the collective—op, for the distributive—the word po. Besides these, substantival and adverbial numerals can be used. (See pars. 115–124.) IV.La numeraloj fundamentaj (ne estas deklinaciataj) estas: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, nau, dek, cent, mil. La dekoj kaj centoj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la numeraloj. Por la signado de numeraloj ordaj oni aldonas la finigon de la adjektivo; por la multoblaj—la sufikson -obl, por la nombronaj—on, por la kolektaj—op, por la disdividaj—la vorton po. Krom tio povas esti uzataj numeraloj substantivaj kaj adverbaj. V.The Pronouns.—Personal pronouns = mi, vi, li, si, gi (referring to thing or animal), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; the possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the adjectival termination. Declension is as with the substantives. (See pars. 125–138.) V.Pronomoj personaj: mi, vi, li, si, gi (pri objekto au besto), si, ni, vi, ili, oni; la pronomoj posedaj estas formataj per la aldono de la finigo adjektiva. La deklinacio estas kiel ce la substantivoj. VI.The Verb.—The verb is not changed in person or number. Forms of the verb: the present tense (the time being) takes the termination -as; the past tense (the time been, or having been) -is; the future tense (the time about to be, or going to be) -os; the Conditional mood -us; the Imperative (ordering) mood -u; the Indefinite (infinitive) mood -i. Participles (with an adjectival or adverbial sense): active present -ant; active past -int; active future -ont; passive present -at; passive past -it; passive future -ot. All forms of the passive are formed by help of a corresponding form of the verb esti and a passive participle of the required verb. The preposition with the passive is de. (See pars. 159–237.) VI.La verbo ne estas sangata lau personoj nek nombroj. Formoj de la verbo: la tempo estanta akceptas la finigon -as; la tempo estinta -is; la tempo estonta -os; la modo kondica -us; la modo ordona -u; la modo sendifina -i. Participoj (kun senco adjektiva au adverba): aktiva estanta -ant; aktiva estinta -int; aktiva estonta -ont; pasiva estanta -at; pasiva estinta -it; pasiva estonta -ot. Ciuj formoj de la pasivo estas formataj per helpo de responda formo de la verbo esti kaj participo pasiva de la bezonata verbo; la prepozicio ce la pasivo estas de. VII.La adverboj finigas per e; gradoj de komparado kiel ce la adjektivoj. VIII.Ciuj prepozicioj postulas la nominativon. IX.Ciu vorto estas legata, kiel gi estas skribita. X.La akcento estas ciam sur la antaulasta silabo. XI.Compound Words.—Compound words are formed by the simple junction of words (the chief word stands at the end); the grammatical terminations are also regarded as independent words. XI.Vortoj kunmetitaj estas formataj per simpla kunigo de la vortoj (la cefa vorto staras en la fino); la gramatikaj finigoj estas rigardataj ankau kiel memstaraj vortoj. XII.Ce alia nea vorto la vorto ne estas forlasata. XIII.Direction.—In order to show direction, words take the termination of the accusative. (See par. 67.) XIII.Por montri direkton, la vortoj ricevas la finigon de la akuzativo. XIV.Use of Prepositions.—Every preposition has a definite and constant meaning; but if we have to use some preposition and the direct sense does not indicate to us what special preposition we are to take, then we use the preposition je, which has no meaning of its own. Instead of the preposition je we can also use the accusative without a preposition. (See par. 251.) XIV.Ciu prepozicio havas difinitan kaj konstantan signifon; sed se ni devas uzi ian prepozicion kaj la rekta senco ne montras al ni, kian nome prepozicion ni devas preni, tiam ni uzas la prepozicion je, kiu memstaran signifon ne havas. Anstatau la prepozicio je oni povas ankau uzi la akuzativon sen prepozicio. XV.Foreign Words.—The so-called foreign words, that is, those which the majority of languages have taken from one source, are used in the Esperanto language without change, receiving only the orthography of the latter language; but with various words from one root it is better to use unchanged only the fundamental word, and to form the rest from this latter in accordance with the rules of the Esperanto language. XV.La tiel nomataj vortoj fremdaj, t.e., tiuj, kiujn la plimulto de la lingvoj prenis el unu fonto, estas uzataj en la lingvo Esperanto sen sango, ricevante nur la ortografion de tiu ci lingvo; sed ce diversaj vortoj de unu radiko estas pli bone uzi sensange nur la vorton fundamentan kaj la ceterajn formi el tiu ci lasta lau la reguloj de la lingvo Esperanto. XVI.Elision.—The final vowel of the substantive and the article can be dropped and replaced by an apostrophe. XVI.La fina vokalo de la substantivo kaj de la artikolo povas esti forlasata kaj anstatauigata de apostrofo. COMMENTARY PARTS OF SPEECH (Parolpartoj).95. There are nine parts of speech in Esperanto, as found in most other languages, viz., the Article (Artikolo), Noun (Substantivo), Pronoun (Pronomo), Adjective (Adjektivo), Verb (Verbo), Adverb (Adverbo), Preposition (Prepozicio), Conjunction (Konjunkcio), Interjection (Interjekcio). Nouns, derived adjectives and adverbs, and verbs have distinctive terminations. If a word ends in -O, it is a noun; if in -A, an adjective; if in -E, an adverb; if in -I, -U, -AS, -IS, -OS, or -US, a verb. If it ends in -N, it is in the accusative case, and if in -J, it is plural. Examples.—Domo = a house. Facila = easy. Felice = happily. Doni = to give (Infinitive). Batu lin = beat him (Imperative and Accusative). Mi vidas la homojn = I see the men (Present tense and Accusative plural). Vi diris = you said (Past tense). Ni iros = we shall go (Future tense). Se ili estus bonaj = If they were good (Conditional mood and plural adjective). THE ARTICLE (La Artikolo).96. There is no word in Esperanto for the Indefinite Article. It is, as in Latin, implied in the noun, if the sense in English requires it. Examples.—Tio estas floro = That is a flower. Patrino kaj filo = Mother and son. Cu vi vidas birdon sur tiu arbo? = Do you see a bird on that tree? 97. The definite article is la = the. It is, as in English, the same for all genders, numbers, and cases. Examples.—La patro = The father. La patrino = The mother. Donu al mi la libron = Give me the book. Ili estas la lernantoj diligentaj = They are the diligent scholars. 98. As regards its use, la is used very nearly as the definite article "the" in English, namely, to show that one is speaking of something known or definite, as opposed to what is indefinite. Examples.—En la mezo de la korto mi vidis du infanojn el la apuda vilago = In the middle of the yard I saw two children of the neighbouring village. In this sentence the yard and village are each defined by the article la, as they are also in English by "the." But if we omit the article the sentence runs:—En la mezo de korto mi vidis du infanojn el apuda vilago = In the middle of a yard I saw two children of a neighbouring village. In this case the children might have been in any yard, and have belonged to any village in the neighbourhood of the speaker. 99. There are, however, cases in which the article is often used in Esperanto, though omitted in English, and also vice versa. (a). It is usually used before nouns denoting the totality of persons or things. Examples.—La homo estas mortema = Man is mortal. La homoj estas mortemaj = Men are mortal. La medicino estas scienco kaj la pentrado arto = Medicine is a science and painting an art. Kelkaj kuracistoj pretendas, ke la vino estas malutila al la sano = Some doctors maintain that wine is hurtful to health. Sen la akvo nia terglobo rapide farigus dezerto = Without water our earth would rapidly become a desert. La nokto estis tiel nigra, kiel la peco = The night was as dark as pitch. La azenoj amas la kardojn = Donkeys love thistles. La vento kauzas ofte teruran detruon en kelkaj landoj = Wind often causes terrible ruin in some countries. (In this case la vento means wind in general, spoken of as a whole, but "To-day we shall have wind" (meaning some wind) would be: Hodiau ni havos venton.) Hajlo falas = Hail is falling (viz., some hail), but La hajlo estas tre malutila al la vinbero = Hail is very injurious to grapes (to the grape), means hail in general. (b). It is not used before proper names, for the simple reason that they cannot be more definite than they are in themselves. In English it is sometimes used and sometimes not. Examples.—Danubo = The Danube. Tibro = The Tiber. Mediteraneo = The Mediterranean. Alpoj = The Alps. Unuigintaj Statoj Amerikaj (or, Usono) = The United States of America. Footnote: [13] This is too strict. In practice the definite article is often used before proper names, and one can say (e.g.) la Alpoj, la Mediteraneo, etc. (c). If, however, a proper name is preceded by a qualifying word, the article is used. Examples. La glora poeto, Dante = The famous poet, Dante. La imperiestro de Japanujo = The Emperor of Japan. La bona regino Viktorio = The good Queen Victoria. 100. The article may be used sometimes where, in English, we use a possessive pronoun. Examples.—Li havas doloron en la kapo = He has a pain in his (the) head. Si prezentis al mi la manon = She offered me her hand. Mi malkovris la okulojn = I uncovered my eyes (see also par. 134(a)). (a). It is also frequently used instead of a possessive pronoun in speaking of one’s own relatives, or when there is no doubt as to the person to whom the article la refers. Examples.—Mi amas la patron = I love my (the) father. Iru al la patrino = Go to your (the) mother. Kie estas la kuzo? = Where is your (the) cousin? La patro staras apud la filo = The father stands by (at the side of) his (the) son. 101. The article is almost always used before numeral adjectives showing the day, hour, month, etc., when these nouns are understood. Example.—Hodiau estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto = To-day is the 27th of March. (a). Its use is optional before the names of the seasons, and also before each separate noun or adjective. Examples.—En la vintro, or, En vintro = In the winter. En la somero, or, En somero = In the summer. La arboj, la floroj kaj la kreskajoj de la gardeno (or, La arboj, floroj kaj kreskajoj) = The trees, (the) flowers and (the) plants of the garden. (b). It is not generally used after ciuj = all, or, all the. Example.—Mi ne vidis ciujn arbojn en la gardeno = I did not see all the trees in the garden. (c). It is not used after da (see par. 259). N.B.—From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the English student will have no difficulty in the use of the article, if he be careful to use it with words defining a class or the totality of persons or things. He will get a good idea of its use if he will carefully study the first few exercises in the "Ekzercaro," or Exercises 1 to 4 in Part III. In case of doubt whether the article should be used or not, it is better to omit it. 102. Elision.—The final A of the article may be omitted in certain cases (see par. 56 and Rule 16, par. 94). THE NOUN (La Substantivo).103. A noun (in the singular number) in all its cases, except the accusative, ends in -O. The accusative is formed by the addition of N. In the plural it ends in -OJ, and the accusative plural is formed by adding N to these letters. Thus the root arb- is made into a noun with its numbers and cases as follows:—
Examples.—Domo = A house. La domo = The house. La domoj = The houses. Rigardu la domojn = Look at the houses. Knabo = A boy. La knabo = The boy. Mi vidis la knabon = I saw the boy. Knabino = A girl. La knabino = The girl. Declension of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns.104. There are but two cases in Esperanto (Rule 2, par. 94), viz., the nominative and the accusative (or objective); the latter is obtained from the nominative by adding N to the singular or plural. Other cases are expressed by the aid of prepositions, as:—
Note that per = by is the instrumental ablative, meaning "by means, or aid, or use, of," and that kun = with means "in company with," but not in an instrumental sense, as it is sometimes in English, e.g., I held him with both hands = Mi lin tenis per ambau manoj, not kun ambau manoj (see par. 259 (22)). Plural.(a). In the plural the declension is the same, with the addition of the plural termination J, as:—
Examples.—La frato skribas, kaj la fratino legas = The brother is writing and the sister reading. La patro donis la libron al sia filo = The father gave the book to his son. Tiu ci kaucuka ringo (or, ringo el kaucuko) estas por la infaneto = This india-rubber ring is for the baby. Mi vidis Jozefon kun lia kuzo = I saw Joseph with his cousin. Venu, ni atendas Vin (Cin), Savinto de la mondo = Come, we await You (Thee), O Saviour of the world. Mi lin salutis per la mano = I saluted him by the hand. La domo estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house is covered with slates. Mi vidis vian patron kun liaj du filoj = I saw your father with his two sons. Kie estas la domo de via patro? = Where is your father’s house? 105. Ellipsis.—The case (nominative or accusative) of words in Esperanto often depends upon the verb omitted when ellipsis occurs in a phrase, and unless we write the sentence in full, or think what the ellipsis is, we may not at first know what case to use to express our meaning. A glance at the following examples will show how easy it is to determine the case. The words in brackets show the ellipsis:—
N.B.—In the above sentences we cannot, in English, tell the meaning until the ellipsis is supplied, whereas, in Esperanto, the meaning is at once clear from the case of the noun or pronoun (par. 112).
105 (a). Elision.—The final O of a noun may be omitted (par. 57, and Rule 16, par. 94). 106. Possession is (a) expressed by help of the preposition de. Examples.—La domo de la patro = The father’s house, or, the house of the father. La libro de mia patrino = My mother’s book, or, the book of my mother. La trancilo de Georgo = George’s knife. Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj = That is my brothers’ house (the house of my brothers). (See par. 73.) (b). Possession is also denoted by the correlative words ending in ES, viz.:—ies = someone’s, somebody’s, cies = everyone’s, kies = whose, nenies = nobody’s, ties = that one’s, of those (see par. 154). Examples.—Cies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different. Kies domo estas tiu? = Whose house is that? Gi estas nenies domo = It is nobody’s house. Cu ci tio estas ies trancilo? = Is this anyone’s (someone’s) knife? (see par. 154). (c). An adjective is sometimes conveniently used when in English we employ an apostrophe. Examples.—Unutaga laboro (for, la laboro de unu tago) = One day’s work. La unuataga laboro (for, la laboro de la unua tago) = The first day’s work. Lia unuataga laboro estis en la gardeno, kaj poste li faris unutagan laboron en la domo = His first day’s work was in the garden, and then (afterwards) he did one day’s work in the house. Mi atendis la kapitanan respondon = I awaited the captain’s reply. (d). In speaking of places, the English preposition "of" is not translated. Examples.—La urbo Londono = The City of London. La Kolonio Natalo = The Colony of Natal (see par. 253 (a)). For numeral nouns, see par. 118; for participial, pars. 208, 209; for predicative, par. 109; for compound nouns, par. 49; for form of accusative with proper names, par. 69 (d); for the infinitive used as a noun, par. 180. THE ADJECTIVE (La Adjektivo).107. The Adjective always ends in -A in the singular. J is added to A to form the plural. The accusative case is formed by the addition of N to the singular or plural termination. Examples.—Forta = Strong. Saga = Wise. Brava = Brave. Forta homo = A strong man. Saga patro = A wise father. Sagaj patroj = Wise fathers. La brava filo = The brave son. La bravaj filoj = The brave sons. 108. There are two kinds of adjectives, viz.:—(a) Qualifying or attributive (apudmetita = put adjacent), and (b) Predicative (predikateca). (a). A qualifying adjective is one placed before or after its noun, with which it agrees both in number and case (par. 36). Examples.—Johano havas bonan panon = John has good bread. Vilhelmo akrigis la trancilojn malakrajn = William sharpened the blunt knives. (b). A predicative adjective, usually placed after the verb, denotes what is said about the noun or pronoun to which it refers, or denotes their state, condition, appearance, etc. It agrees with them in number, but is never in the accusative case (par. 36). Examples.—La pomo estas bona = The apple is good. Vilhelmo trovis la trancilojn malakraj = William found the knives blunt. If the adjective were in this sentence in the accusative, the meaning would be quite altered, for, Vilhelmo trovis la trancilojn malakrajn would mean, "William found the blunt knives," that is to say, he was looking for blunt knives, and he found them. A predicative adjective shows that ellipsis has taken place, and the omitted verb is generally esti. For instance, the ellipsis in the above sentence might be as follows:—William found (that) the knives (are) blunt—Vilhelmo trovis, ke la tranciloj estas malakraj. If we elide ke and estas, the substantive takes the accusative (trancilojn) and the adjective (malakraj) remains in the nominative. Other examples are:—La kutimo faris lin (ke li estu) indiferenta por tio ci (Hamleto V., 1) = Habit made him (to be, lit., that he be) indifferent to this. Kion vi intencas nun fari, por vin montri (ke vi estas) inda filo de via kara patro? (Hamleto IV.,7) = What do you now intend to do to show yourself (that you are) a worthy son of your dear father? (see par. 105 on ellipsis). 109. Predicative Noun.—A noun also can be predicative (see par. 35). Examples.—La patro nomis sian filon Johano = The father named his son John. Now in English it is not clear whether the father gave the name of "John" to his son, or whether he made mention of his son whose name was John. In Esperanto it is quite clear that he gave the name, for otherwise "John" would be in the accusative (Johanon, so:—La patro nomis sian filon Johanon = The father named (made mention of) his son John. Ili nomis lin Adolfo = They called him (gave him the name of) Adolphus. 110. Nominative or Accusative.—The rule, therefore, for qualifying and predicative adjectives or nouns is:— (a). The word will be in the accusative if the object already possesses the quality in question. (b). The word will be in the nominative if that quality, which it did not before possess, or was not known to possess, is being given to the object. 111. Participial Adjectives.—Participles are often used in Esperanto to qualify nouns and pronouns, and they are then in reality true adjectives. To distinguish them from other adjectives they are called "Participial Adjectives" (Participaj adjektivoj). Examples.—Johano kaj Georgo estis perditaj = John and George were lost. Ni trovis ilin mortantajn = We found them (who were) dying. Ni estis finintaj, kiam vi alvenis = We had finished when you arrived (see par. 209 (b)). 112. Comparison of Adjectives. (a). The comparative of equality is tiel ... kiel = as, so ... as. Johano estas tiel forta, kiel Georgo = John is as strong as George. (b). The comparative of superiority is pli ... ol = more ... than. Johano estas pli forta, ol Georgo = John is stronger than George. (c). The comparative of inferiority is malpli ... ol = less ... than. Johano estas malpli forta, ol Georgo = John is less strong (weaker) than George. (d). The other modes of expressing comparison are:—
Examples.—Tia domo, kia tiu, estas malofte vidata = Such a house as that is rarely seen. Mia bastono estas tia sama, kia via, or, Mia bastono estas same, kiel via = My stick is the same as yours. Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin estimas = The more I know him, the more I esteem him. Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the want (need) to sleep. Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li placas al mi = The more I see him, the less he pleases me. Ju malpli mi mangas, des pli mi trinkas = The less I eat, the more I drink. Be careful to note that the second term in a comparison is in the nominative or accusative, according as it is the subject or complement, e.g., Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mia fratino = I love my brother more than my sister (loves him). Mia fratino is in the nominative, amas lin being understood. But Mi amas mian fraton pli, ol mian fratinon = I love my brother more than my sister. Here fratinon is in the accusative, and the meaning is perfectly clear. In English we should have to add "does" to the first example to make the phrase clear: "I love my brother more than my sister does" (see par. 105). 113. Superlatives (Superlativoj). (a). The superlative of superiority is la plej = the most. (b). The superlative of inferiority is la malplej = the least. The preposition el = out of, of, is used with the superlative when it relates to numbers, or something collective, as a "group," "society," etc. But when the superlative relates to the place or position where the superiority is or was, then some other appropriate preposition is used. Examples.—Johano estas la plej forta el la knaboj = John is the strongest of the boys. Petro estis la plej malforta el ciuj = Peter was the weakest of (out of) all. Georgo estas la malplej kuraga knabo en la domo = George is the least courageous boy in the house. Si estis la plej bela virino, kiun mi iam vidis = She was the most beautiful woman whom I ever saw. Tiuj ci estas la plej grandaj arboj en la arbaro = These are the largest trees in the wood. Li estis la plej bona Esperantisto el la grupo (klubo, societo) = He was the best Esperantist of the group (club, society). Metu la plej grandajn glasojn sur la tablon = Put the largest glasses upon the table. Ne jetu la plej grandajn stonojn en la puton, sed la plej malgrandajn (malplej grandajn) = Do not throw the largest stones into the well, but the smallest (the least large). (c). The superlative absolute is indicated by tre = very, or treege = exceedingly, or troe = excessively, or some other suitable adverb. Example.—Tiu virino estas tre malbela kaj treege grasa = That woman is very ugly and exceedingly fat. 114. Degrees of intensity of adjectives can also be shown by the aid of the suffixes -EG- and -ET- with or without an adverb. The suffix -EG- is stronger in its application than the adverb tre = very. For instance, take the adjective bela = beautiful, or fine. Tre bela = very beautiful, or very fine; but belega = magnificent, or superb. So, the diminutive -ET- shows more diminution than the adjective malgranda = small, or little, would show when qualifying a noun. For instance, malgranda rivero = a small river, but rivereto = a brook, or stream. The following list shows how twelve adjectives of varying shades of intensity can be formed from the root varm-, between the extremes tre varmega = broiling hot and tre malvarmega = intensely cold, supposing we were speaking of the weather:—
See remarks on the suffixes -EG- and -ET-, par. 277. NUMERALS.Cardinal Numbers (Numeraloj fundamentaj).115. The cardinal numbers are:— (1) unu, (2) du, (3) tri, (4) kvar, (5) kvin, (6) ses, (7) sep, (8) ok, (9) nau, (10) dek, (100) cent, (1,000) mil, (0) (zero, naught) = nulo. Miliono (million) is a noun, the root being milion-. (a). The numbers 11 to 19 are formed by simply placing (10) dek before the first nine, as:—(11) dek unu, (12) dek du, (13) dek tri, (14) dek kvar, (15) dek kvin, (16) dek ses, (17) dek sep, (18) dek ok, (19) dek nau. (b). The numbers (101 to 119), or (1,001 to 1,019), are formed by the addition cent, or mil, as:—(101) cent unu, (102) cent du, (110) cent dek, (116) cent dek ses, (1,001) mil unu, (1,006) mil ses, (1,114) mil cent dek kvar. (c). The tens, hundreds, and thousands are formed by prefixing one of the numbers 2 to 9 before dek, cent, or mil, as:—(20) dudek, (30) tridek, (40) kvardek, (200) ducent, (500) kvincent, (900) naucent, (2,000) dumil, (4,000) kvarmil, (8,000) okmil. (d). The intermediate numbers (21 to 29), (31 to 39), etc., are formed by adding the required number to the tens, as:—(21) dudek unu, (22) dudek du, (33) tridek tri, (96) naudek ses, (121) cent dudek unu, (342) tricent kvardek du, (1,021) mil dudek unu, (8,754) okmil sepcent kvindek kvar. (e). The cardinal numbers never change their forms for case or number. Examples.—La du infanoj dividis inter si sep pomojn = The two children divided between themselves seven apples. Unu prenis tri kaj la alia prenis kvar el la pomoj = One took three and the other took four of the apples. Kvin kaj sep faras (or, estas) dek du = 5 and 7 make (are) 12. (f). Unu is sometimes used in the plural, and unuj then means some. It is used generally in relation with aliaj = others. Examples.—El siaj multaj infanoj, unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj = Among (out of) her many children, some are good and others bad. Li ekzamenis la pomojn, kaj trovis unujn bonaj kaj aliajn malbonaj = He examined the apples, and found some good and others bad. Note that bonaj and malbonaj are predicative adjectives, and therefore in the nominative (see pars. 36, 108 (b)). (g). Unu is sometimes used when our indefinite article is employed as a numeral. Example.—Car ciu el ni havas unu vortaron, prenu vian kaj lasu mian = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine. Footnote: [14] This use of unu is not recommended. Ordinal Numbers (Numeraloj ordaj).116. Ordinal numbers, being really adjectives, are, in Esperanto, made such in the usual way by adding A to the cardinals, as:—unua = first, dua = second, tria = third, kvara = fourth, kvina = fifth, sesa = sixth, sepa = seventh, oka = eighth, naua = ninth, deka = tenth. (a). If the cardinal is composed of two or more numbers, A is added to the last only, as:—dek-unua = eleventh, dek-dua = twelfth, dek-naua = nineteenth, dudeka = twentieth, dudek-unua = twenty-first, cent-tridek-naua = hundred and thirty-ninth. N.B.—Note that the ordinal numbers are linked by hyphens. (b). The Ordinals follow all the rules of adjectives as to case and number. Examples.—Donu al li la trian, kaj prenu la kvaran = Give him the third, and take the fourth. La kvinaj etagoj de tiuj domoj estas tre altaj = The fifth stories of those houses are very high. (c). The Ordinals are usually used in speaking of pages, hours, days, months, years, kings, etc. Examples.—Pago trideka = Page thirty. Vidu pagon kvardekan (or, 40an) = See page forty (40). Henriko kvara = Henry IV. La dek-unua horo = 11 o’clock. En la dek-sesa (tago) de Aprilo = On the 16th of April. En la jaro mil-okcent-naudek-naua = In 1899. Mil-naucent-kvara = 1904. In asking questions about the above, the adjective kioma is often used. Examples.—Sur kioma pago vi vidis tion? = On what page did you see that? Kioma pago estas? = What page is it? Kioma horo estas? = What o’clock is it? Estas la dua = It is two o’clock. Kiun daton ni havas? = What is the date (or, day of the month)? Hodiau estas la dudek-sepa (or, 27a) de Marto = To-day is the 27th of March. 117. Ordinal adverbs are formed by adding E to the cardinals, as:—unue, firstly, due, secondly, sepe, seventhly, etc. 118. Substantives are formed from the cardinals by adding O. They have various meanings, as:—Unuo = a unit, or a one. Duo = a duet, or a two (of cards). Trio = a trio, or triplet, or a three (of cards). Kvaro, etc. = a four, etc. (of cards, etc., up to ten). Dek-duo = a dozen. Deko = half a score. Dudeko = a score. Cento = a hundred. Milo = a thousand. Miliono = a million. Examples.—Li havas dudekojn da cevaloj, centojn da safoj, kaj milojn da birdoj = He has scores of horses, hundreds of sheep, and thousands of birds. Tiuj ludkartoj estas la kvaro pika kaj la seso kera = Those cards are the four of spades and the six of hearts. Tiu cifero estas oko = That figure is an eight. Multiples (Numeraloj multoblaj).119. Multiples are formed by the addition of the suffix -OBL- to the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun. They can also be formed into transitive verbs by the suffix -IGI-, or intransitive by the suffix -IGI-. Examples.—Unuobla = Single. Unuoble = Singly. Duobla = Double, twofold. Duoble = Doubly. La duoblo = The double. Duobligi = To double, to duplicate. Duobligi = To become double. Triobla = Triple, threefold. Trioble = Trebly. La trioblo = The treble (of). Triobligi = To treble, to triplicate. Kvarobla = Fourfold, quadruple. Kvaroble = Quadruply. Kvaroblo = A quadruple. Kvarobligi = To quadruple, to make fourfold. Kvarobligi = To become quadruple. Sepobla = Sevenfold, septuple. Centoblo = A centuple. Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin = Five times (fivefold) 7 is 35. Nauoble ok estas sepdek du = Nine times (ninefold) 8 is 72. Kvaroble kvar estas dek ses = Four times four is 16. Dudek estas la kvaroblo de kvin = Twenty is the quadruple of five. Duobla fadeno estas pli forta ol unuobla = A double thread is stronger than a single (one). Kvarobligante sepdek kvin vi ricevas la centoblon de tri = By quadrupling 75 you get the centuple of 3. Fractional Numbers (Numeraloj nombronaj).120. Fractional numbers are formed by the addition of the suffix -ON- to the cardinals, and then adding A, E, or O to mark the adjective, adverb, or noun, as:—Duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1/2), triona = third, trione = by thirds, triono = a third (1/3). Examples.—La kvarona parto de dudek kvar estas la duono de dek du, tio estas ses = The fourth part of 24 is the half of 12, that is 6. Unu triono = One third (1/3). Tri okonoj = Three eighths (3/8). Neniam faru ion poduone = Never do anything by halves. Duone ses estas tri = half of six is three. The Collectives (Numeraloj kolektaj).121. The collectives are formed by the addition of the suffix -OP- to the cardinals, and then adding A or E to mark adjectives or adverbs, as:—Duopa = double, two together, duope = by twos, in pairs, triope = in threes, in triplets, dekope = by tens. Example.—Kvinope ili sin jetis sur min = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me. Reiteratives (Numeraloj ripetaj).122. Reiteratives are formed by adding the adverb foje to the cardinals, as:—Unufoje = once, dufoje = twice, trifoje = thrice, kvarfoje = four times. Examples.—Hierau mi renkontis lin unufoje (or, unu fojon), sed hodiau dufoje (or, du fojojn) = Yesterday I met him once, but to-day twice. N.B.—Note that when the substantive fojo is used, it is in the accusative, as denoting point of time (par. 68 (b)). Distributives (Numeraloj disdividaj).123. Distributives are marked by the preposition po placed before the cardinals, meaning at the rate of, in the proportion of. Examples.—Al ciu el la laborantoj mi pagis po kvin silingoj = I paid each of the workmen at the rate of five shillings. Tiu ci libro enhavas sesdek pagojn; tial, se mi legos en ciu tago po dek kvin pagoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj = This book contains 60 pages, therefore if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days (see "po" in list of prepositions, par. 259 (22)). The Time of Day (La horo).124. There are several possible ways of expressing the time of day. "A quarter to three" (2.45) may be either:— (a). Tri kvaronoj de la tria = three-quarters of the 3rd (hour). (b). La dua kaj tri kvaronoj = the 2nd (hour) and three-quarters. (c). Kvarono antau la tria = a quarter before the 3rd (hour). The last example is the only one which would be easily understood by an Englishman. Other nations use one or two of these methods, hence we find a diversity of methods used in Esperanto also. There is, however, one way used by nearly all nations, namely, that in railway time tables, and it is to be hoped that this will come into general use. Therefore to the question:—Kioma horo estas? = What time (hour) is it? we might simply say as follows:—
In Italy, Belgium, etc., where the hours are numbered from one to twenty-four, this system is equally applicable, as:—4.10 p.m. in Italy = 16.10 = La dek-sesa (horo) dek. PRONOUNS (Pronomoj).125. There are seven classes of Pronouns:—(1) Personal, (2) Possessive, (3) Relative, (4) Interrogative, (5) Demonstrative, (6) Distributive or Collective, (7) Indefinite. As, however, the last five classes are so intimately connected with other parts of speech, and as some of the pronouns represent two classes, and some two parts of speech, it is better to treat them as correlative words (see pars. 139–157), so under the head of "Pronouns" we give only the personal and possessive. Personal Pronouns (personaj pronomoj).126. The personal pronouns are:— Nominative.
Accusative.
Oni = one, people, they, we (like the French "on"), is an indefinite pronoun of the 3rd person. Oni may be deemed singular or plural. Owing to the fact that in most languages the word corresponding to oni is invariable, Esperanto authors have generally avoided the accusative and possessive forms onin and onia, although they are occasionally met with. These forms are, however, perfectly regular, and may be used without hesitation if desired. Si = self, selves, oneself, is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, singular or plural. Vi, like "you" in English, represents both the singular and plural, but when it refers to more than one person, words depending on it take the plural form. Gi, like "it" in English, is used to represent things, and also persons and animals when the name does not reveal the sex. Examples.—Mi lin amas = I love him. Li min vidas = He sees me. Ili trovis lin kaj min en la gardeno = They found him and me in the garden. Vi ne vidis nin = You did not see us. Vi (plural) estas pli sagaj, ol ili (estas) = You are wiser than they are. Si vidis ilin en la dormocambro = She saw them in the bedroom. Oni diras, "Per mono oni povas aceti cion" = They (people) say (it is said), "With money one (or, we) can buy everything. Mi vidis la domon, sed gi estis tro malgranda = I saw the house, but it was too small. Se oni estus rica, or ricaj = If one were rich. (a).—In words like infano = child, persono = person, individuo = individual, etc., the sex is not revealed; neither is it in the general name of an animal, as:—leono = a lion, hundo = a dog, birdo = a bird, etc., unless we add the feminine suffix -ino. In all such cases, when we do not know the sex, we use the pronoun gi. If, however, the sex is known, and we wish to demonstrate it, we can use the pronouns li or si respectively. Zamenhof advises the use of li and si for human beings only, and of gi for all other animals, even when the sex of the animal is known and indicated; the use of li or si in such cases is nevertheless legitimate if desired. Examples.—La infano forkuris, kiam mi parolis al gi (or li if we know the sex) = The child ran away when I spoke to it. Tio estas bela cevalino, gi (or, si) trotas bone = That is a fine mare, she trots well. Se iu vizitos min dum mi forestas, diru al gi, ke gi revenu morgau = If anyone (someone) should call upon (visit) me whilst I am away, tell him or her (it) to come again to-morrow. Footnote: [15] This use of gi for a person is not recommended, and li (or tiu) would be better in a case where there is doubt as to the sex. 127. The word mem = self or selves is sometimes used with a personal pronoun or noun to give emphasis. Examples.—Mi mem gin vidis = I myself saw it. Ni mem gin trovis, or, Ni gin trovis mem = We found it ourselves. Vi venu mem = Come yourself. Si mem parolos = She herself will speak. Li mem respondu = Let him answer (for) himself. La virinoj venu mem = Let the women come themselves. 128. Si is a reflexive pronoun of the 3rd person, and therefore cannot refer to the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons. Examples.—Li razis sin = He shaved himself. Petro razis sin = Peter shaved himself (Petro razis lin would mean Peter shaved him, viz., some other man referred to in the sentence). Si diris al si = She said to herself (Si diris al si would mean "She said to her," viz., some other woman). Gi vundis sin = It wounded itself (Gi vundis gin would mean "It wounded it," viz., some other animal). Ili mortigis sin = They killed themselves. Li pensis en si mem, ke ... = He thought to (in) himself that ... La du fratoj renkontas la rabistojn: la fratoj atakas kaj vundas ilin, sed, tiel farante, ili vundas sin (or, sin mem) = The two brothers meet the robbers: the brothers attack and wound them, but, in so doing, they wound themselves. Mia fratino havas amikinon, kiu faras cion por si, kaj nenion por si = My sister has a friend, who does everything for herself, and nothing for her. Oni kelkfoje tro laudas sin = One (or people) sometimes praises oneself (or praise themselves) too much (see conjugation of a reflexive verb, par. 170). Footnote: [16] The reason for the use of si is the avoidance of ambiguity. Si is not used with the 1st and 2nd persons, because there is no possibility of ambiguity in these cases. 129. The pronoun "it" is not expressed with impersonal verbs (see par. 164). Examples.—Kiu estas tie? Estas mi = Who is there? It is I. Negas = It snows. Pluvis = It rained. Necesas, ke oni mangu = It is necessary to eat. Possessive Pronouns (Pronomoj posedaj).130. Possessive Pronouns are formed by adding the adjectival A to the personal pronouns. They are essentially adjectives, and follow the adjectival rules as to the formation of the plural and the accusative. 131. They are mia = my, mine, via = your, yours, thy, thine (cia = thy, thine, like its personal pronoun, ci, is rarely used), lia = his, sia = her, hers, gia = its, nia = our, ours, ilia = their, theirs, sia = his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, one’s (own). Examples.—Mia patro, via frato, lia fratino, sia onklo, kaj iliaj onklinoj, estas en la domo = My father, your brother, his sister, her uncle, and their aunts are in the house. Mi vidis vian libron, lian bastonon, sian ombrelon, kaj ilian keston en la stacidomo = I saw your book, his stick, her umbrella, and their box in the station. Mi havas viajn librojn = I have your books. Gia koloro estas ruga = Its colour is red. Mia fratino renkontis vian fraton kaj viajn amikojn = My sister met your brother and your friends. 132. When a possessive pronoun stands alone, as in sentences like the following, it may or may not be preceded by the article la, at the writer’s option, but many authors prefer to omit the article on the ground that it is superfluous. Examples.—Car ni ciuj havas (or, car ciu el ni havas) unu vortaron, prenu (la) vian kaj lasu (la) mian = Since we have each a dictionary, take yours and leave mine. Siaj infanoj estas pli grandaj, ol (la) viaj = Her children are bigger than yours. Note in the first example that ciuj is in the plural because it is in apposition to ni (see par. 69 (c)). 133. Mia is sometimes placed after a noun to denote affection. Examples.—Patrino mia = Mother mine, or Mother dear. Fratino mia = Sister dear. 134. When a possessive pronoun refers to two or more nouns, it may, as in English, be repeated or not, but if it is not repeated the possessive pronoun is usually put in the plural. Example.—Lia patro, lia patrino, kaj lia fratino, or, liaj patro, patrino, kaj fratino, estis en la domo = His father, his mother, and his sister were in the house. 134 (a). Personal pronouns, preceded by the preposition al, are sometimes used in a possessive sense. Examples.—Mi kovris al mi la orelojn = I covered my (to myself the) ears. Li fermis al si la okulojn = He closed his (to himself the) eyes (see also par. 100). 135. Sia, Lia, etc.—Great care must be taken not to use sia, when the sense requires one of the other possessives of the 3rd person, or vice versÂ. Sia can only refer to the subject of the sentence or proposition in which it occurs, and being reflexive, it can never form part of the subject of a sentence, as:—Li diris al ni, ke lia (not, sia) hundo jus mortis = He told us that his dog had just died. Like its root si, it is used for the 3rd person, singular or plural, and may represent "his (own), her (own), hers, its (own), their (own), theirs, or one’s (own)." Since sia, being reflexive, can never form part of the subject of a sentence, we cannot say Li kaj sia edzino iris Parizon, because li and edzino are equally subjects of the same clause. But if we substitute kun for kaj, then li becomes the sole subject, and we can correctly say, Li kun sia edzino iris Parizon, or, Li iris Parizon kun sia edzino = He went to Paris with his wife. If we use kaj we must say, Li kaj lia edzino iris Parizon = He and his wife went to Paris. 136. In the four following examples sia refers to the subject of the sentence:— Mia patrino forgesis sian libron = My mother forgot (or, has forgotten) her book. Tiuj infanoj perdis siajn gepatrojn = Those children have lost their parents. La hundo amas sian mastron = The dog loves its master. Oni devas ami sian najbaron, kiel sin mem = One must love one’s neighbour as oneself. N.B.—Sin is here in the accusative owing to ellipsis, the words oni amas after kiel being understood (see par. 105). 137. In the following three sentences the possessive pronoun does not refer to the subject of the sentence, and therefore we use lia, sia, gia, or ilia, as the case may be:— Li vidis mian amikon kaj lian edzinon = He saw my friend and his (his friend’s) wife. Si venis al mi hierau, por ke mi redonu siajn leterojn al si = She came to me yesterday in order that I might return her letters to her. La rego amas Johanon kaj lian filon = The king loves John and his son. N.B.—Here the English does not show whether it is John’s son or his own son whom the king loves, but in Esperanto it is clear it is John’s son, otherwise it would be sian filon; lian filon is in the accusative here, because the conjunction kaj connects like cases (see par. 266). (a). Note in the following examples how the possessive varies in accordance with the construction of the sentence. El ciuj siaj amikinoj, si plej amas Marion = Of all her friends (female), she loves Mary best. (Here siaj refers to si). El ciuj siaj amikinoj, Mario estas le plej amata = Of all her friends, Mary is the most loved. (Here siaj refers to some woman not mentioned.) Leginte sian libron, li ekdormis = After reading (having read) his book, he fell asleep. (Here sian refers to li, understood in leginte = When he had read his book, he ...). Leginte lian libron, li ekdormis = After reading his book, he fell asleep. (Here lian refers to some man not mentioned, who might have lent him the book.) Johano, legante sian libron, venkigis de dormo = John, while reading his book, was (became) overcome by sleep. 138. The following are sentences more complicated, showing the advantage of Esperanto over English, or indeed over most national languages, in respect of its great clearness of expression:— Petro skribis al Paulo, ke li konduku al li sian hundon = Peter wrote to Paul to bring him his dog (sian refers to Paul because li = he (Paul) becomes the subject, and sia always, as we have said, refers to the subject of its own particular clause; if, therefore, lian had been the possessive, it would have been Peter’s dog.) Post kiam la rego mortis, lia filo edzigis kun sia/lia kuzino = After the king died, his son married his cousin. Here sia would refer to filo, the son’s cousin, but lia to rego, the king’s cousin. Mia patrino petis sian filinon, ke si donu al sia/sia fratino sian/sian libron. This sentence in English, whichever of the possessives be used, would be "My mother requested her daughter to give (that she give) to her sister her book." Now the mother is the first subject in this sentence, therefore sian filinon is the mother’s daughter (sian would mean someone else’s daughter). But afterwards si (the daughter) becomes the subject, therefore sia fratino would be the daughter’s sister, and sia fratino the mother’s. For the remainder of the sentence si (the daughter) still remains the subject, therefore sian libron would be the daughter’s book, and sian libron the sister’s or the mother’s book. Ties libron would definitely specify it as the sister’s book. 138 (a). From the examples given in paragraphs 128, 135, 136, and 138, we see that the reflexive pronoun si and the possessive sia always refer to the subject (noun or pronoun) of their own clause. (b). Si and sia are likewise used when the noun or pronoun to which they refer is not expressed, but only understood. Example.—Tio estas nova metodo brosi sian (or, la) capelon! = That is a new method of brushing one’s hat! (c). Phrases introduced by an infinitive or a participle may be regarded as new sentences, the subject of which is mentally supplied: i.e., the infinitive or the participle may be expanded to make the full sentence implied. Examples of Infinitive.—Estas bone ne trompi (ke oni ne trompu) sin = It is well not to deceive oneself. La patrino lasis Marion legi (ke si legu) sian libron (Mary’s book); sian libron (the mother’s book). La oficiro petis Auguston rigardi (ke li rigardu) lin (him) sin (himself). La patro petis sian filon, helpi (ke la filo helpu) sian (the son’s) amikon; lian (the father’s) amikon. Examples of Participle.—La rego ordonis, ke ciuj renkontante (kiam ili renkontis) lin, eliru. La princo montris viron, starantan post li. La knabo vidis siajn fratinojn, ludantajn (kiuj ludas) per sia (their own) pupo—per lia (with his) pupo. La rego forveturis, ne sciiginte (kaj ne sciigis) sian ministron pri sia (the king’s) devo—pri lia (the minister’s) devo. (d). Boirac names lia, sia, gia, etc., the direct or normal form of the pronoun, "La rekta formo," and sia the secondary or accessory form, "flanka kaj akcesora." He points out that where the use of the normal form could cause no possible ambiguity, the use of the reflexive form, though always advisable if justified by rule, is nevertheless not obligatory. It is even possible, as shown by Millidge, that the non-use of si may in some cases be felt to be somewhat clearer than its use, e.g., "La Hino legas siajn skribajn signojn en sia dialekto, kaj la aliaj popoloj de Azio legas tiujn samajn signojn en ilia (instead of sia) lingvo (F.K., p. 258). In any case it is better, in case of doubt, to use the normal form. It is worse to use the reflexive form when it should not be used, than to omit it when it might be used. CORRELATIVE WORDS. (Korelativaj Vortoj.)139. The 45 correlative words (see table, par. 147) form a very important part in the construction of the Esperanto language. Their uses and meanings are very easily learnt and remembered, since they have been exceedingly cleverly devised on a simple and uniform plan. They are all to be found in the list of Primary Words given in Part V. 140. They consist of nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs. Many of them can be applied to denote not only one word, but also expressions which require several English words to define clearly. 141. The words in the table (par. 147) are placed in series horizontally and vertically. All the words in each of the vertical series commence with the same letter, and all in each horizontal series have the same termination. It will be seen that the letter I is the first letter in the first vertical series, and that this is a central letter in each of the other words in the table. The first letter of a word conveys an idea of its meaning, and the terminal letters following I show how that idea is applied, and consequently the full meaning of the word. (a). The initial letters convey the following ideas:—
(b). The terminal letters following I denote that the idea is to be applied, in accordance with the termination, as follows:—
142. The correlative words are all complete in themselves, but some of them can be used as root-words, taking grammatical terminations when required by the sense to be conveyed. Those ending in the vowels A, E, O, U, must not necessarily be presumed to be the parts of speech these letters indicate; the letters are not grammatical terminations, they simply show, as before stated, how the idea conveyed in the preceding letters is to be applied. Those ending in a vowel all take the accusative N, and those ending in A and U also take the plural J. Theoretically it is possible for the words ending in O also to take the plural J; but in practice this is seldom useful. 143. The demonstrative pronouns, tio = that (thing), tiu = that one, the former, and sometimes cio, are followed by the separate word ci = near, to express the demonstrative pronoun, "this." Ci is invariable, but tio and tiu can be inflected as before stated. Thus tio = that (thing), tio ci = this (thing) (lit., "that here"), tion ci (accusative) = this (thing). Tiu = that one, the former, tiu ci = this one, the latter. Tiuj = those, tiuj ci = these (lit., "those here"). Often ci is placed first, as:—Ci tiu = this one. In fact, other things being equal, it is preferable to place ci before rather than after the t- word, though both forms are equally correct. Cio ci = all this. 144. The adverb, tie = there, is also followed by ci to denote "here." Thus tie = there, tie ci = here, tien (accusative) = thither, tien ci = hither. Occasionally ci is placed first, thus: ci tie, ci tien. 145. The interrogative or relative series (viz., those commencing with K) may be followed by the word ajn = ever, as kia ajn = whatever kind of, kial ajn = for whatever reason, kiam ajn = whenever, kie ajn = wherever, kiel ajn = however, kies ajn = whosesoever, kio ajn = whatever, kiom ajn = however much, whatever quantity, kiu ajn = whoever, whichever. Some writers use ajn after other correlatives, but Dr. Zamenhof himself has rarely used it except after the series kia, kial, etc. However, he does not say it is wrong to extend its use, for when asked the question whether it could be employed after the series ia, ial, etc., he replied that it could, because, in Esperanto, any word could be combined with any other. See par. 158 (c) (d). 146. Grammatical terminations and suffixes may be added to the correlatives if required, thus making them nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, etc., as shown in the following examples. The hyphens are given to show the construction of the words, but should not be used in writing. Ciam-a = Everlasting, continual. Ciam-e = Everlastingly, forever. Cie-a = Of everywhere. Ci-tie-a (ci tiea) = Of here. Tie-a = Of there. Ci-tie-ulo (ci tieulo) = A man of this place. Tie-ulo = A man of that place. Kiom-a = Of what quantity. Kioma horo estas? = What time is it? Neni-igi = To reduce to nothing, to destroy completely. Neni-igi = To become nothing, to vanish. Tiam-a = Of then, of that time. Tiam-ulo = A man of that time, a contemporary. La kial-o = The why and wherefore, the reason (cause). Tiel-e = In that way. 147. TABLE OF CORRELATIVE WORDS.
Examples of the Use of Correlative Words.148. In the following examples (pars. 149–157) we have taken the correlative words in the table in the nine horizontal series, since in this way we can best show how some of the words are used in pairs. 149. Series ending in A (quality, kind of), adjectival.
Examples.—Cu vi ne havas ian libron, kiu klarigos tion? = Have you not some book which will explain that? Mi havas ian ideon kiel gin fari = I have some (or, an) idea how to do it. Ekster cia dubo = Beyond any (every sort of) doubt. Tiaj frazoj trovigas en ciaj libroj = Such (kind of) phrases are found in all kinds (sorts) of (or, in any) books. Ni ne scias, kiel ili farigis tiaj, kiaj ili estas = We do not know how they became what (such as) they are. Nenia antaua sperto estas necesa = No (kind of) previous experience is necessary. Tian virinon oni ciam estimas = Such a woman one always esteems. Mi donis al li la libron tian, kia gi estas = I gave him the book such as it was. Kiun agon li havas? = How old is he? (what age has he?) Kia estas la vetero? = How (what kind) is the weather? Komencante de (k)ia ajn momento = Commencing at any (whatever) moment. Kia bela domo! = What a beautiful house! Kiaj estas la kondicoj? = What are the stipulations (or terms)? Ili estas fieraj, ni ne estas tiaj = They are proud, we are not so. Si eksentis ion tian, kion si mem komence ne povis kompreni = She began to feel something such as she herself at first could not understand. Mi jus eksciis iajn aferojn, kiuj ne placas al mi = I have just learnt some things that do not please me (that I do not like). Jen estas la monumento tia, kian oni priskribis = Here is the monument such as they described. Via ago estas tia sama, kiel tiu de via frato = Your age is the same as your brother’s. N.B.—Do not confuse the series ending in A with that ending in U. Examples.—Kian libron vi bezonas? = What (sort of) book do you want? Kiun libron vi bezonas? = What (or which) book do you want? Tia homo = Such a man, that sort of man. Tiu homo = That man. Ciaj libroj = All (kinds of) books. Ciuj libroj = All (or, all the) books. Mi gin prenos, kia ajn gi estas = I shall take it whatever (sort of thing) it is. 150. Series ending in AL (motive, reason for), adverbial.
Examples.—Ial li subite forlasis Londonon = For some reason he suddenly left London. Cial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best. Kial vi ne respondis? = Why did you not answer? Li nenial cesis skribi al mi = He for no reason ceased writing to me. Si neniam volis sekvi mian konsilon, tial mi forlasis sin = She never would follow my advice, therefore I forsook her. Mi ne povas imagi kial ajn li gin faris = I cannot imagine why ever he did it. 151. Series ending in AM (time), adverbial.
Examples.—Se iam mi venos = If ever I come (shall come). Ciam skribu legeble = Always write legibly. En tiaj okazoj ciam mankas io = On such occasions something is always wanting. Kiam vi skribis tiel? = When did you write like that (thus)? Kiam la pastro venos, diru al li la veron = When the priest comes (shall come), tell him the truth. Tiam, kiam mi estis rica, mi ne estis felica, or, Kiam mi estis rica, tiam mi ne estis felica = At that time when (or, when) I was rich I was not happy, or, When I was rich then I was not happy, or the sentence might be simply Kiam mi estis rica, mi ne estis felica = When I was rich I was not happy. Mi neniam skribas longajn leterojn = I never write long letters. Mi neniam audis tion = I never heard that. Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he comes. Kiam ajn li venos? = Whenever will he come? N.B.—Kiam is used after tiam, and any word denoting "time" except antau = before, when ol is generally used, though kiam is used occasionally after antau also (see par. 259 (3)). Examples.—Unutage, kiam = One day, when. Iun tagon, kiam = On a day, when. Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when. Samtempe, kiam = At the same time, when. De l’ tempo kiam = From the time when, since. Post kiam = After. Antau ol li venis = Before he came. 152. Series ending in E (place), adverbial.
Examples.—Mi ne povis trovi mian libron ie en la cambro = I could not find my book anywhere in the room. Cu vi metis gin ien? = Did you put it anywhere (somewhere)? Cie mi trovis amikojn = Everywhere I found friends. Tion oni povas aceti cie = That can be bought (one can buy) anywhere (everywhere). Kien vi iras? = Where are you going? Mi iras nenien = I am going nowhere. Kie estas la postoficejo? = Where is the post office? Gi estas tie, kie staras tiu domo = It is there where that house stands. Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going? Mi iras tien = I am going thither. Cu vi estas ci tie? = Are you here? Li venas ci tien = He is coming here. Kie ajn li estas? = Wherever is he? Kie ajn li estas, li ne estas tie ci = Wherever he is, he is not here. 153. Series in EL (manner), adverbial.
Examples.—Iel li ciel sukcesas = Somehow he succeeds in every way. Mi havis nenian ideon, kiel gin fari = I had no idea how to do it. Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? or, How are you? Si neniel povis lin kompreni tiel longe, kiel li parolis la lingvon francan = She could nohow (or, not at all) understand him as long as he spoke in the French language. Same kiel la prudento estas donita al la homo, tiel la instinkto estas donita al la besto = Just as reason has been given to man, so instinct has been given to beasts. Kaj tiel plu (often written k.t.p.) = And so on, and so forth. Kiel eble plej baldau (k.e.p.b.) = As soon as possible. Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you. Kiel ajn malmulte = However little. 154. Series ending in ES (possession), pronominal; relate to thing or person, singular or plural.
Examples.—Cies devo estas nenies = Anybody’s (everybody’s) duty is nobody’s. Ies perdo ne estas ciam ies gajno = Someone’s loss is not always somebody’s gain. Cies ideo estis diversa = Everyone’s idea was different. Kies libro estas tiu ci? = Whose book is this? Kies plumon vi uzas? = Whose pen are you using? La domo, kies tegmenton vi vidas, apartenas al mia patro = The house the roof of which you see belongs to my father. El kies ciuj pasoj, oni povas konkludi, ke ili estas lacaj = From all of whose steps we can conclude that they are tired. Tiu libro estas tre malpura, kies ajn gi estas = That book is very dirty, whosesoever it is. Ties opinio ne multe valoras = That one’s opinion is not worth much. Mi neniam sekvas ties konsilon = I never take (follow) that one’s (his, her, their) advice. N.B.—Be careful not to use kies for "of which," when these words do not mean possession. We cannot say La afero kies ni parolis for "The affair of which we spoke"; we must say La afero, pri kiu ni parolis. 155. Series ending in O (thing (not specified) indefinite), substantival or pronominal.
Examples.—Kio estas tio, kion vi skribas? = What is that (or, that which) you are writing? Io estis sub la tablo, sed mi ne povis vidi ion tie = Something was under the table, but I could not see anything (something) there. Li vidis ion, kion li tre amis = He saw something he liked very much. Estas tempo por cio = There is a time for everything. Cio (tio) ci montras, ke ... = All this shows that ... Cio, kion mi havas, estas (la) via = All I have is yours. Kio estas tio ci, kion mi vidas? = What is this that I see? Nenio estas preta = Nothing is ready. Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing. Tio havas malbonan odoron, kio ajn gi estas = It (that) has a bad smell, whatever it is. Li ne diris ec unu vorton pri cio tio ci (or, cio ci) al iu = He did not say even one word about all this to anyone. 156. Series ending in OM (quantity), adverbial.
Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer. Jen estas sukero, prenu iom, sed ne ciom = Here is sugar, take some, but not all (the whole). Kiom da cevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you? Mi havas neniom = I have none (none at all). Tiom pli bone = So much the better. Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to remember. Donu al mi tiom da akvo, kiom da vino = Give me as much water as wine. Kiom vi scias = As far (much) as you know. Kiom eble = As far (much) (many) as possible. Kiom ajn da teo tiu kesto povas enhavi, tiu ci povas enhavi duoble tiom = Whatever quantity (however much) of tea that chest will (can) hold, this one will hold twice as much. 157. Series ending in U (persons or specified things), pronominal or adjectival.
Examples.—Iu estas tie = Someone is there. Mi ne vidis iun = I did not see anyone (someone). Ciu ago havas siajn devojn = Each age has its duties. Si legis ciun libron, kiun si povis ricevi = She read every book she could get. Kiu estas en la gardeno? = Who is in the garden? Mi konis ciun viron, kiun mi renkontis = I knew every man whom I met. Mi legis ciujn librojn, kiujn vi pruntis al mi = I read all the books that you lent to me. Tiu pano estas fresa, sed tiu ci estas pli fresa = That bread is new, but this is newer. Tiu, kiu havas la harojn nigrajn = He who has the black hair. Neniu estis tie, tial mi vidis neniun = No one was there, therefore I saw nobody. Tiu homo, kiu ajn li estas, ne estas malsagulo = That man, whoever he is, is not a fool. Si farigis edzino de iu bankiero, kiun si konis pli bone, ol ciun alian = She became wife of a certain (someone, a) banker, whom she knew better than anyone (everyone) else. Ciu vorto povas esti kombinata kun ciu alia = Any (each) word can be combined with any (each) other word. Li pli sincere malgojis je li, ol (k)iu ajn el liaj parencoj = He was more sincerely sorry for him, than any of his relations. La pafilo povos en ciu tempo (ciam) esti sargita = The gun can be (will be able to be) loaded at any time. Li ne permesos al (k)iu ajn tion fari = He will not allow anyone (whatever) to do that (see par. 158 (d)). 158. General Remarks.—The foregoing remarks on the correlative words show the importance of a correct knowledge of their true meanings. Twenty or more of them will be found in nearly every page of the "Krestomatio." Note the following difference in meaning of those ending in:— (a). -AL and -EL. It will be noticed that the series AL represent phrases in English commencing with "for," as:—"for some reason," "for every reason," etc.; whereas in the series EL the phrases commence with "in," as:—"in some way," "in every way." Bear in mind that -AL relates to motive, and -EL to manner. Note the difference of meaning in tial and tiel when followed by ke. Tial, ke = for the reason that, forasmuch as, because that. Tiel, ke = in such a manner that, so that. Some beginners seem to think that kial and kiel have no difference in meaning, which is equivalent to using "why" and "how" indiscriminately. Kial li faras tion? = Why (for what reason) is he doing that? Kiel li faras tion? = How (in what way) is he doing that? (b). -O and -U. The series O is rarely used in the plural; it relates to things which are not mentioned by name or referred to by a personal pronoun. Examples.—Kio estas tio? = What is that? Kiu estas tiu? = Who is that? Tiu estas mia frato, kiu promenadas kun sia edzino = That is my brother who is walking with his wife. Tio estas, kion mi bezonis = That is what I wanted. Tio, kio kreskas en mia gardeno, estas arbo = That which is growing in my garden is a tree. Tiu arbo, kiu kreskas en mia gardeno, estas kverko = That tree, which is growing in my garden, is an oak. Tio is sometimes used for "it," relating to both persons and things, as:—Tio (or, gi) estis mi, kiu lin vidis = It was I who saw him. Tio estas ponto = It (that) is a bridge. (c). -I: "ANY" (= SOME). It will be seen from the table of Correlative Words on pages 98, 99, that the words in the column commencing with I have as their main idea indefiniteness, corresponding to the English some (or other). Thus: Li estas ie = he is somewhere (or other). Mi mangos ion = I shall eat something (or other). Iu faris tion = Someone (or other) did that. In English, especially in a sentence which is negative, interrogative, or suppositional, the word any is often used in this sense instead of the word some. In such cases (as shown in brackets in the table) the i- words may be translated with any; thus: Cu vi mangis ion? = Did you eat anything (something)? Mi ne mangos ion = I shall not eat anything. Se li estus ie en la cambro = If he were anywhere (somewhere) in the room. Cu iu faris tion? = Did anyone (someone) do that? Mi ne konas iun, kiu povus = I do not know anyone who could. Se iu faris tion = If anyone did that.... (d). "ANY" (= ANY WHATEVER). Sometimes, however, the word any is used not with the meaning of some (as in the preceding paragraph), but with the meaning any whatever. Take, for example, the questions: What will you eat for breakfast? Where shall we go? The answers might be: Oh, anything (you like, it doesn’t matter what); and Anywhere (you like). This meaning of any (any whatever) may be expressed in various ways: (1) By a k-word followed by ajn, thus: Kion ajn, Kien ajn (the words vi volas or similar words being understood). (2) By an i-word followed by ajn, thus: Ion ajn, Ien ajn. Method 1 is usually adopted by Zamenhof, but method 2 is increasingly used. (3) Sometimes a c-word may be used. Thus, the sentence: Anyone could do that, may be translated: Kiu ajn (or, Iu ajn, or, Ciu) povus tion fari. (e). AJN. The word ajn is used not only as shown in the preceding paragraph, but also after the k-series, to correspond to the English -ever (see par. 248 (b)). It is also occasionally used with the c-series and the nen-series, thus: Mi sercis lin cie ajn = I looked for him absolutely everywhere. Li estas nenie ajn = He was nowhere at all, absolutely nowhere. THE VERB (La Verbo).159. There are no irregular verbs in Esperanto. Every verb is conjugated exactly the same. 160. The following are the grammatical terminations of all verbs, from which it will be seen that there are only three tenses (see pars. 214–236), three moods (see pars. 171–202), and six participles (see pars. 203–213). TENSES. (Indicative Mood.)
CONDITIONAL, or US MOOD. -US, as: Se mi farus = if I did, or, should (or, would) do, or, were to do. IMPERATIVE, or U MOOD. -U, as: Diru al li, ke li tion faru = tell him to do that (lit., that he do that). INFINITIVE MOOD. -I, as: Fari = to do. PARTICIPLES.
N.B.—For examples of the noun-participles see par. 209. CLASSES OF VERBS.There are two classes of verbs—transitive and intransitive. Transitive Verbs (transitivaj verboj).161. A transitive verb has two forms or voices, the active and the passive. (a). A verb is in the active voice when the subject is acting upon the object. The object then, being governed by the verb, must be in the accusative case; as:—Johano batis la hundon = John beat the dog. Here Johano is the subject acting upon hundon, the object; therefore hundon is in the accusative. (b). A transitive verb is in the passive voice when the subject is acted upon; as:—La hundo estis batata de Johano = The dog was (being) beaten by John. The preposition "by" or "with," preceding the complement of a verb in the passive voice, is de or per. De is used for the agent, and per for the means or manner, as:—La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house built by my father is (having been) covered with slates. Intransitive Verbs (netransitivaj verboj).162. An intransitive verb expresses an action confined to the actor, as:—Johano dormas = John sleeps, or, is sleeping. Intransitive verbs have therefore no object and no passive voice. Auxiliary Verb (helpa verbo).163. There is but one auxiliary verb in Esperanto, esti = to be. This verb is used to form the passive voice, and also all the compound tenses of the active voice. The verb havi = to have is in no sense an auxiliary, but is an ordinary active verb denoting ownership, and governing the accusative case, as: Mi havas libron = I have a book. In Esperanto the following and other verbs are often used where English would usually employ "to be," viz., kusi = to lie; sidi = to be situate; sin trovi = to find oneself; trovigi = to be found; stari = to stand; farti, or, stati = to be (well or ill). Examples.—La krajono kusas (estas) sur la tablo = The pencil is (lies) on the table. Sur la kameno staris (estis) fera kaldrono, en kiu sin trovis (estis) bolanta akvo; tra la fenestro, kiu sin trovis (estis) apud la pordo, la vaporo iris sur la korton = On the hearth was (stood) an iron kettle, in which was (found itself) boiling water; through the window, which was near the door, steam went out into (on to) the yard. Kiel statas via tuso? = How is your cough? Impersonal Use of Verbs.164. Verbs used impersonally (senpersone) express a fact or action without indicating any person as the subject or actor. In English they are used only in the third person singular, preceded by "it," but in Esperanto they are entirely impersonal. The following are cases of their impersonal use:— (a). Verbs which relate to the weather. Examples.—Pluvas = It rains. Pluvos = It will rain. Fulmis = It lightened. Negus = It would snow. Hajlis = It hailed. (b). Verbs which are generally used with the subject expressed, but occasionally without. Examples.—Okazas = It happens. Sajnos = It will seem. Prosperis al mi trovi = It was my fortune to find. (c). The verb esti = to be, when used with an adjective-adverb, or passive participle-adverb. Examples.—Estas pli bone forkuri = It is better to run away. Estas dirite, ke ... = It is said that ... (d). In the compound tenses the participle takes the adverbial form, since there is no noun or pronoun with which it can agree (see par. 245). Examples.—Se estus pluvinte hierau, ni ne estus povintaj eliri = If it had (should have) rained yesterday, we should not have been able to go out. Mi tondigos la herbon, kiam estos pluvinte = I shall get the grass cut, when it has (will have) rained. Reflexive Verbs (refleksivaj verboj).165. Reflexive verbs show the action of the subject on itself. They are used only when the subject really acts on itself, and not, as in many other languages, on other occasions (see par. 128 on the use of the reflexive pronoun si, and par. 170, conjugation of a reflexive verb). Examples.—Mi lavas min = I wash myself. Li lavis sin = He washed himself. Vi razos vin = You will shave yourself. Ili vestis sin = They dressed themselves. 166. When there are more subjects than one, and the act goes from one to another of the subjects, the word reciproke, or the expression unu la alian, may be used. With the latter the personal pronoun is not repeated. Examples.—Ili batis sin reciproke, or, Ili batis unu la alian = They beat one another. Ili jetis terbulojn al la kapo unu de la alia = They threw clods (lumps of earth) at one another’s heads. 167. CONJUGATION OF ESTI. The following are the simple tenses and moods of esti, by the aid of which all the compound tenses in the active voice and all the tenses in the passive voice of every verb in Esperanto are formed. The compound tenses of esti, such as mi estas estanta = I am being, etc., are very rarely used. INFINITIVE MOOD. Esti = to be. PARTICIPLES.
Note that participles take the plural J and accusative N if required (see par. 207); also the adverbial E (see par. 209 (c)). INDICATIVE MOOD. Present.
N.B.—The pronoun ci = thou is rarely used. Past.
Future.
CONDITIONAL MOOD. The Conditional or US mood has no tenses (see par. 192). We can show its meaning best by using the conjunction se, which frequently introduces it. It has no time value in itself, and may relate to the past, present, or future.
IMPERATIVE MOOD. The imperative or U mood has no tenses. The following is its form and meaning in a chief proposition (see par. 199).
The following is its meaning in a dependent proposition, which is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that (par. 200).
168. CONJUGATION OF AN ACTIVE VERB. The conjugation of the compound forms is given in par. 169. When simple forms sufficiently convey the meaning, they are preferable to the compound forms. INFINITIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLES.
INDICATIVE MOOD.Present (Simple).
N.B.—Ci = thou is rarely used. Vi = you is used, as in English, for both singular and plural; but when vi is plural, the participle in compound tenses takes the plural J. Past (Simple). Mi, vi, etc., tenis = I, you, etc., held, have (or, had) held, was holding, did hold. Future (Simple). Mi, vi, etc., tenos = I, you, etc., shall hold, or, shall be holding. CONDITIONAL MOOD (OR "US" MOOD).The translation of this mood into English depends upon the context, viz., whether we use the auxiliaries "should," "would," "were," "had," or simply the English past tense. It is frequently introduced by the conjunction se = if (see pars. 190–194). (Se) mi tenus = (If) I held, or, should hold, or, should be holding, or, were holding, or, were to hold, or, had held. IMPERATIVE MOOD (OR "U" MOOD).
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202). CONJUGATION OF THE COMPOUND FORMS OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 169. The following shows the compound tenses in the active and passive voices, and the compound forms of the conditional and imperative moods:—For the three persons of the plural add J to the participle (see pars. 173, 174, 235, 236).
CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD. Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
N.B.—In the active voice use the simple form instead of the present and past participle, unless the compound form is necessary to emphasize the meaning. For instance, in the sentence "He would not have struck me if you had held him," we use the past participle to show the anteriority, but we need not use it for the first clause; so we say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi estus teninta lin. If we use the simple form, Li ne frapus min, se vi tenus lin, it would be read:—"He would not strike me if you held him," unless the context clearly showed the action was completed. We could, however, use the adverb antaue instead of the compound form, and say:—Li ne frapus min, se vi antaue tenus lin = He would not have struck me if you had held him (lit., if you beforehand held him) (see par. 226 (a) and remarks on the Conditional mood, pars. 190–194). IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD. Active Voice (Compound Form) and the Passive Voice.
(See remarks on the Imperative mood, pars. 195–202.) 170. CONJUGATION OF A REFLEXIVE VERB. (INDICATIVE MOOD). Present (Simple).
Present (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Past (Simple).
Past (Compound), with the Three Participles.
Future (Simple).
Future (Compound), with the Three Participles.
CONDITIONAL, OR "US" MOOD (Simple Form).
Conditional (Compound), with the Three Participles.
IMPERATIVE, OR "U" MOOD (Simple Form).
MOODS (Modoj). 171 (a). The moods in Esperanto differ from those in English. They are three in number, the Conditional, Imperative, and Infinitive. Dr. Zamenhof makes no mention of any other mood. In Rule 6 (see par. 94) he mentions only the three tenses:—Present, ending in -AS, Past, in -IS, Future, in -OS; the Conditional (kondica) mood in -US, the Imperative (ordona) mood in -U, and the Infinitive (sendifina) mood in -I; the three Active Participles:—Present, -ANT-, Past, -INT-, Future, -ONT-, and the three Passive Participles:—Present, -AT-, Past, -IT-, Future, -OT-. These twelve forms serve amply to represent all the various tenses and moods in English. However, to make the forms of the verb clearer to the student accustomed to the use of our indicative mood, we have called the tenses -AS, -IS, -OS, by that name. (b). There is no Subjunctive mood, and it is not required. This mood has been defined as one governed by conjunctions, but since conjunctions have no bearing on any mood in Esperanto, it is clear that a mood, under the name of "subjunctive," is not required (see remarks on ke, par. 198). The English Subjunctive, in the Present and Perfect, is represented by the Esperanto Imperative, and in the Pluperfect, Future, and Future Perfect, by the Esperanto Conditional mood. The auxiliaries "may" and "might" of the English Subjunctive are often rendered by the aid of such verbs as permesi, povi, or some word expressing possibility, as eble (see par. 237 (m)). 172. The mood to be used in Esperanto is determined solely by the meaning the speaker wishes to convey, and as Esperanto is a purely logical language, we must be careful not to pedantically copy our own, but to use the logical mood and tense required by the ideas we wish to convey. If, therefore, we translate English literally into Esperanto, we may, in some points, be misunderstood by a foreigner, although our translation might be perfectly clear to an Englishman. For instance, our verbs in the present and past tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive moods have the same inflection in the first person singular and in the three persons of the plural. In Esperanto there is no such ambiguity. In such a phrase as "If they were rich, they would be happy," we must be careful to use the proper mood. Both the first and second propositions are conditional or suppositive, therefore in Esperanto the Conditional mood is logically employed, as:—Se ili estus ricaj, ili estus felicaj = If they were rich, they would be happy. There is nothing of the past in the first proposition; the idea to be conveyed is of something that has not occurred, but which might occur. THE INFINITIVE MOOD (Sendifina Modo). 173. The Infinitive mood in the active voice is formed by adding -I to the root of the verb for the simple tense, and by the auxiliary verb esti = to be with one of the active participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA of the verb for the compound tenses, as:—
174. The passive voice is formed by the verb esti and one of the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA. Present, Esti skribata = To be written (lit., to be being-written). Past, Esti skribita = To have been written (lit., to be having-been-written). Future, Esti skribota = To be about to be written. 175. The Infinitive mood expresses the state of action denoted by the verb. 176. In Esperanto the infinitive is almost always used without a preposition, whereas in English the preposition "to" nearly always precedes the verb. Examples.—Mi volas lerni danci = I wish to learn to dance. Li devigis min kuri = He compelled me to run. Mi hontas esti laudata de li = I am ashamed to be praised by him. Mi devas peni atingi tiun rezultaton = I must try to attain that result. 177. The only prepositions that can be used before the infinitive are:—(a). Por = To, or, in order to. (b). Anstatau = Instead of. (c). Antau ol = Before. (d). Krom = Except, or, besides. 178. Por is used before the infinitive, when in English for the word "to" we could substitute the words "in order to" or "for to"; or, in some cases, when we could use "for" or "of" with a participle instead of the infinitive (par. 259 (24)). Examples.—La plej bonaj metodoj por ricevi gin.... = The best methods to (in order to) obtain it (or, for, or, of obtaining it).... Mi havas ion por diri al vi = I have something to (for to) say to you. Kion vi havas ankorau por skribi? = What have you still to (for to) write? La tempo por legi = The time to read (for reading). Tio estas malfacila por kompreni = That is difficult (for to) understand. 179. Anstatau, Antau ol and Krom are used before the infinitive, when in English we use the participle or a simple tense. Examples.—Anstatau trinki = Instead of drinking. Anstatau agi honeste, li farigis stelisto = Instead of acting honestly, he became a thief. Antau ol mangi = Before eating. Antau ol foriri, ili surmetis la capelojn = Before going away (before they went away), they put on their (the) hats. Ne ekzistas alia bono por la homo krom mangi kaj trinki = There is nothing better for a man, than that he should eat and drink (than eating and drinking) (Pred. II, 14; III, 12). 180. As in English, the infinitive is used:— (a). As the subject when the act demonstrated is general. Examples.—Erari estas home = To err is human. Bone pensi kaj bone agi suficas por vivi bone kaj felice = To think well and to act well suffice for living well and happily. (b). As the complement to explain an idea. Examples.—Vivi estas agi; kiu ne agas, tiu ne vivas = To live is to act; he who acts not, lives not. Li cesis kuri = He ceased to run (running, or, from running). 181. The infinitive, used thus as the subject, resembles a noun, but, of course, never takes the article before it. The qualifying word, used as its predicate, takes the adverbial -E. The infinitive, when used as the subject, can always be changed into the noun by substituting -O or -ADO for -I; the noun then takes the article, since it is used in a general sense (see 99 (a)). Examples.—Scii estas utile = To know (or, to have knowledge) is useful; or, La scio estas utila = Knowledge is useful. Legi estas agrabla okupo, or, La legado estas agrabla okupo = Reading is an agreeable occupation. 182. The infinitive, or its noun, is used for the gerund, or a gerundial phrase in English. Examples.—Promenadi estas sanige, or, La promenado estas saniga = Walking is healthy. Instrui infanojn diligentajn (or, La instruado al infanoj diligentaj) estas agrabla okupo = Teaching diligent children is an agreeable occupation. 183. Occasionally another mood, a participle, or the suffix -EBLA is used for our infinitive (par. 275 (c)). Examples.—Vi bone faris, ke vi venis (or, venante) = You did well to come (that you came). Diru do al li, ke li al mi respondu = Tell him, then, to answer me. Estos pli sage, se ni ne piediros domen = It will be wiser not to walk (go on foot) home (lit., if we shall not walk). Estus malfacile renkontebla sindonemo pli plena, ol lia = It would be difficult to meet with more complete devotion than his. Si sajnis (esti) forgesinta, ke si estas maljunulino = She seemed to have forgotten that she was (is) an old woman. 184. Sometimes the infinitive is used when we use another mood or the participle. Examples.—Mi prenos miajn glitilojn kaj iros por gliti = I shall take my skates and go skating. Mi cesos kanti, se vi farados tiom de bruo = I shall cease singing if you go on making so much noise. Mi kredis vidi sipon = I thought I saw a ship. 185. In the following examples it will be seen that the infinitive (present or past) is used in Esperanto after a noun, adjective, or participle, when in English a participial form is usually employed, as:— La deziro morti = The desire of dying (to die). La gojo esti venkinta = The joy of having conquered. Tro laca marsi = Too tired for walking. Lerta paroli = Clever in speaking. Bona por mangi = Good for eating. INDICATIVE MOOD. 186. As stated in par. 171 (a), the indicative is not an Esperanto mood, but we use the name in order to explain more clearly to the English student the present, past, and future tenses of Esperanto verbs. The Indicative mood, in the Active Voice, has three terminations, viz., -AS for the Present, -IS for the Past, and -OS for the Future simple tenses. For the Compound tenses the auxiliary verb esti = to be, is used with one of the three Active participles of the verb, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. 187. The Passive Voice is formed by the auxiliary esti with one of the Passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA. 188. By the Indicative mood we express something as actually true, either affirmatively, or negatively, or interrogatively. It is therefore the mood of certainty. Examples.—La patro venas = Father comes, or, is coming. Patrino venis = Mother came, has come, or, did come. Kiam mia frato venos, ni foriros = When my brother comes (shall come), we will go away. Se li estas malsana, mi senkulpigas lin = If he is ill, I excuse him. Li estis juste rekompencita = He had been justly rewarded. Oni devas pardoni al li = One must pardon him. Li estis amata de ciuj = He was (being) loved by all. Mi estas vestita du horojn = I have been dressed for two hours (lit., I am having-been-dressed two hours). 189. The Indicative is therefore obligatory in Esperanto after verbs, adjectives, participles, and nouns expressing in a positive manner what one thinks or feels about an act presented as certain. Examples.—Mi esperas, ke li venos hodiau = I hope that he will come to-day. Si ne estas certa, cu Petro sukcesis = She is not sure whether Peter succeeded (or, has succeeded). Mi ne dubas, ke li venos = I do not doubt that he will come. Mi timas, ke la respondo alvenos, dum mi estos promenanta = I fear that the answer will arrive whilst I am (shall be) taking a walk. Mi timas, ke li venos, kaj eble difektos la gardenon = I fear that he will come, and possibly (perhaps) damage (or, and may damage) the garden. Mi ne dubas, ke si estos vestita kiam mi alvenos = I do not doubt that she will be (will have been) dressed when I arrive. Cu vi opinias, ke li estas juste rekompencita? = Do you think that he has been justly rewarded? THE CONDITIONAL MOOD (Kondica Modo). 190. In the Active Voice the Conditional mood is formed by adding -US to the root of the verb for the simple form, and by ESTUS and one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA for the compound forms. These compound forms are not often used. 191. In the Passive Voice it is formed by ESTUS and one of the participles -ATA, -ITA, -OTA. 192. It shows that the matter spoken of is conditional, namely, that it depends on supposition; that an act had not taken place (past), and was not taking place (present), but that it might happen or have happened if something else actually occurred. In English the pluperfect, future, and future perfect tenses of the Subjunctive mood represent the Conditional mood in Esperanto. 193. After the conjunction "if," expressing a supposition, both the chief and dependent propositions are in the Conditional mood in Esperanto, when the act is conditional. Examples.—Se li estus rica, li havus multajn amikojn = If he were rich, he would have many friends. Se vi volus, vi estus felica = If you wished, you would be happy. Se ni estus avertitaj, ni estus defendintaj vin = If we had been (should have been) warned, we should have defended you. Se li forirus, li riskus, ke la patrino ne trovus lin = If he went (should go) away he would risk that his (the) mother would not find him. 193. (a). Note the various ways in which estus may be translated with the present and past passive participles in the following two sentences:— (1). Se li estus sendata Berlinon, li estus devigata lasi sian edzinon hejme. (2). Se li estus sendita Berlinon, li estus devigita lasi sian edzinon hejme. (1). If he were (should be) sent to Berlin he would be compelled to leave his wife at home. (2). If he had (should have) been sent to Berlin he would have been compelled to leave his wife at home. 194. As in other languages, the Conditional is used in Esperanto to attenuate or soften an expression that would be harsh or imperative, if the verb were in the Indicative; in fact, such attenuation implies some unexpressed condition. Example.—Mi volus, ke tiu laboro estu finita hodiau vespere = I should like that work (to be) finished this evening. Here the condition might be, "if you possibly can do it" (see par. 202 as to estu, Imperative mood, for the Infinitive). THE IMPERATIVE or "U" MOOD (Ordona Modo). 195. In the Active Voice the Imperative (or "U") mood is formed by adding -U to the root of the verb, or by estu and one of the participles -ANTA, -INTA, or -ONTA for the compound forms; but the latter are very rarely used. 196. In the Passive Voice it is formed by estu and one of the participles, -ATA, -ITA, or -OTA. 197. The "U" mood implies order (ordono), purpose (celo), entreaty (peto), wish (volo), obligation (devo), fitness (konveno), necessity (neceso), merit (merito), intention (intenco), etc. It will be seen that the Esperanto u has a wider application than what is usually understood by the "Imperative" mood, for it may indicate not only a direct command or order, but also desire or expediency of any degree, expressed or understood. 198. The ending u is used not only in a chief but also in a dependent proposition, and in the latter case it is usually introduced by the conjunction ke = that; but it must be borne in mind that conjunctions have no more influence in the Imperative than they have in other moods (pars. 171, 263), although when ke is followed by the Imperative we translate the phrase into English either by some tense of the Subjunctive mood, or, perhaps, more frequently, by the Infinitive. 199. In a chief proposition it is used to command or entreat, and when the verb of a chief proposition is in the Imperative, if the dependent proposition also contains an order of entreaty, its verb will, naturally, likewise be in the Imperative. Examples.—Venu tien ci = Come here. Donu al mi tiun libron = Give me that book. Li venu tien ci tuj = Let him come here at once. Ni iru Parizon morgau = Let us go to Paris to-morrow. Do ne maltrankviligu vin (or, Vi do ne maltrankviligu) pri la afero = Do not then trouble yourself about the matter. Ordonu, ke li venu = Order him to come (that he come). Diru al si, ke si foriru = Tell her to go away (that she go away). Atentu, ke vi ne falu = Take care not to fall (or, lest you fall). Ni ne toleru, ke li tiamaniere kontraustaru al ni = Let us not suffer him in that way to oppose us (or, Let us not tolerate that he oppose us in that manner). Ni zorgu, ke li nenion povu difekti = Let us take care that he can damage nothing. Diru al li, ke mi deziras, ke li estu silenta = Tell him that I desire him to be silent (that he be silent). For other examples see par. 237 (m). 200. In a dependent proposition the ending u is also used when the verb in the chief proposition, although not in the Imperative, implies order, entreaty, wish, etc., as mentioned in par. 197. And also after such verbs as, to advise, invite, write, etc., etc., when the idea to be conveyed is in the nature of an order, wish, etc. (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)). Examples.—Mi ordonis al li, ke li donu al mi la libron = I ordered him to give me the book. Mi petas, ke vi sendu al mi la hundon = I beg you to send me the dog. Li ne postulis, ke mi fermu la fenestron = He did not require me to shut the window. Mi volas, ke vi skribu al via frato = I wish you to write to your brother. Estas necese, ke ni tien iru = It is necessary for us to go thither. Vi meritas, ke oni pendigu vin = You deserve to be hanged (that they hang you). Mi bezonas, ke li venu = I want him to come (I have need that he come). Mi ne volis, ke li venu = I did not wish him to come (that he should come). Si konsilis, ke mi ne sendu la leteron = She advised me not to send the letter (she advised "do not send the letter"). Mi lin tien ci invitis, ke li klarigu la aferon = I invited him here to explain (that he might explain) the matter. Ili skribis, ke mi ne venu hodiau = They wrote to me not to come to-day (They wrote that I should not come to-day, or, They wrote "do not come to-day"). 201. The expression por ke = in order that, to the end that, so that, etc., is always followed by the Imperative, because this expression implies "order." Examples.—Por ke vi povu pagi tiun ci suldon, estas necese, ke vi kunportu sufice grandan sumon da mono = In order to be able to pay (in order that you may be able to pay) this debt it is necessary for you to bring (that you bring) a sufficient large sum of money. Por ke vi estu elektata, vi bezonas batali kun ekstrema energio = In order to be elected (that you may be elected), you need to fight with extreme energy. Por ke oni rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi tion meritu = In order that they may reward you, it is fitting that you merit it. Mi volas cion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta pri mi = I wish to do everything to satisfy you (so that you may be satisfied with me). Respondu al mi antau morgau, por ke mi sciu, kion mi devos diri al li = Answer me before to-morrow, so that I may know what I must (shall have to) say to him. Mi volas, ke li estu ordonata atendi mian alvenon = I wish that he may be ordered to await my arrival, or, I wish him to be ordered to await my arrival. 201 (a). The compound forms of the Imperative in the active voice are very rarely used, but they are occasionally useful to give exactitude to an expression. Examples.—Mi deziras, ke li estu min atendanta en la stacidomo je la dua horo morgau posttagmeze = I desire that he be awaiting me in the station at 2 o’clock to-morrow afternoon. Estas necese, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, je la tria horo = It is necessary that he have (for him to have) finished his work at 3 o’clock. Mi ne volas, ke li estu fininta sian laboron, kiam mi alvenos, sed ke li estu finonta gin = I do not wish that he shall have finished his work when I (shall) come, but that he be about to finish it. 202. From the examples given of the use of the Imperative mood, we see that in Esperanto the verb in a dependent proposition is almost always preceded by the conjunction ke = that, and that the English rendering generally puts the verb in the Infinitive, the conjunction being omitted, or if it be retained, that the verb is in the Subjunctive mood. It is not generally advisable to translate this infinitive rendering literally into Esperanto, except when the actor of the first verb is also the actor of the second. Examples.—Mi volas lin vidi morgau = I wish to see him to-morrow. La lernejestro deziris rekompenci la knabon = The schoolmaster desired to reward the boy. Ni bezonos forte labori, se ni deziras fini la falcadon hodiau vespere = We shall need to work hard if we wish to finish the mowing this evening. THE PARTICIPLES (Participoj). There are three forms of the participle, viz.:—The adjectival in -A, the adverbial in -E, and the substantival in -O. 203. In the active voice the adjectival is formed by adding -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA to the root of the verb, as:—
204. In the passive voice by adding -ATA, -ITA, -OTA, as:—
205. The active participles, preceded by the auxiliary verb esti = to be, in its various moods and tenses, form the compound tenses of the active voice. 206. The passive participles, with the verb esti, form all the moods and tenses in the passive voice. 207. Participles, like adjectives, agree in number and case with the nouns or pronouns to which they refer. Examples. Ni estas vidintaj la viron = We have seen the man. Si vidis la virojn legantajn = She saw the men who were reading (the reading men). Ni vidas la krimojn elfaratajn ciutage sur la stratoj = We see the crimes being perpetrated daily in the streets. 208. All the participles can be used as adjectives and also as nouns and adverbs, by substituting -O for -A for a noun, and -E for -A for an adverb. The words still retain the signification of the tense of the participle. Participial adjectives and adverbs in the active voice govern the accusative. 209. Examples in the active voice. (a). Participial nouns, as:—La leganto = The reader (person now reading). La leginto = The reader (person who has been reading). La legonto = The reader (person about to read). Examples.—La leganto havas bonan vocon, sed la leginto havis pli bonan; mi kredas, tamen, ke la legonto havos la plej bonan vocon el ciuj = The (present) reader has a good voice, but the (previous) reader had a better; I believe, however, that the (coming) reader will have the best voice of all. Ci tiu (or, tiu ci) ideo okupis la grandan pensanton gis la fino de lia vivo = This idea occupied the great thinker up to the end of his life. (b). Participial adjectives agree with their nouns in number and case, but when predicative they agree in number only (see remarks on adjectives, pars. 36, 108, 110, also par. 87 (d)). Examples.—La mortanta viro vidis mortintan virinon sur la apuda lito = The dying man saw a dead woman in the next bed. Si paligis kaj aspektis kiel virino mortonta = She grew pale and appeared like a woman about to die. In the above sentences participial nouns might be used when the translation in English would be word for word the same, as:—La mortanto vidis mortintinon sur la apuda lito. Si paligis, kaj aspektis kiel mortontino. This shows the wonderful flexibility of Esperanto! (c). Participial adverbs are invariable. Examples.—Legante ni lernas = In reading we learn. Fininte sian laboron, li iris hejmen = Having finished his work, he went home. Acetonte libron, li petas, ke mi pruntu al li tri silingojn = Being about to buy a book, he begs me to lend him (that I lend him) three shillings. 210. Examples in the passive voice. (a). Participial nouns, as:—La aludato = The person being spoken of, or, the person in question. La aludito = The aforesaid (person). La aludoto = The person about to be spoken of. Examples.—La pendigotino nun aperis sur la esafodo = The woman about to be hanged now appeared on the scaffold. La batito tute meritis la punon, kiun la batinto donis al li = The beaten one quite deserved the punishment that the beater gave him. (b). Participial adjectives and adverbs. La konstruata domo = The house under construction. La konstruita domo = The (actually) constructed house. La konstruota domo = The house (about) to be constructed. Konstruota does not show obligation to construct, but simply that it is intended to build the house, and that it will be eventually built. Examples.—Li venis al mi tute ne atendite = He came to me quite unexpectedly. Ne estas atendate ke li venos = It is not expected (being expected) that he will come. La domo estas vendota morgau = The house is to be sold to-morrow. N.B.—Note that when the subject is not expressed, the participle takes the adverbial form (see par. 245). 211. Relation of the participle to the subject. (a). When a participle, relating to the subject of a sentence, but not qualifying it, expresses the circumstances, manner, time, occasion, etc., of an act, it takes the adverbial form. Zamenhof states that the "ablative absolute" does not exist in Esperanto, as its use would be against the spirit of the language. Examples.—Promenante sur la strato, mi falis = (While) walking in the street, I fell. Trovinte pomon, mi gin mangis = Having found an apple, I ate it (see par. 245 (a)). (b). If, however, the participle does not relate to the subject of the sentence, we must either change the construction so as to make the participial portion of the sentence relate to the subject, or else use another mood with a conjunction, adverb, etc. For instance, we might say in English, "The enemy having run away, we crossed the bridge," but we cannot translate this literally into Esperanto, because "having run away" does not relate to those who crossed the bridge; therefore it would be wrong to say La malamiko forkurinte, ni transiris la ponton. So we must change the construction, thus:—"Having put to flight (made to run away) the enemy, we crossed the bridge" = Forkuriginte la malamikon, ni transiris la ponton. Or, another construction would be:—"After the enemy ran away, we crossed the bridge" = Post kiam la malamiko forkuris, ni transiris la ponton. In the sentence, "Swimming in the lake, the man saw a large swan," it is not clear whether the man or the swan was swimming, but in Esperanto there is no ambiguity. In the sentence, Nagante sur la lago, la homo vidis grandan cignon, the participle, nagante, relates to the man, the subject of vidis. If we wish it to relate to the swan, we make it agree with cignon, and say, Nagantan sur la lago, etc. But it would be better to alter the order, thus: La homo vidis grandan cignon nagantan (kiu nagis) sur la lago. 212. Participial expressions with prepositions. (a). Without can be rendered by the negative ne and an adverbial participle, or by sen followed by a noun. Examples.—Li alvenis, ne avertinte min (or, sen averto al mi) = He arrived without (not) having warned me. Mi ne povos tion ci fari, ne estante subtenata (or, ne subtenate, or, sen subteno) = I shall not be able to do this without being supported. Ni iru al la dangero, ne timante la morton (or, sen timo pri la morto) = Let us go to the danger without fearing death. (b). For can be rendered by ke = that (or, pro tio, ke or, tial, ke) and the indicative. Examples.—Mi estas al vi danka, ke vi avertis min = I am thankful to you for having (that you) warned me. Pardonu al mi, ke mi tiel faras = Pardon me for so doing. Pardonu al mi pro tio, ke mi tiel faris = Pardon me for having done so (that I so did). (c). Of, by por and the infinitive. Example.—Mi pripensis pri rimedo por deturni lin de lia projekto = I reflected on a means of turning him from his project. (d). After, by an adverbial past participle. Example.—"Kion ni faros?" li diris, sidinte momenton silente = "What shall we do?" he said, after sitting (having sat) for a moment in silence. (e). Before, by antau ol and the infinitive. Example.—Li ludis antau ol labori = He played before working. 213. The participle for the adjective. (a). Be careful not to use the participle terminations -ANTA, -INTA for simple adjectives that have a form of their own. Some English words ending in "ing" and "ed" may be used either as participles or as simple adjectives. Note that the participle denotes action, whilst the adjective denotes quality, state, etc. (b). Such words have, in Esperanto, an adjectival as well as a participial form, and we must be careful to use the right one in accordance with the sense. Examples..—Laboranta and labora = Working. Carmanta and carma = Charming. Interesanta and interesa = Interesting. Sufokanta and sufoka = Suffocating. Kontentigita and kontenta = Satisfied; pleased, content. (c). Observe the difference in meaning of the following:— Rigardu tiun homon, laborantan (kiu laboras) sur la kampo! = Look at that man, working in the field! Rigardu tiun homon laboran (better, tiun laboriston) sur la kampo! = Look at that working-man in the field! In the first sentence, laborantan, the participle, denotes the action of the man: in the second, laboran, the adjective, denotes his state, condition, etc. Si estas carmanta nin per sia kantado = She is charming us with her singing. Si estas carma, kiam si kantas = She is charming when she sings. It would be better, instead of using the participle carmanta, to say, Si carmas nin per sia kantado. Mi ne estas kontentigita per liaj respondoj = I have not been satisfied with his replies. Mi ne estas kontenta je li = I am not pleased with him. THE TENSES (La Tempoj). The Tenses, Active Voice. 214. The Tenses indicate the time of action, and its state of completeness or incompleteness. They are either simple or compound. The simple tenses are formed by adding -AS, -IS or -OS to the root of the verb, and the terminations remain the same for all persons and numbers. The compound tenses are formed by the auxiliary verb esti = to be, and one of the participles of the verb which must agree in number with its subject. Esti is conjugated in exactly the same way as all other verbs. 215. The three Tenses used in Esperanto are the Present, Past, and Future. 216. Duration of action of the verb.—(a). In English, to express the continuance of an action, the present participle of a transitive verb is used after the verb "to be" in all the moods and tenses—as "I am loving," or "I was (have been, shall be, should be) loving"; imperative, "Be thou loving." If great exactness as regards time be necessary, these forms can be represented in Esperanto word for word as they are in English, viz., by the compound forms, mi estas (estis, estos, estus) amanta, estu amanta. (a). To show that an action is continuous or habitual, the suffix -AD- may be added to the verb (see remarks on suffix -AD-, par. 270 (1)). Examples.—Si kantadas la tutan tagon = She keeps on singing the whole day. La birdoj flugadis de arbo al arbo = The birds were (kept on) flying from tree to tree. (b). The commencement of an action, or a sudden action, is shown by adding the prefix EK-. Examples.—Si ekkantis = She began to sing. La lumo brilis = The light shone. La lumo ekbrilis = The light flashed (see remarks on prefix EK-, par. 288). 217. Emphatic form of verb.—In English this form consists of the verb, preceded by "do" or "did," and is confined to the present and past tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the imperative mood of the active voice, as:—"I do love," "He does love," "I did love," "Do love." This form in Esperanto can be represented by the adverb ja = indeed, or by suitable adverbs, such as tre, tre multe, vere, certe, efektive, etc. Examples.—Mi ja lin amas = I do love him. Mi tiel multe amis sin = I did so love her. The Present. 218. The Present tense (simple) ends in -AS. It is used to express not only what is happening at the moment, but also what happens in all time, or what is understood to be present. Examples.—Mi kuras = I run, or am running. La vero ciam venkas = Truth always conquers. La autoro diras en sia verko, ke .... = The author says in his book that.... Kiun vi vidas? = Whom do you see? Mi vidas neniun = I see nobody. Mi foriras, car mia patro min atendas = I am going away, for my father awaits (or expects) me. Mi ciam levigas tre frue = I always get up (rise) very early. Nenion oni faras sen peno = One does nothing without effort. 219. The Present in place of the Past or Future.—In Esperanto, as in other languages, the Present is often used for the Past or Future, to give vividness to an expression. Examples.—Mi haltas, perdante la spiron, kiam subite mi audas post mi vocon = I stop, losing breath, when suddenly I hear behind me a voice. Hodiau plenaj de vivo, ni estas morgau la akiro de la tombo = To-day full of life, to-morrow we shall be (are) the prey (acquirement) of the tomb. 220. Esperanto logically always employs the Present, even in a phrase relating to what has past, if the action is present relatively to the time in question. Example.—Ciuj, kiuj sin vidis povis pensi, ke ili vidas la patrinon = All who saw her could think that they saw (see) her (the) mother. In this sentence, what did they think? Their thought was, "We see her mother," not "We saw her mother." The sight was present to them, hence ili vidas. 221. Present in place of the Past.—If it is a question of the truth of all time, or of a fact existing at the moment spoken of, English generally uses the Past tense, but in Esperanto the Present is always employed. Examples.—Ni eksciis, ke vi estas en Londono ok tagojn = We learnt that you were (are) in London for eight days. Ni kredis, ke vi estas kuracisto = We believed that you were (are) a doctor. Li instruis nin, he ciam oni devas esti indulga = He taught us that one must always be forbearing (merciful). 222. The Present tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. The compound tenses are seldom used in Esperanto, and their use is to be avoided if the simple tenses suffice to convey our meaning. Their use, therefore, is confined to giving exactitude to the time of an action or to an idea (see par. 169). Examples.—Li estas vojaganta = He is travelling. The simple form, Li vojagas, might mean that he travels generally, but possibly is not at this moment on his way to any place. If, therefore, we wish to convey that he is actually on his way to some place, we use the compound form, or some additional word, as nun, e.g., li nun vojagas. Kiam la abeloj estas forflugontaj, ili zumadas laute = When bees are about to fly away, they (are accustomed to) hum loudly (see par. 216 (a)). Esti skribanta = To be writing. The Past. 223. The Past tense (simple) ends in -IS. It expresses something that has passed. It is used for the three tenses in English; the past, imperfect, and perfect; and sometimes for the pluperfect, if its use does not cause ambiguity. Examples.—Mi skribis = I wrote, I was writing, or, I have written. Li venis antau du horoj = He came two hours ago. Pluvis hierau = It rained yesterday. Se li estis malsana, li ne povis veni = If he was ill, he could not come. Cu vi lin vidis? = Did you see (or, have you seen) him? Li foriris, antau ol mi alvenis = He had left before I arrived. Mi promenis hierau, kaj renkontis vian amikon = I took a walk (or, I was walking, better promenadis) yesterday, and met your friend. 224. The Past tense (compound) is formed by the auxiliary verb esti = to be and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA. This form should not be used when the simple form suffices to convey the required meaning. It is better employed only when we wish to give to an expression more exactitude as regards the state of the subject at the time of the principal action than is conveyed by the simple form (see pars. 169, 226 (a)). Examples.—Kiam li estis fininta sian laboron, li iris hejmen = When he had finished his work, he went home. Mi estis skribanta leteron, kiam okazis tertremo = I was writing a letter when an earthquake took place. Ili interkonsentis kaj estis enirontaj la landon, sed io okazis, kio ilin malhelpis = They mutually agreed, and were about to enter the country, but something happened which prevented them. 225. To show that something has just happened, or is very soon going to happen, the words jus = just, or tuj = immediately, are often used respectively. Examples.—Mi jus vidis tre belan pentrajon = I have just seen a very beautiful picture. Ni estis tuj elirontaj, kiam ekpluvis = We were on the point of (or, just) going out when it began to rain. 226. The past tense of esti (estis) and the past participle (-INTA) of the verb correspond with the pluperfect in English. It denotes an action that was completed at a time now past. As before stated, it need not be employed when the simple past tense in -IS sufficiently expresses the meaning wished to be conveyed. Examples.—Kiam si estis rakontinta cion, kio okazis, si ekploris = When she had related everything that happened, she began to weep. Here, in English, we should probably say "everything that had happened," but "cion, kio estis okazinta" is unnecessary in Esperanto, as the meaning is quite clear with "okazis." Li ne estis parolinta du sekundojn, kiam mi diris al li "Silentu!" = He had not spoken for two seconds when I said to him, "Be silent!" 226 (a). The adverb antaue = beforehand (or jam, or jam antaue) is sometimes used with the past and future simple tenses, or with the simple forms of the Conditional or Imperative mood, instead of the compound tenses or forms (see Part III, Exercise 8). Examples.—Kiam vi eniris en la cambron, la gastoj jam antaue foriris (or, estis foririntaj) = When you entered the room, the guests had departed (lit., already beforehand departed). Kiam vi venos al mi, mi jam antaue finos (or, estos fininta) la laboron = When you have (will) come to me, I shall have finished the work. Li ne acetus la libron, se vi antaue ne donus (or, estus doninta) al li la monon = He would not have bought the book unless you had given him the money (lit., if you beforehand should not give him the money). The Future. 227. The Future (simple) ends in -OS. The future (compound) is formed by the auxiliary esti and one of the three participles, -ANTA, -INTA, -ONTA, but the compound form should be used only when we wish to express anteriority, that is to say, action taking place previous to that of the principal action. 228. The future denotes an action yet to take place. Examples.—La patro venos post du tagoj = Father will come in two days. Cu vi pruntos al mi la libron? = Will you lend me the book? Kiam li alvenos? = When will he arrive? Li venos la lundon proksiman = He will come next Monday. 229. If we wish to mark a near future, we can use with the verb the adverbs tuj = immediately, baldau = soon, tre baldau = very soon. Examples.—Li tuj alvenos = He will arrive immediately. Li tre baldau estos tie ci = He will very soon be here. 230. The future compound with the present participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be going on at some particular time in the future. Example.—Je la deka morgau matene mi estos veturanta Parizon = At 10 o’clock to-morrow morning I shall be travelling to Paris. 231. The future compound with the past participle is used when we wish to mark that an action will be finished at some particular time in the future (see par. 226 (a)). Example.—Mi estos fininta mian laboron je la sesa horo morgau vespere = I shall have finished my work at six o’clock to-morrow evening. 232. The future for the present indicative or subjunctive.—Be careful not to imitate English in using the present or subjunctive for the future. Examples.—Se pluvos, li ne venos = If it rains, he will not come. Kion vi faros, kiam mi estos en la tombo? = What will you do when I am in the grave? Mi skribos la leteron dum vi ripozos = I shall write the letter whilst you are resting. Si skribis al ni, ke si estos tie ci morgau = She wrote to us that she would (will) be here to-morrow (she wrote what? not "that she would," but "that she will," so the future is the correct tense). The Tenses, Passive Voice. 233. The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb esti and the passive participles, -ATA, -ITA, -OTA. All the tenses are therefore compound. As with the active participles, J is added to the three persons of the plural in all the tenses. 234. The signification of the tenses is the same as in the active voice, except, of course, that the subject of a passive verb is acted upon. Since esti is the only auxiliary verb used in Esperanto, it represents the two English auxiliaries, "to be" and "to have"; we must, therefore, translate it accordingly. 235. Care must be taken in the use of these participles. For instance, the participles of skribi = to write used alone mean— Present, Skribata = Written, or, being written (action going on). Past, Skribita = Written, or, been written (lit., having been written) (action completed). Future, Skribota = About to be, or, going to be, written (action about to occur). 236. The various tenses of the verb esti show the time of the action, and the three participles the state of the subject at that time. Note carefully the various shades of meaning in the following examples:— La pordego estas fermata, car la ludo estas ludota = The gate is being shut, for the game is about to be played. La pordego estas fermita, car la ludo estas ludata = The gate is (or, has been) shut, for the game is being played. La pordego estis fermita, dum la ludo estis ludata = The gate was (or, had been) shut whilst the game was being played. Kiam estos pendigata la homo? = When will the man be (being) hanged? Li estis pendigota morgau, sed oni diras, ke li ne estos pendigata gis mardo = He was to have been (was about to be) hanged to-morrow, but they say he will not be hanged till Tuesday. Kaj kiam li estos pendigita, kie li estos enterigota? = And when he is (has been) hanged, where is he to be buried? (lit., and when he shall have been hanged, where will he be about to be buried?). Note that after the interrogative kiam the English present tense is often future in Esperanto, as:—Kiam li venos? When is he coming? or, When will he come? Pasero estis kaptita kaj enmetita en kagon, sed kiam la pordeto de la kago estis malfermata, gi forflugis = A sparrow was (or, had been) caught and put into a cage, but when the door of the cage was being opened it flew away. N.B.—In the above sentence we see that the sparrow was (estis) first in the state of having been caught (kaptita); then in the state of having been put (enmetita) into a cage; then that the door was in the state of being opened (malfermata), and that during this action the bird flew away (forflugis). (For examples of the passive conditional mood see par. 193.) (For examples of the rare use of the passive imperative mood see par. 201.) THE USE OF CERTAIN VERBS.Devi. 237 (a). Devi = to be obliged to, to have to, means to be physically or morally obliged to do something, as:—Vi devas fari tion = You must (have to, are to) do that. Vi ne devas fari tion = You are not obliged to do that. If, however, the action is not immediate, the future tense is used for "must," as:—Vi devos fari tion morgau = You must (will have to) do that to-morrow. In its Conditional form devi may be used, like other verbs, to soften an expression, and then it can be translated by "ought," as:—Vi devus ne fari tion = You ought not to (should not) do that. Here devus is used instead of the more peremptory form, devas; Vi devas ne fari tion would mean You must not (are not to) do that (see par. 194, also pars. 237 (o), (p), on "should," "must," "ought," and par. 59 (a)). Examples.—Mi devas vin forlasi, car oni atendas min = I must (have to) leave you, for they are waiting for me. Cu mi devas fari tion tuj? = Must I (am I to) do that at once? Cu mi devos veni morgau = Must I (shall I have to, am I to) come to-morrow? Mi devis skribi leteron = I had (have had) to write a letter. Li devis min vidi hodiau, sed li ne povas veni = He was to see me to-day, but he cannot come. Ili devis vidi min hierau, sed ili ne povis veni = They were to have seen me yesterday, but they could not come. Li estis kolera hierau, car li devis iri lernejon = He was angry yesterday, because he was obliged to (had to) go to school. Sed por tio ci mi devos atendi iom da tempo = But for this I shall have to (I must) wait some time. Se mi lin vidus, mi devus paroli kun li = If I saw him, I should have to speak to him. Se mi lin vidus, mi estus devinta paroli kun li = If I had seen (saw) him, I should have been obliged (have had) to speak to him. La celo de ciu estas, au devus esti, bonfaradi = The aim of everyone is, or ought to (should) be, to do good. Li devus kolekti kaj arangi siajn faktojn = He ought to (should) collect and arrange his facts. Kiam vi estas tie, vi devus vidi la kastelon = When you are there, you ought to see the castle. Kiam vi estis tie, vi devus vidi (or, vi devus esti vidinta) la kastelon = When you were there, you ought to have seen the castle. Mi devus tute ne auskulti sin = I ought not to listen to her at all. From these examples we see that the following is the meaning of devi in its moods and tenses. The compound forms should not be used unless absolutely necessary to render the meaning clear. Present.
Past.
Future.
Conditional.
Conditional (softened sense).
N.B.—Do not use devi for "were to," when no obligation is implied. Note the difference in meaning in the following sentences:—Se ili venus, mi vidus ilin = If (supposing) they were to come (if they came), I would see them. Ili devis veni la lastan semajnon, sed io malhelpis ilin = They were to (have) come last week, but something prevented them. Also do not use devi for "am to," "was to," etc., when these words express not "obligation," but "purpose" or "intention." For instance, "Are you to speak at the meeting?" may mean either (1) "Do you intend to (Shall you) speak?" or, (2) "Have you to (Must you) speak?" So we translate (1) Cu vi intencas paroli (Cu vi parolos) ce la kunveno? or, (2) Cu vi devos paroli ce la kunveno? In such a phrase as "You are to do that" the obligation is clear, so we say Vi devas tion fari. Further, do not use devi in translating such a sentence as "The man must be a fool," which is La viro sendube estas malsagulo, not, devas esti ... Kusi. 237 (b). Kusi = to lie, to be situated, is sometimes used to denote anything in a state of rest, or in a recumbent position. It has, therefore, also the meaning of "to be." Examples.—La krajono kusas sur la libro = The pencil lies (is) on the book. La libroj kusas sur la breto = The books are (lie) on the shelf. Koni and Scii. 237 (c). Koni and scii are used in the same sense as the French verbs connaÎtre and savoir. Koni means to know, to be acquainted with, to know a person, or, thing. Examples.—Mi konas vian fraton = I know your brother. Li konas la hundon, sed li ne konas gian posedanton = He knows the dog, but he does not know its owner. N.B.—It is never followed by the conjunction KE; Mi konas, ke, is wrong. Mi scias, ke vi ... = I know that you ... Scii means to know, to be aware of, to know something is or was happening, etc. N.B.—It is never used of persons. Examples.—Mi scias, ke li estas prava = I know that he is right. Mi sciis, ke li estis tie hierau = I knew he was there yesterday. Mi ne sciis, ke vi konas lin = I did not know that you knew him. Mi konas la francan lingvon, sed mi ne scias gin = I know (recognize) the French language (when I see it), but I do not know it. Lasi. 237 (d). Lasi, like the English verb "to leave," has various meanings. (1). To let remain, as:—Li lasis la libron sur la tablo = He left the book on the table. (2). To leave in a place, not to take with one, as:—Li lasis sian edzinon en la domo = He left his wife in the house. Lasu vian bastonon tie ci = Leave your stick here. (3). To lose restraint upon something, as:—Li lasis fali la libron = He let the book fall. (4). To leave in a certain state, as:—Li lasis min en la plej granda embaraso = He left me in the greatest embarrassment. Li lasis la domon tre malpura = He left the house very dirty. (5). To leave to the care of someone, as:—La jugisto lasis la infanojn al la patro = The judge left the children to the father. (6). To have remaining at death, to leave behind one, as:—Kiam li mortis, li lasis (or, postlasis) grandan ricajon, kiun li testamentis al diversaj bonfaraj institucioj = When he died, he left great wealth, which he left to various charitable institutions (note that to "leave," "bequeath," is testamenti). (7). Lasi, followed by the preposition en, means to "leave in," or to "let into," according as the complement is in the nominative or accusative, e.g.:—Mi lasis la hundon en la domo = I left the dog in the house. Mi lasis la hundon en la domon = I let the dog into the house. (8). In the "Krestomatio," page 25, it is used in the sense to "leave off," "cease," as:—Aleksandro lasis sian paroladon pri batalo kaj petis de ili panon = Alexander left off talking of battle, and asked them for bread. (9). Lasi, followed by an infinitive, means to "let," or, "allow," as:—Lasu al mi gin fari = Let me do it, or, Leave it to me to do. Sometimes we find it used in the sense "allow to be," as:—Neniu volis lasi rimarki, ke li nenion vidas = No one wished to let it be noticed that he saw (sees) nothing. This imitates the idiom of some national languages. It can be explained as an omission of onin or some other pronoun, thus:—Neniu volis lasi onin (nin) rimarki, ke ... = No one wished to let people (us) notice that ... (10). Allasi = to admit (own the truth), as:—Li allasis, ke li estas malprava = He admitted he was (is) wrong. (11). Delasi = to allow to leave, as:—Li delasis lin de la domo = He let him leave the house. (12). Enlasi (like lasi en) = to let go in, as:—Enlasu min! = Let me in! (13). Forlasi = to abandon, as:—Li forlasis sian postenon = He abandoned his post. (14). Preterlasi = to let pass, as:—Li preterlasis la okazon = He let the opportunity pass, or, He missed the opportunity. Li ne povis uzi sian bileton, car gia limtempo preterlasigis = He could not use his ticket because its time limit had expired. (15). Tralasi = to allow to pass through, as:—Li tralasis la homon tra la pordo = He let the man pass through the door. Kiam si atingis la pordegon, ili sin tralasis = When she reached the gate, they let her through. Pesi and Pezi. 237 (e). Pesi = to weigh, to examine by balance (transitive).
From the above words we see that the roots pes- and pez- both signify "weight," and care must be taken to use the words in their transitive or intransitive sense. Examples. Tiuj ci tabloj estas de granda pezo: mi kredas, ke ilia pezo estas pli ol cent okdek funtoj = These tables are a great weight; I believe that their weight is more than a hundred and eighty pounds. Tiu kesto estas tre peza; mi estas certa ke gi pezas almenau naudek funtojn; metu gin sur la pesilon, alportu la pezilojn, pesu gin, kaj diru al mi la gustan pezon = That chest is very weighty (heavy); I am certain that it weighs at least ninety pounds; put it on the scales (weighing machine), bring the weights, weigh it, and tell me the exact weight. Povi. 237 (f). Povi = to be able. Beginners sometimes find a difficulty in dealing with this verb, owing to the irregularity of the English equivalents. For instance, the beginner may say, "How can ‘can’ be both present and future, or ‘could’ both past and conditional?" The following examples giving translations of povi in its various tenses should be helpful in removing the difficulty.
Examples.—Cu vi povas tion fari? Jes, mi povas = Are you able to (can you) do that? Yes, I can. Mi ne povas vidi la arbon, kiun vi montras = I cannot see the tree which you point out. Mi povis fari tion, kion vi volis = I was (have been) able to do what you wished. Mi ne povis fari tion, kion vi postulis = I was not (have not been) able to do (I could not do) what you required. Mi povos tion fari morgau = I shall be able to (I can) do that to-morrow. Se vi povus veni mardon, mi povus vin vidi = If you should be able to (if you could) come on a Tuesday, I could see you. Mi povus tion fari morgau, se.... = I could (should be able to) do that to-morrow if.... Cu li estos povinta plenumi la laborajon, kiam vi lin vidos morgau? = Will he have been able to complete the work when you (will) see him to-morrow? Se vi venus hierau, mi estus povinta vin vidi = If you had come yesterday, I could have seen you. Li povus veni, se li volus = He might (would be able to) come if he wished (see pars. 237 (l), (m)). Sidi. 237 (g). Sidi = to sit, to be sitting. Sidi has sometimes the signification "to be" in some defined place. Examples.—En la cambro sidis nur kelke da homoj = In the room were (sat) only a few (some) men. La kuiristo sidas en la kuirejo = The cook is (sits) in the kitchen. En la kandelingo sidis brulanta kandelo = In the candlestick was (sat) a burning candle. Sin trovi. 237 (h). Sin trovi = to find oneself. This expression (or, trovigi = to be found, to find oneself, to be, or, to be situated) is often used for the English verb "to be." Examples.—Sur la arbo sin trovis multe da birdoj = On the tree were (found themselves) many birds. Super la tero trovigas aero = Over the earth is air. Cesi, Dauri, Pasi, Fini, Komenci. 237 (i). In English the following and many other verbs are used in both a transitive and intransitive sense:—to stop, to continue, to pass, to finish, to commence. In Esperanto cesi, dauri, pasi are intransitive; so, to make them transitive, we must add IGI. On the other hand, fini and komenci are transitive; therefore, to make them intransitive, we must add IGI (par. 280).
Footnote: [17] The following is a list of the chief Esperanto verb roots whose English equivalents are used both transitively and intransitively. (E.g., wakes, in he wakes her, is transitive; in she wakes it is intransitive.) Esperanto follows international usage in giving such verbs one meaning only, either transitive or intransitive. Transitive Verbs (can be used in the passive, and with -ebla, -inda; may be used intransitively with -ig-):— Aplik, balanc, ban, cagren, etend, fend, ferm, fin, flar, fleks, izol, klin, kolekt, komenc, lev, mezur, montr, mov, nask, past, renvers, romp, rul, renkont, sku, sving, sufok, sancel, sang, sir, tren, turn, vek, vers. Intransitive Verbs (cannot be used in the passive, nor with -ebla, -inda, unless made transitive by -ig-):— Bol, brul, ces, daur, degel, dolor, dron, eksplod, fal, glit, halt, kresk, krev, kus, lum, odor, pas, pend, sid, son, sonor, spruc, srump, svel, velk. Do, Did. 237 (j). The English verb "to do" is represented as follows:— (1). In the sense of to "perform," "make," "commit," "execute," etc., it is represented by fari or agi. Examples.—Ne faru tion = Don’t do that. Batante la knabon, li faris (or, agis) malprave = He did wrong in beating the boy. La cambristino faris tion, kion mi ordonis = The chambermaid did what I ordered. (2). In interrogation and negation it is represented by the present and past tenses (pars. 58, 63, 64). Examples.—Cu vi pensas, ke li venos? = Do you think that he will come? Cu vi lin vidis hierau? = Did you see him yesterday? Mi ne konas lin = I do not know him. (3). As an emphatic auxiliary, it may be represented by ja = indeed, in fact, or other similar adverb: e.g., sincere (par. 217). Example.—Mi ja esperas, ke li venos = I do hope he will come. (4). As an inquiry after health. Example.—Kiel vi fartas? or, Kia estas via sano? or, Kiel vi statas? = How do you do? or, How are you? (5). To "do," in the sense of "to cheat," by trompi or friponi. In the sense of "to suffice" by sufici. Examples.—Li friponis min = He did (cheated) me. Tio suficos = That will do. (6). Followed by prepositions, it must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrases. Examples:—
Get. 237 (k). The English verb to "get" must be translated in accordance with its numerous meanings. For instance:— (1). To "get," in the sense of to "become," may be rendered by igi = to become, or the suffix -IG-. Examples.—Edzigi = To get married (man). Edzinigi = To get married (woman). Levigi = To get up. Alproksimigi = To get near. Lacigi = To get tired. Tedigi = To get bored. Cu vi pretigas = Are you getting ready? Mi malsatigas = I am getting hungry. Mi kutimigas je tio = I am getting accustomed (used) to that. Mallumigas (or, Igas mallume) = It is getting dark. La tagoj pli mallongigas = The days are getting shorter. La infanoj kusigis = The children got into bed (lit., lay down). La vespermango malvarmigas = The dinner is getting cold; but malvarmumi = to get (or catch) a cold. (2). To "get," in the sense of to "make," to "cause," is rendered by igi = to make, or the suffix -IG- added to a verb. Examples.—Igu sin veni al nia dancado = Get her to come to our dance. Mi presigos la libron baldau = I shall get the book printed soon. (3). To "get," in the sense of to "have got," or to "possess," is not translated. Examples.—Mi havas (or, posedas) du cevalojn = I have got two horses. Kion vi havas? = What have you got? (4). To "get," in the sense of to "procure," "fetch," is rendered by havigi, or, venigi. Examples.—Mi havigos al mi tiom, kiom mi povos = I shall get as much as I can. Venigu al mi veturilon = Get me a carriage. Venigu la kuraciston = Send for (get) the doctor. (5). "Get" is translated in various other ways according to its meaning. Note the following examples:—
(6). To "get," followed by prepositions, etc., must be translated in accordance with the sense of the phrase. Examples:—
Can and Could. 237 (l). "Can" and "could" are translated by povi = to be able, except when "can" has the permissive sense of "may" (see par. 237 (m) (3)). Examples.—Mi ne povas lin vidi nuntempe = I cannot see him at present. Li ne povis iri hierau = He could not go yesterday. Li povus iri hodiau, se li volus = He could (would be able to) go to day, if he would. For other examples of "can" and "could," see povi, par. 237 (f). May and Might. 237 (m). These verbs are used (1) as auxiliaries in the English Subjunctive mood; also to express (2) wish, (3) permission, (4) possibility, (5) power or ability. (1). When used as auxiliary verbs, they can be expressed by the Esperanto Imperative mood. Examples.—Li rapidas, por ke li alvenu gustatempe = He hastens that he may arrive in time. Li kuris rapide, por ke li ne maltrafu la vagonaron = He ran quickly that he might not miss the train. (2). When they express "wish," the Esperanto Imperative is also used. Examples.—Vi estu felica! = May you be happy! Via deziro efektivigu! = May your wish be realized! Cielo vin benu! = May Heaven bless you! Nenio difektu vian felicon! = May nothing mar your happiness! Cia beno estu via! = May every blessing be yours! In the above examples ellipsis takes place both in Esperanto and English, some such words as mi deziras, ke ... = I wish that..., being omitted (par. 66 (c)). Ke vi prosperu, estas mia fervora deziro! = That you may succeed, is my fervent desire! Ke li vivu, estis mia ciutaga prego! = That he might live, was my daily prayer! Mi mortu, se mi iom mensogas! = May I die, if I am lying at all! (3). When they express "permission," some word denoting this must be used, or the imperative may be used, the verb expressing permission being omitted (par. 58 (a)). The English verb "can" is sometimes employed to express the permissive sense of "may"; in that case it is better to avoid the use of povi = to be able. Examples.—Cu vi (oni) permesas, ke mi parolu kun vi? = May (can) I speak to you? (lit., Do you permit that I speak to you?) Cu oni permesas, (or, cu estas permesate), ke mi vidu la kastelon? = May (can) I see the castle? Mi permesas, ke vi tion faru, se vi volas, or, Vi faru tion, se vi volas = You may (I permit that you) do that, if you like. Se mi estus permesita tion diri (or, se estus permesite, or, se oni permesus, ke mi tion diru) = If I might (were permitted to) say so (that). The above questions may be shortened thus:—Cu mi parolu kun vi? Cu mi vidu la kastelon? in this sense. The ellipsis understood here might, however, equally well be Cu (vi volas, cu necesas, cu estas bone, ke) mi parolu? vidu la kastelon? = Shall I (Am I to) speak (see the castle)? (4). When they express "possibility," some word showing that the action is more or less a matter of doubt must be used, as eble = possibly, kredeble = probably, etc. Examples.—Eble li venos = He may come, or, Maybe (possibly) he will come. Eble li trancos la fingron, se vi donos al li trancilon = He may (possibly he will) cut his finger, if you (will) give him a knife. Eble li venus, se vi lin invitus = He might (possibly he would) come, if you invited (were to invite) him. Se vi tien irus, eble (kredeble) vi lin vidus = If you went (were to go) there, you might (possibly, probably would) see him. Note that the possibility of something happening varies with the adverb used. "May" rendered by eble throws greater doubt on the contingency than kredeble. (5). When they express "power," or "ability," povi = to be able can be used. Examples.—La malsano povas konduki el komplikajoj = The illness may lead to complications. Li povus tion fari, se li antaue volus (or, estus volinta) gin fari = He might (could) have done that, if he had wished to do it. Shall and Will. 237 (n). These verbs are used in English to denote:—
As they are sometimes misplaced, it would be well for the student, not thoroughly conversant with their proper use, to consult some good English Grammar. (1). Futurity. As the auxiliary for the Future tense, "shall," in direct speech, is generally used for the first person, and "will" for the second and third persons, as "I, or we, shall go," "He, you, or they will go," except in interrogation, when "shall" is generally used for the second person, as "Shall you go?" But in indirect speech "shall" is used for all three persons, as, "He says he shall come." "You say you shall write." In any of these cases they are translated by the future in -os. (2). Determination or Will. When the meaning is not futurity, but determination on the part of the speaker, then, in direct speech, "will" is used for the first person, and "shall" for the second and third persons, as, "I will do it, you cannot stop me." "You shall not kill that bird." "Thou shalt not steal." But in indirect speech "will" is used for all the persons, as, "He says he will go" (it is his determination to go). "You say you will try it" (you are determined to try it). In such cases one must, in Esperanto, use not the future, but the imperative, or some word expressing "will" or "determination." N.B.—In some cases it is difficult to tell in which of the above senses "shall" or "will" is used, unless the context makes it clear; so, in writing, we have to underline the words, or, in speaking, to emphasize them strongly when they mean "determination." Note carefully their meaning in the following sentences. The number prefixed to each example denotes the heading under which it comes. Examples.—(1). Mi revenos, kiam ili foriros = I shall come back when they go away. (2). Mi intencas gin fari, cu vi konsentos, au ne = I will (intend to) do it whether you consent or not. (1). Vi mortigos tiun birdon, se vi rekte pafos = You will kill that bird if you shoot straight. (2). Mi ne permesas, ke vi mortigu tiun birdon = You shall not (I do not allow you to) kill that bird. (1). Mi scias, ke vi gin faros = I know that you will do it. (2). Mi scias, ke vi povas gin fari, se vi volos = I know you can do it if you will. Note the difference in meaning of "shall" and "will" in the following sentences:—I shall/will not see you to-morrow unless you come early. If "shall" be used, it means that something will prevent the speaker from seeing the individual; the speaker may be out, or engaged; therefore, since the reason is unimportant, we can translate the sentence, as in English, by the future, as:—(1). Mi ne vidos vin morgau, se vi ne (or, krom se vi) venos frue. But if "will" be used, determination on the part of the speaker is implied; nothing prevents him; he could see you if he wished, but he will not (won’t). Therefore, in Esperanto, we must express this determination, and say (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi ne intencas) vin vidi morgau, krom se vi venos frue = I will not (I do not intend to) see you to-morrow unless you come early. (1). Mi ne mortos sola = I shall not die alone. (2). Mi ne volas (or, mi certe ne intencas) morti sola = I will not (I certainly do not intend to) die alone. (1). Cu vi estos (or, ceestos) tie ci morgau? = Will you be here to-morrow? (1). Jes, mi estos = Yes, I will. Note that "will" here repeats the verb in the question, and is used instead of "shall." (1). Li diras, ke li venos, sed (1) cu li venos? or, (2) cu li volos? = He says he will come, but will he? Here the words "but will he?" must be translated in accordance with the sense to be conveyed, viz.:—(1) will something prevent him? (2) will he have the will? The phrase "Shall I do that?" can be translated by the future, Cu mi tion faros? = Is it a fact that I shall do that? or, Cu estos plej bone tion fari = Is it best to do that? or, Cu estos profite, sage, k.c. = Will it be expedient, wise, etc., or, Cu decos, ke mi tion faru? = Will it be proper (right) to do that? or, Cu vi volas (or, deziras), ke mi tion faru, or, Cu mi faru tion? = Shall I (do you wish me to, Am I to) do that? (1). Cu vi iros? = Shall you go? (2). Cu vi volas iri? = Will you go? Cu vi volas, ke mi iru? or, Cu mi iru? = Shall I go? Am I to go? (pars. 58 (a), 237 (m) (3)). "Will I go" is bad English, and untranslatable! Should and Would. 237 (o). "Should" and "would" follow the rules of "shall" and "will" when employed in parallel circumstances. They express:— (1). Supposition, or a future that is doubtful, conditional, or merely supposed (par. 192), as "I should do it if I knew how." (2). Duty or obligation (par. 237 (a)) as "He should not do that." (3). Determination, as "Nothing could influence him, he would do it." (4). The softening of an expression (par. 194), as "Would you object to do that?" (5). The future in indirect speech (par. 232), as "She said she would (will) come." (6). Would, when it signifies custom or habit, is sometimes translated by adding the suffix -AD- to the verb. The following sentences will show how these various meanings may be expressed in Esperanto. The number before each example shows under which class of meanings it comes. Examples.—(1). Mi gin farus, se vi min permesus = I should do it if you would permit me. (1). Li min frapus, se li ne timus = He would strike me if he were not afraid. (3). Li insistis gin fari malgrau la dangero = He would do it in spite of the danger. (4). Cu vi donus al mi tiun libron? = Would you give me that book? (1). Se vi vidus Johanon morgau (2) vi devus diri al li, ke li ne acetu tiun domon = If you should see John to-morrow, you should tell him not to buy that house. (5). Si diris al mi, ke si venos = She told me that she would (will) come. (1). Mi iomete suspektis, ke ili venos = I had a slight suspicion that they would come. (6). Ili ofte rajdadis tra la arbaroj, kie la brancoj tusadis iliajn sultrojn, kaj la birdoj kantadis inter la fresaj folioj = They would often ride through the woods, where the branches would touch their shoulders, and the birds would sing amid the fresh leaves. Must, Ought. 237 (p). "Must" and "Have to" always signify physical or moral obligation, and are stronger terms than "ought," which implies moral obligation or duty. Compare "You must (have to, are to) go" with "You ought to go." The former can be rendered by devi, and the latter, "ought," by deci, or some word implying moral obligation. Devi is also used for "ought" in the Conditional mood; devus, in this case, being the softened form of the Conditional mood (see par. 194). Care must be taken not to translate "must" when it signifies "have to" or "am to" by havi or esti (see par. 237 (a) on devi). Examples.—Li devas labori = He must (has to) work. Mi devas havi tiun libron = I must have that book. Cio, kio trovigas en tiu ci libro, devas esti rigardata kiel deviga por ciuj = Everything which is in this book must be regarded as obligatory for all. La "Fundamento de Esperanto" devas resti severe netusebla = The "Fundamento de Esperanto" must remain strictly unalterable (untouchable). Vi devus ne fari tion, or, Ne decas, ke vi tion faru = You ought not to (it is not proper, right that you should) do that. Vi devus viziti (Decas, ke vi vizitu) la patron = You ought to see (it is proper that you should see) your father. Li devus ne forgesi (or, esti forgesinta) = He ought not to have forgotten. Decas, ke mi alportu miajn servojn al la rego = I ought to offer my services to the king. Kiam vi devos vidi la homon? = When must you (will you have to) see the man? Mi devus vidi lin hierau, sed li malsanigis, tial nun mi devos atendi gis morgau = I ought to have seen him yesterday, but he fell ill, so now I must wait till to-morrow. N.B.—Note, in the last example, that the adverb hierau = yesterday, clearly shows the action is past; it is therefore unnecessary to use the past infinitive esti vidinta. 238. Adverbs are more widely used in Esperanto than in any other language. The root of every word, and any grammatical termination or affix, the sense of which permits this, can be made into an adverb by adding the adverbial termination E. This facility enables the Esperantist to express in one word, to an unlimited extent, what in other languages often takes two, three, or more words to express adequately. E.g., Tiamaniere = In such a manner. Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening. 239. An adverb answers to a preposition accompanied by a complement. Example.—Li parolas sage = "He speaks wisely," has the same signification as Li parolas kun sageco = He speaks with wisdom. 240. Adverbs are used to modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Examples.—Li agas bone = He acts well. Tiu ci estas tre granda domo = This is a very large house. Li skribas treege bone = He writes extremely well. N.B.—When an adverb seems to qualify a preposition, it really qualifies an adverbial phrase, as:—Multe antau la horo = Much before the time (hour). 241. Position.—Adverbs, as a rule, immediately precede or follow the words which they modify (see par. 88). 242. There are two classes of adverbs in Esperanto, which for the sake of distinction we will call (a) "Primary" and (b) "Grammatical." (a). Primary adverbs are all to be found in the list of primary words in Part V. They have no distinctive termination. (b). Grammatical adverbs are those which are formed by adding E to a root, grammatical termination, or affix. Some are formed by adding E to a primary word. A list of adverbs will be found at page 166. 243. No influence on case.—Adverbs exercise no influence on the case of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns. If such be in the accusative, it is not by the influence of the adverb. For example:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mian fraton = I love John as warmly as my brother. Here kiel exercises no influence on mian fraton, for both mian fraton and Johanon are governed by the verb amas. Therefore the meaning is that the speaker loves my brother and John equally warmly. Or, we can place mian fraton in the nominative, as:—Mi amas Johanon tiel varme, kiel mia frato = I love John as warmly as my brother (does). Ask yourself the question, "as my brother does what?" and the answer is "loves John." In English we are obliged to add "does" or "loves him," but in Esperanto the meaning is quite clear from the case of the noun (see also pars. 247 and 105). 244. Adverbs formed from Prepositions.—When a preposition has no complement, noun or pronoun, the preposition then takes the adverbial termination E. For instance, in the phrase mi staras apud li (I am standing by him); apud here is a preposition because it is followed by its complement li. But if li be omitted, we must alter the sentence, as:—Li staras apude = He is standing by (near). 245. Subject not expressed.—When, in a sentence in Esperanto, there is no noun or pronoun which the adjective can qualify (as in case of verbs in the infinitive, or used impersonally), the adverb is used in Esperanto in place of the adjective. Examples.—Mensogi estas honte (not honta) = To lie is shameful. Estas necese, ke.... = It is necessary that.... Estas bele, varme, malvarme = It is fine, warm, cold. Ne estas atendate, ke.... = It is not expected that.... If, however, a noun or pronoun is expressed, then the adjective is used, as:—La vetero (or, gi) estas bela, varma, malvarma = The weather (or, it) is fine, warm, cold. 245 (a). Participle-Adverbs.—In Esperanto, when the participle relates to the subject (par. 211), but does not qualify it, then the participle takes the adverbial form. For impersonal use see par. 164 (d). Examples.—Legante, ni lernas = In (by, when, while) reading we learn. Starante sur la supro de la monteto, li povis vidi la pregejon = By standing on the top of the hill, he could see the church. Estante kolera, si ne volis paroli al sia nevo = Being (as she was) angry, she did not wish to speak to her nephew. Malferminte la fenestron, li vidis la amason sur la strato = Having opened (or, after opening) the window, he saw the crowd in (on) the street. Ekrigardinte la libron, si gin metis sur la tablon = Having glanced (or, after glancing) at the book, she put it on the table. Forpelite el la urbo, ili rifugis en la arbarego = Having been (or, after being) driven from the town, they took refuge in the forest. Batate de la lernejestro, la knabo terure kriegis = Being beaten by the schoolmaster, the boy howled terribly. 246. Adverbs of quantity, like other words signifying quantity, usually have their complement introduced by the preposition da. Examples.—Multe da homoj = Many men. Nur malmulte da virinoj = Only a few women. Kiom da cevaloj vi havas? = How many horses have you? Multe pli da bovajo, ol (da) safajo = Much more beef than mutton. Malpli da pano, ol (da) vino = Less bread than wine. Tro da kuiristoj malbonigas la buljonon = Too many cooks spoil the broth. Ne estas sufice da supo = There is not sufficient soup. 246. (a). Expressions such as "more and more," "at most," etc., are thus rendered:— Pli-malpli, pli au malpli, plie au malplie = More or less. Plie = In addition, besides, moreover. Malplie = Less and less. Pleje = At (the) most, mostly. Malpleje = At (the) least, least. Troe = In excess, too many. Footnote: [18] These usages are seldom employed. Examples.—Unu pomo plie au malplie ne gravas = One apple more or less does not signify. Plie, mi devas diri al vi, ke.... = Moreover, I must tell you that.... Ni estos kvin pleje haj ili sep malpleje = We shall be five at most and they seven at least. En la kesto mi trovis du librojn troe = In the box I found two books too many (in excess). 247. Adverbs and the accusative case.—Adverbs exercise no influence on case (see par. 243), but used adverbially, participles of active verbs are followed by the accusative if used without a preposition (see par. 66 (b)). After such adverbs as konforme, rilate, escepte, spite, etc., it is optional either to use the accusative or to add a suitable preposition with the complement in the nominative, as konforme al, kun, or je; rilate al; escepte de (or, kun la escepto de = with the exception of); spite de (see par. 258 (a)). 248. Comparatives and superlatives.—These are marked in the same way as adjectives (see pars. 112–114). Examples.—Pli rapide, ol bone = More quickly than well. Malpli forte, ol kutime = Weaker (less strong) than customary. Tiel dolce, kiel eble (or, kiel eble plej dolce) = As sweetly as possible. Si kantas la plej bone el ciuj = She sings best of all. Li agis tre sage = He acted very wisely. 248 (a). Adverbs and adjectives.—Be careful not to use the adjective for the adverb. Examples.—Li kuras rapide = He runs rapidly. Parolu pli laute (not lauta) = Speak louder (more loudly). Si vidis lin piediranta pli malrapide, ol kutime = She saw him walking (that he was (is) walking) more slowly than usual. N.B.—Note that piediranta is predicative (see par. 209 (b)). LIST OF ADVERBS. 248 (b). The following list of adverbs contains all those found amongst the primary words and some formed from them, also a number of useful grammatical adverbs. Adiau = Adieu, farewell, good-bye. Example.—Li diris al si adiau, kaj foriris = He said good-bye to her, and departed. Afrankite = Post-paid. Ajn = Ever. Ajn is generally used after the correlative words beginning with K, as kia, kiam, etc. (see table of correlative words, par. 147). It then answers to words ending in "ever," but, unlike English, it is never joined to the preceding word (par. 145). Examples.—Kia ajn = Whatever kind of. Kiam ajn = Whenever, whensoever. Kie ajn = Wherever, wheresoever. Kiel ajn = However. Kies ajn = Whosesoever. Kio ajn = Whatever, whatsoever. Kiom ajn = However much. Kiu ajn = Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever. Aliloke = Elsewhere. Alivorte = In other words. Almenau = At least. Example.—Donu al mi almenau la duonon de tiu biskvito = Give me at least the half of that biscuit. Alvenante, Alveninte = On arrival. Ambau = Both, one and the other (pronoun). Examples.—Ili ambau kuris al la stacidomo = They both ran to the station. Ankau = Also, too. Examples.—Li ankau gin faris = He, too, did it. Nek mi ankau = Nor I either (also). Ankorau = Yet, still. (See remarks on Jam). Examples.—Cu li estas ankorau tie ci? = Is he still here? Mi ankorau ne vidis lin = I have not seen him yet. Antaue = Formerly, previously, beforehand, in front. Aparte = Aside, apart, separately, specially. Apenau = Hardly, scarcely. Example.—Mi apenau pensas tion = I hardly think that (or, so). Baldau = Soon. Example.—Mi esperas, ke li venos baldau = I hope he will (may) come soon. Bis = Once more, again, encore. Example.—Bis! = Encore! Bonstate = In good condition. Certe = Certainly. Ci = The nearest (tio = that, tio ci or ci tio = this), (tiu = that, the former, tiu ci or ci tiu = this, the latter), (tie = there, tie ci or ci tie = here), (tien = thither, tien ci = hither), (cio = all, cio ci = all this) (par. 143). Examples.—Restu ci tie = Remain here. Venu ci tien = Come hither. Cial = For all reasons, for every reason (par. 150). Example.—Cial tio estas la plej bona = For every reason that is the best. Ciam = Always, ever (par. 151). Example.—Li venas ciam, kiam oni ne bezonas lin = He always comes when one does not want him. Ciame = Perpetually, continually. Example.—La infano ploras ciame (or, sencese) = The child cries perpetually. Cie = Everywhere (par. 152). Examples.—Cie mi lin vidas = Everywhere I see him. Li iras cien = He goes everywhere. Ciel = In every (manner) way, all ways (par. 153). Example.—Tiu estas ciel la plej bona sidejo = That is in every way the best seat. Ciom = All of it, the whole, all, every quantity (par. 156). Example.—Prenu iom, ne ciom = Take some, not the whole. Cirkaue = Round about. Ciufoje kiam, or, ciun fojon kiam, or, kiam ajn = whenever. Ciujare = Yearly, annually, every year. Ciumonate = Monthly, every month. Ciusemajne = Weekly, every (each) week. Ciutage = Daily. Lautage = By the day. Tage = By day. Nokte = By night. Cu = Whether. An interrogative adverb used at the beginning of a direct question; it has no English equivalent. Cu simply shows that the sentence is interrogative, and therefore, to translate it, we must look to the tense of the verb and to the subject, so as to preface the interrogation with "do," "does," "did," "have," "has," "is," "will," "shall," "was," "were," "should," "would," "can," etc. etc. Examples.—Cu vi komprenis? = Did you understand? Cu Johano skribas? = Is John writing? Cu vi povas fari tion? = Can you do that? (see remarks on Interrogation, par. 58). Cu = whether (or if in the sense of whether) (a conjunction) is used in indirect questions, when we generally use "if." Examples.—Diru al mi, cu li venos = Tell me if (whether) he will come. Diru al mi, se li venos = Tell me if he comes. Cu ... Cu = Whether ... whether. Example.—Cu li venos, cu li ne venos, Paulo foriros = Whether he comes (will come) (or) whether he does not (will not come), Paul will depart. Dekstre = On the right. Maldekstren = To the left. Denove = Afresh, again, once again. Due = Secondly, in the second place. Dum = While, whilst, as (also a preposition and conjunction). Dume = Meanwhile. Eble = Possibly, perhaps. Ec = Even. Examples.—Li ec pensis, ke.... = He even thought that.... Ec la infanoj insultis min = Even the children abused me. Efektive = In fact, really, as a matter of fact. Ekstere = Outwardly. Interne = inwardly, internally, within, inside. Entute = On the whole, as a whole. Facile = Easily. Malfacile = With difficulty. Fine = In conclusion, lastly. For = Away, forth. Example.—For de ci tie fripono! = Get thee hence (away), rascal! Forme = In shape, in form. Galope = At a gallop. Grandnombre = In great numbers. Gisdate = Up to date. Gisnune = Up to now, hitherto. Gisplue = Until further notice. Gissate = Till satiety (is reached). Gustatempe = Opportunely, to time. Hierau = Yesterday. Examples.--Mi lin vidis hierau = I saw him yesterday. Antauhierau = The day before yesterday. Hierau matene = Yesterday morning. Hodiau = To-day. Example.—Li alvenos hodiau = He will arrive to-day. Hodiau vespere = This (to-day) evening. Ial = For some (any) reason, or cause (par. 150). Example.—Ial li venis Londonon = For some reason he came to London. Iam = At some (any) time, once, ever (par. 151). Examples.—Venu iam morgau = Come some time to-morrow. Cu vi iam renkontis lin? = Did you ever meet him? Ie = Somewhere, (anywhere) (par. 152). Examples.—Mi ne povas gin trovi ie en la cambro = I cannot find it anywhere in the room. Gi estas ie = It is somewhere. Cu vi metis gin ien? = Did you put it anywhere? Iel = Somehow, in some way, in some manner, anyhow, (in any way) (par. 153). Examples.—Iel li sukcesas en cio = Somehow he succeeds in everything. Respondu iel = Answer in some manner. Iom = Somewhat, some quantity, a little, some (par. 156). Examples.—La vetero estas iom pli varma = The weather is somewhat (a little) warmer. Jen estas cigaroj, cu vi deziras iom? = Here are cigars, do you want some? Iomete = A very little, in a very slight degree, at all. Example.—Gi estis iomete pli granda, ol kulo = It was slightly larger than a gnat. Intence = Intentionally, on purpose. Ja = In fact, indeed. Examples.—Li ja alvenos morgau = He in fact will arrive to-morrow. Ja may be used to express the emphatic English use of "do," "did," as:—Mi ja volas, ke li estu tie ci = I do wish he were here (par. 217). Jam = Already, as yet, by now, now. Examples.—Vi jam diris tion = You said (have said) that already. Cu vi jam trovis vian horlogon? = Have you as yet found your watch? Mi gin ankorau ne sercis = I have not yet looked for it. La knabo jam ne ridas = The boy does not laugh now (no longer laughs). N.B.—Compare jam with ankorau. Jam shows that the circumstances are changed; ankorau, that there is no change. Ex.:—La infano jam dormas = The child is now sleeping (it was not sleeping before). La infano ankorau dormas = The child is still sleeping. Jen = Behold, here. Jene = As follows. Examples.—Jen estas tio, kion vi bezonas = Here is what (that which) you want. Jen estas la libroj = Here are the books. Jes = Yes, it is so (par. 63). Jese = Affirmatively. Examples.—Jes, vi estas prava = Yes, you are right. Mi vin certigas, ke jes = I assure you that it is so. Ju pli ... des pli = The more ... the more (par. 112). Example.—Ju pli mi lin konas, des pli mi lin amas = The more I know him, the more I love him. Ju pli ... des malpli = The more ... the less. Example.—Ju pli mi lin vidas, des malpli li placas al mi = The more I see him, the less he pleases me. Ju malpli ... des malpli = The less ... the less. Example.—Ju malpli mi dormas, des malpli mi sentas la bezonon dormi = The less I sleep, the less I feel the need (to sleep) of sleeping. Ju malpli ... des pli = The less ... the more. Example.—Ju malpli mi trinkas, des pli mi mangas = The less I drink, the more I eat. Jus = Just, at the (past) moment, just now. Examples.—Mi jus vidis sin = I have just seen her. Mi jus diris al vi lian nomon = I have just told you his name. Lia jusa parolo = The speech he has just made. Kase or sekrete = In secret. Kelkafoje or kelkfoje = Sometimes. Iafoje = At times. Multfoje = Many times. Kia ajn = Whatever (kind of) (par. 145). Example.—Mi acetos de vi tiun libron, kia ajn gi estos = I will buy from you that book whatever it may (shall) be. Kial = Why, wherefore (par. 150). Example.—Kial vi silentis? = Why were you silent? Kiam = When, at what time (par. 151). Example.—Kiam li alvenos? = When will he arrive? Kiam ajn = Whenever, whensoever (par. 145). Example.—Sendu lin al mi, kiam ajn li venos = Send him to me whenever he comes (shall come). Kie = Where, in what place (par. 152). Examples.—Kie kreskas tiuj floroj? = Where do those flowers grow? Diru al mi, kie li estas = Tell me where he is. Kien (accusative) = Whither. Kien vi iras? = Whither (or, where) are you going? De kie li venis? = Whence did he come? Kie ajn = Wherever, wheresoever (par. 145). Examples.—Kie ajn li estas, li estas satata = Wherever he is, he is liked. Kien ajn = Whithersoever. Oni lin estimus, kien ajn li irus = He would be esteemed whithersoever he went (should go). De kie ajn gi venis, gi estas tre bela katido = Whencesoever (from wherever) it came, it is a very fine kitten. Kiel = How, in what manner, like (in comparison = ... as). Examples.—Kiel vi fartas? = How do you do? (how are you, or, fare you?) Mi havas ian ideon kiel gin fari = I have some idea how to do it. Tiel longe kiel = As long as. Se vi estus kiel mi = If you were (should be) like me. Kiel eble plej bone = As well as possible (as possibly, most well). Kiel bona vi estas! = How good you are! (par. 153). Kiel ajn = However, in whatever manner (par. 145). Example.—Kiel ajn vi gin faros, faru gin bone = In whatever way you (will) do it, do it well. Kiom = How much, as much as, as far as (par. 156). Examples.—Kiom kostas tio? = How much does that cost? Kiom mi scias = As far as I know. Kiom li povos = As much as he can (will be able). Kiom ajn = However (many) much, whatever quantity. Examples.—Mi gin acetos, kiom ajn gi kostos = I shall buy it, however much it may (will) cost. Kiom ajn da teo estas tie, tiom suficas = Whatever quantity of tea is there, it (that quantity) is sufficient (par. 145). Kompare = Comparatively, in comparison. Kompate = Compassionately, mercifully. Senkompate = Pitilessly. Kompreneble = Of course. Kondice = Conditionally, on condition. Konforme = Conformably, in accordance. Konsekvence = Consistently. Konsente = By consent. Kontente = Contentedly. Malkontente = Discontentedly. Kontentige = Satisfactorily, in a satisfactory manner. Kontraue = On the contrary, opposite to, vice versÂ. Kredeble = Likely, probably. Kune = Together, jointly. Kune kun = Together with, along with. Malkune = Separately. Kvazau = As if, as though, as it were (also conjunction). Examples.—Li staris, kvazau li vidas fantomon = He stood as though he saw (sees) a phantom. Li parolis, kvazau li vidis sin = He spoke as if he had seen her. Laularge = In breadth, broadways, transversely. Laulonge = In length, lengthwise. Lauvole = At option, at will. Laute = Loudly, in a loud voice. Mallaute = Softly, in a soft voice. Lerte = Cleverly. Mallerte = Awkwardly. Longe = Long, for a long time. Mallonge = Briefly, in short. Antau ne longe = Recently, not long ago, a short time ago. De longe = Long ago, long since, for a long time. Male = On the contrary, contrarily. Malpleje = Least, at least. Examples.—Li malpleje donis = He gave least. Ni estos tri mapleje = We shall be three at least (see pleje). Malpli = Less (for comparatives) (par. 112). Example.—Georgo estas malpli forta, ol Johano = George is less strong than John. Malproksime = Afar, away, far off, in the distance. Matene = In the morning. Vespere = In the evening. Mem = Self, selves, very (pronoun) (par. 127). Examples.—Mi mem iros = I shall go myself. Ec la virinoj mem laboris sur la kampoj = Even the women themselves (or, the very women) were working in the fields. Ce la pordo mem = At the very door (door itself). Morgau = To-morrow. Examples.—Mi iros tien morgau = I shall go there to-morrow. Li alvenos postmorgau = He will arrive the day after to-morrow. Multe pli multe da ... = Many (much) more of ... Nemulte = Not much, not many. Malmulte = Little, few. Ne = No, not, nay. Examples.—Cu vi deziras kafon? = Do you wish for coffee? Ne, mi jam havas = No, I have (some) already (see remarks on negation, par. 59). Ne tute = Not entirely, not altogether, not quite. Example.—Li ne estis tute malprava pri tio, kion li diris = He was not altogether wrong in what he said. Nenial = For no cause (reason) (par. 150). Example.—Nenial li cesis skribi al mi = For no reason he ceased writing to me. Neniam = Never (par. 151). Example.—Mi neniam vidis lin = I never saw him. Nenie = Nowhere, in no place (par. 152). Examples.—Nenie oni povis trovi mian hundon = Nowhere could they find my dog. Mi iras nenien speciale = I am going nowhere in particular. Neniel = Nohow, by no means, in no way (par. 153). Example.—Li neniel povis kompreni sin = He could in no way (not at all) understand her. Neniom = None, nothing, nothing at all, no quantity (par. 156). Example.—Li havas neniom = He has none at all. Nepre = Unfailingly, surely, infallibly, without fail. Example.—Tiu libro nepre apartenas al mi = That book certainly belongs to me. Norden = Northwards, to the north. Suden = Southwards, to the south. Orienten = Eastwards, to the east. Okcidenten = Westwards. Okcidente = In the west. Nun = Now. Examples.—Mi nun foriras = I am now going out. Mi ne povas lin vidi nun = I cannot see him now. Nune = At present. Example.—Mi estas okupata nune = I am busy at present. Nuntempe = Now-a-days, at the present time. Nur = Only (but, in the sense of only), merely. Example.—Li havas nur du cevalojn = He has but (only) two horses. N.B.—Care should be taken to place nur in such a position in a sentence so as to convey the required meaning of the phrase. It is best generally to place it before the word to which it specially refers (see par. 88). Pace = In peace, peacefully. Page = In payment. Senpage = Gratuitously. Parkere = By heart. Parole = Verbally, by word of mouth. Skribe = In writing. Example.—Li tion komunikis al mi parole kaj skribe = He communicated that to me verbally and in writing. Pasie = With passion, passionately. Kolere, angrily. Pere = Indirectly. Senpere = In a direct way, direct. Persone = Personally, in person. Piedire = On foot. Example.—Mi trapasis la arbaron piedire = I traversed the wood on foot. (la) Plej = (the) Most (for superlatives), most (par. 113). Examples.—La plej bela el ciuj = The finest of all. Vi agis plej sage, farante tion = You acted most wisely in doing that. Pleje = Most, mostly, mainly, at most. Examples.—Si donis pleje = She gave most. Pleje (or, plejofte) mi forgesas, ke ... = Mostly (frequently) I forget that ... Ni estos kvin pleje = We shall be five at most (see malpleje). Plezure = With pleasure. Pli = More (for comparatives), rather (par. 112). Examples.—Li ne vivos pli ol unu tagon = He will not live more than one day. Pli kaj pli mi sin amas = More and more I love her. Mi pli volis labori, ol ludi = I preferred to work than to play. Plie = Further, moreover. Plivole = Preferably, rather (par. 112). Plu = Further, farther, more. Ne ... plu = No longer. Examples.—Mi ne faros unu pason plu = I shall not go (make) one step further. Li ne plu faros tion = He will not do that any longer (more), or, He will no longer do that. Plue = Furthermore. Poduone = By half, by halves. Poste = Afterwards, after, then. Precipe = Especially, particularly. Prefere = Preferably, rather. Preskau = Almost, nearly, well-nigh. Examples.—Li preskau falis = He nearly fell. Ni preskau pensas, ke ... = We almost think that ... Pripensinte = On reflection. Proksime = Near. Malproksime = Far off. Proksimume = Approximately. Prunte = On loan. Example.—Mi prenis (donis) la monon prunte = I took (gave) the money on loan. Rapide = Rapidly, quickly, apace. Malrapide = Slowly, tardily. Rapidire = With speed, by express. Malrapidire = By slow train. Rave = Enchantingly, delightfully. Ree = Again, in return. Rekte = Straightforwardly, direct. Malrekte = Aslant. Renversite = Topsy-turvy, upset. Returne = Back. Returnen = Backwards. Sajne = Seemingly. Samtempe = At the same time, simultaneously. Sekve = Consequently, therefore. Intersekve = Consecutively, successively. Sendube = No doubt; without doubt, doubtless. Senintermanke = Continuously, without intermission. Skribe = In writing. Sovage = In a wild state. Malsovage = In a tame state. Somere = In summer. Vintre = In winter. Speciale = Specially. Sube = Beneath, below, under, underneath. Sufice = Enough, sufficiently. Supre = Above, up. Supren = Upwards. Malsupre = Below. De supre = From above. Surgenue = On one’s knees, kneeling. Surprize = By (with) surprise. Tial = Therefore, accordingly, for that (such) reason. Example.—Tial mi konsilas, ke vi skribu al li = For that reason (therefore, accordingly) I advise you to write to him (par. 150). Tiam = Then, at that time. The correlative is kiam, and tiam, kiam = then, when (or, when) (par. 151). Examples.—Tiam ni povos iri al la kunveno = We shall at that time be able to go to the meeting. Mi vizitos vin (tiam), kiam mi venos Londonon = I will visit you (then) when I (shall) come to London. Tiamaniere = In this (such a) manner, thus. Tie = There, yonder. Tien = Thither (par. 152). Examples.—Cu iu estos tie? = Will anyone be there? Vi ne vidos iun tie. = You will not see anyone there. Cu vi iras tien? = Are you going thither (there)? Tie ci, or, Ci tie = Here. Tien ci, or, Ci tien = Hither, here (par. 143). Examples.—Cu viaj fratoj estas tie ci? = Are your brothers here? Venu tien ci = Come here (hither). Ci tie ni vidis amasojn da viroj kaj virinoj (or, geviroj) = Here we saw crowds of men and women. Tiel = Thus, in that way, like that, so much so. Its correlative in comparison is kiel. Tiel ... kiel = as ... as (par. 153). Example.—Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you. Tiel ... ke = So ... that. Example.—Li tiel kriegis, ke li raukigis pro tio = He shouted so, that he became hoarse through it. Tiom = As much, as many, so much, so many. Its correlative is kiom, and tiom, kiom = as many as, as much as (par. 156). Examples.—Tiom estas malfacile memori = So much is difficult to remember. Li tiom laboris, kiom vi = He worked as much as you. Donu al mi tiom da pomoj, kiom da piroj = Give me as many apples as pears. Tiom pli = So much the more. Examples.—Tiom pli bone = So much the better. Tiom pli malbone = So much the worse. Trae = Right through. Tre = Very, much. Examples.—Li estas tre dika = He is very corpulent. Mi tre estimas lin = I esteem him much. Treege = Extremely, exceedingly. Example.—Si estas treege kolera = She is extremely angry. Trie = Thirdly. Triumfe = Triumphantly. Tro = Too, too much. Examples.—Li estas tro grasa = He is too fat. Mi lin tro amas = I love him too much. Troe = In excess. Example.—Dudek funtoj troe = Twenty pounds in excess. Tuj = At once, immediately, just (at the moment to come). Examples.—Li tuj iris hejmen = He went home immediately (at once). Tuj kantonta = just about to sing. Tuj kiam = As soon as (immediately when). Example.—Tuj kiam mi lin vidis, kuris al li renkonte = As soon as I saw him, I ran to meet him. Tute = Entirely, quite, utterly, stark. Examples.—Vi estas tute prava = You are quite right. Li estas tute freneza = He is stark mad. Tute ne = Not at all. Example.—Mi tute ne komprenas vin = I don’t at all understand you. Unue = First, firstly, at first. Versajne = Probably, presumably. Vete = Emulously. Vole = With one’s will. Kontrauvole = Against one’s will. Memvole = Voluntarily. Senvole = Involuntarily. Vole-nevole = Willy-nilly. Volonte = Willingly, readily. 248 (c). From the above list we see that the adverb is often used in Esperanto in place of a preposition and its complement (par. 252). Examples.—Si estas nigre vestita = She is dressed in black. Li donis al mi du silingojn page por la libro = He gave me two shillings in payment for the book. Forme gi estis simila al krono = In shape it was like a crown. La libro estas angle skribita = The book is written in English. Hamleto estas tradukita Esperanten = Hamlet has been translated into Esperanto. Note that in the word Esperanten the accusative of movement is used figuratively. (par. 67). PREPOSITIONS.The following is a list of the 34 simple prepositions, showing the paragraphs under which remarks and examples of their use will be found:—
PREPOSITIONS (Prepozicioj). 249. Prepositions express the relation between words, showing how some thing, action, or quality stands in relation to some other thing, action, or quality. Examples.—La riveroj fluas al la oceano = Rivers flow towards the ocean. Li mangas antau la tagmezo = He eats before midday. Nia domo staras ekster la arbetaro = Our house stands outside the plantation. 250. Every preposition, but one, in Esperanto has a fixed and definite signification, and great care must be taken to use the preposition which gives the meaning we wish to convey. A careful examination of the list of prepositions in par. 259 will show the errors we should make by translating the English preposition into its apparent corresponding one in Esperanto. 251. The preposition je is the only one in Esperanto without a definite meaning. It should be used only when we have to employ a preposition and are uncertain which we ought to select. We can, however, omit the preposition, and put its complement (noun or pronoun) in the accusative case, provided no ambiguity is likely to arise through the presence of other accusatives in the sentence, as:—Li gojas je tio, or, Li gojas tion = He rejoices at (or, over) that. There is no Esperanto preposition which gives exactly the English meaning of "at" or "over" in this sense. We might, perhaps, say that these words are part of the verb "to rejoice at," or, "to rejoice over." The nearest Esperanto preposition would be pri or pro = about, or, because of, and we could say Li gojas pro tio = He rejoices because of that (see Rule 14, par. 94). (a). Je, with the nominative, is generally used before the complement of the adjectives "deep, high, long, thick, wide," but the accusative without a preposition is equally correct. Examples.—Profunda (alta, longa) je kvin futoj (or, kvin futojn) = Five feet deep (high, long). La rivero estas larga je kvindek metroj (or, larga kvindek metrojn) = The river is fifty metres wide. We could, however, say, La rivero havas kvindek metrojn da largo (or, da largeco). 252. Adverb for preposition.—An adverb is often used instead of a preposition and its complement (par. 248 (c)). Examples.—Li parolas sage = He speaks with wisdom, instead of, Li parolas kun sageco. Li estis frapata perfortege = He was being struck with great violence, instead of, Li estis frapata kun perfortego. 253. Preposition omitted.—Not only the preposition Je (par. 251), but also other prepositions, are frequently omitted in Esperanto where we use them in English; but in such case (as stated in par. 68) their complements must be in the accusative to show the omission. Care, however, must be taken that the omission does not make the phrase ambiguous. Examples.—Li venos la mardon proksiman (or, en la mardo proksima) = He will come next Tuesday. Mi iros Madridon (or, al Madrido) morgau = I shall go to Madrid to-morrow. Mi lin vidis la dekan (or, en la deka) de Julio = I saw him on the 10th of July. Ni restis en la veturilo du horojn (or, dum du horoj) = We remained two hours in the carriage. (a). Prepositions are also always omitted between two substantives, when the word nomata = named could be understood (par. 106 (d)), as:— La urbo (nomata) Parizo = The city of (named) Paris. La monato Septembro = The month of September. Li uzadas la lingvon internacian (nomatan) Esperanto = He uses the international language Esperanto. (b). The preposition el = of, out of, is sometimes omitted in such an expression as:— Tri miaj parencoj = Three of my relatives (or, three relations of mine). 254. Prepositions as prefixes.—Prepositions are frequently used as prefixes, and when the compound word is a verb, the preposition is often repeated before the indirect complement of the verb. Examples.—Mi eliris el la korto = I went out of the courtyard. Li eniris en la cambron = He entered (into) the room. La birdo deflugis de la arbo = The bird flew from the tree. Li eliris el la domo = He went out of the house. Or we could say, Li iris el la domo, omitting the joined preposition. 255. Prepositions and case.—In contrast to prepositions in English, which govern the accusative case, all prepositions in Esperanto govern the nominative case. If the complement of a preposition is in the accusative case, this is owing not to the preposition, but to the rule that the accusative is used to show the direction or place towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made (par. 67). 256. Preposition and the accusative of direction.—As already stated in par. 67, the accusative is used when direction (physical or otherwise) is implied towards something. But if the word towards which such movement is implied is the complement of a preposition, then such word is in the nominative or accusative, in accordance with the following rules:— (a). If the preposition denotes of itself movement, its complement will be in the nominative, in accordance with Rule 8 that prepositions govern that case. (b). If the preposition does not of itself denote movement, then movement is shown by placing its complement in the accusative (par. 67). 257. Prepositions denoting movement.—The following two prepositions denote movement, and consequently their complement is never in the accusative:—Al = To, towards. Gis = Up to, as far as. As regards the others, the following are those in general use, whose complement takes the accusative of direction when motion towards something is implied:—Antau = Before. Cirkau = Around, about. En = In. Kontrau = Against. Sub = Under. Super = Over. Sur = On, upon. Tra = Through. Trans = Across. Examples.—Li staris momente antau la spegulo, kaj tuj poste venis antau la regon = He stood for a moment before the looking-glass, and then came before (into the presence of) the king. La infano dancis en la korto, kaj poste kuris en la gardenon = The child danced in (not into) the courtyard, and then ran into (not in) the garden. Jetu tion sub la tablon = Throw that under the table. Jetu la stonon super la muron = Throw the stone over the wall. Mi prenas sur min tiun ci aferon = I take upon myself this business (moral movement, therefore accusative, since sur does not of itself show movement). La knabo vadis trans la riveron kaj trans gi trovis aliajn knabojn = The boy waded across the river, and, on the other side of it, found other boys. 258. Prepositional expressions.—Adverbs are not unfrequently followed by prepositions, thus forming prepositional expressions which take the nominative case, like simple prepositions. Examples.—Meze de la kampo = In the middle of the field. Funde de kesto = At the bottom of a box. Flanke de la malliberulo = At the side of the prisoner. Proksime de la pregejo = Near the church. Dekstre de la vojo = On the right of the road. Supre de la muro = At the top of the wall. Dank’ al lia konsilo = Thanks to his advice. Li venis kune kun sia frato = He came together (along) with his brother. Li estas for de tie ci = He is away from here. Oni plantis arbon proksime de la puto = They planted a tree near the well. Metu vian manon for de mia kolo! = Take your hand off (away from) my neck. (a). A few adverbs, used as prepositional expressions, are sometimes followed by a suitable preposition and sometimes not; in the latter case the complement is in the accusative, to show the omission (par. 253). Examples.—Koncerne tiun aferon (or, Koncerne je tiu afero) = Concerning that matter. Konforme tion (or, Konforme al, kun or, je tio) = In conformity with that. Rilate lian karakteron (or, Rilate al lia karaktero) = With regard to (relative to, as regards, referring to) his character (par. 247) N.B.—These phrases are alternatives for simple prepositions. We might, in some cases, use pri for koncerne je or rilate al, and lau for konforme al. (b). Two prepositions sometimes are used. Examples.—"Eniru!" ekkriegis voco de en la pordo = "Come in!" shouted a voice from within (inside) the door. Li rampis de sub la sofo = He crept from under the sofa. La stono havis la alton (or, altecon) de cirkau ok centimetroj kaj la largon (or, largecon) de cirkau kvin centimetroj = The stone had the height of about eight centimetres and the width of about five centimetres. El sub la tirkestaro la muso kuris sub la liton = Out from under the chest of drawers the mouse ran under the bed. Ne rapidu foriri de antau li = Do not hasten to leave his presence (go away from before him). 259. The relation of prepositions to their complement.—English grammarians divide prepositions into various classes, but in Esperanto, with the exception of those mentioned in par. 257, denoting motion and rest, there are but two classes to which we need pay special attention, viz., those which relate to both place and time; and of these, two only, viz., antau = before, and post = after, require care in making their meaning clear. In the following remarks on prepositions the examples given of their use are placed under the various classes that their English rendering would assign to them; but we must bear in mind that, in accordance with Rule 14, every Esperanto preposition, except je, has a defined and constant meaning (par. 250). This defined meaning is given at the head of each preposition. The meanings given in the classes are only the various English renderings that can be given to the preposition (see English prepositions, pars. 260, 261). REMARKS ON THE PREPOSITIONS. 259 (1). Al = To, towards. Denotes approximation or addition. Approximation = To, towards. Examples.—Li venis al ni = He came to (or towards) us. Mi iras al Parizo, or, Mi iras Parizon = I am going to Paris. If al be omitted, Parizon must be in the accusative of direction. Ni ne vidas, car la lumo estas kasata al ni per la kurtenoj = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains. N.B.—Kasata al, not de, which, after a passive participle, means "by"; but independently of this, al is logically used after kasi, in the sense of "to hide from"; as:—Sed pro kio kasi al li vian amon? = But why conceal from him your love? Addition = To. Examples.—Mi donis akvon al la birdoj = I gave water to the birds. La rozo apartenas al Teodoro = The rose belongs to Theodore. Donu vestajon al la malriculoj = Give clothing to the poor. N.B.—With some verbs al is often used with the complement in the nominative, when in English we omit the preposition, as:—Li konsilis al mi fari tion = He advised me to do that. Ordonu al li (or, Ordonu lin), ke li ne faru tion = Order him not to do that. Al is also sometimes used with personal pronouns in a possessive sense, as:—Li lavis al si la manojn, or, Li lavis siajn manojn = He washed his hands (see par. 134). As a prefix, al signifies "to," "towards," as:—Alveni = To come to, arrive. Alpreni = To take to, adopt. Alpasi = To step towards, approach. 259 (2). Anstatau = Instead of. One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (see remarks on Infinitive, pars. 177, 179). Substitution = Instead of, for, in place of, as a substitute for, in room of. Examples.—Anstatau li, oni sendis lian fraton = Instead of him, they sent his brother. Anstatau kafo li donis al mi teon = Instead of coffee he gave me tea. Anstatau eliri, li restis en la domo = Instead of going out, he remained in the house. Anstatau unu el la oficistoj = In place of one of the officials. Although, in the first two examples given in the preceding paragraph, anstatau, being a preposition, is followed by the nominative, nevertheless, the accusative is often used in such cases when its use helps to remove ambiguity; the accusative being due to the omission of a verb understood. Compare: Petro batis Paulon anstatau Vilhelmo = Peter beat Paul instead of William doing so, with Petro batis Paulon anstatau (bati) Vilhelmon, Peter beat Paul instead of (beating) William. As a root-word, Anstataui = To replace (intrans.). Anstatauigi = To replace (trans.), to substitute. Anstatauulo = A proxy (person instead of). 259 (3). Antau = Before, in front of. Denotes place or time. May take accusative of direction. Place = Before, in front of. Examples.—Oni metis antau mi mangilaron = They put before me a table service. Morgau mi petos permeson veni antau viajn regajn okulojn = To-morrow I shall beg permission to come before your royal presence (kingly eyes). Antau nia militistaro staris pafilegoj = In front of our army were (stood) cannon. Time = Before, ago. Examples.—Antau ne longe = Not long ago. Antau kelkaj semajnoj = Some (a few) weeks ago. N.B.—Since antau and also post are frequently used both in the sense of "time" and "place," care must be taken to word a phrase so that no ambiguity may arise. In sentences like the following, antau ol or antau kiam should be used when time is implied. Examples.—La gefiancoj renkontigis antau la gepatroj = The betrothed met before the parents (= place, viz., in the presence of the parents). La gefiancoj renkontigis antau ol (or, antau kiam) la gepatroj alvenis = The betrothed met before the parents arrived (= time, viz., before the parents arrived). Johano venis antau la jugiston, sed Jozefo estis elirinta el la jugejo antau ol Johano alvenis = John came before the judge, but Joseph had left the court before John’s arrival. As a prefix, Antaudiri = To foretell. Antauiri = to precede. 259 (4). Apud = Beside, close by. Place = By, near, near to, close by. Examples.—La batalo apud Farsalo sangis multajn aferojn en Romo = The battle near Pharsalia changed many things in Rome. Li estas apud la pordo = He is near the door. Li staris apud Johano = He stood by John. Mi vespermangos ce tiu tablo apud la fenestro = I shall dine at that table close by the window. As a root-word or prefix, we have:—Apudeco = Contiguity. Apudesti = To be present, or near. 259 (5). Ce = At, with. Marks the situation of a thing or action. Denotes coincidence, either of place, time, or connection. Place = At, with, to, on. Examples.—Li estas ce ni = He is with us (at our house). Ni estis ce via patro = We were at your father’s. Si estas ce la pordo = She is at the door. Ce la alia flanko de la strato = On the other side of the street. Mi gastas ce miaj amikoj, Gesinjoroj Smith = I am staying with (am a guest at) my friends, Mr. and Mrs. Smith). Time = At, on. Example.—Ce nia alveno la hundo bojis = At (on) our arrival the dog barked. Connection = In, to, with, on. Examples.—Brakon ce (or, en) brako = Arm in arm. Koron ce koro = Heart to heart. Mi kredas, ke ce ciu vorto, kiun vi diras.... = I believe that with every word you say.... Ce la komparativo oni uzas la konjunkcion "ol" = With the comparative the conjunction "ol" is used. Por elpagi mian konton ce vi, mi sendas.... = To settle my account with you, I send.... Ce tia vetero, vi estos baldau resanigita = With such weather, you will soon be restored to health. Ce tio = On that. As a prefix, Ceesti = To be present. Inter la ceestantoj ni rimarkis.... = Amongst those present we observed.... 259 (6). Cirkau = About, around. Denotes place, time, manner, quantity. Place = About, around, round. Examples.—Je cirkau tri pasoj = At about three paces. La hundoj ludis kaj saltis cirkau si = The dogs played and jumped around her. Time = About. Example.—La koncerto dauris cirkau tri horojn (or, dum cirkau tri horoj) = The concert lasted about three hours. Manner = Round. Example.—Li premis sian edzinon cirkau la talio = He squeezed his wife round the waist. Quantity = About. Example.—Mi volas aceti cirkau kvar funtojn = I wish to buy about four pounds. As a prefix or root-word, cirkau has the signification of "encircling," as:—Cirkaufrazo = Periphrase, circumlocution. Cirkaupreni = To embrace. Cirkaui, cirkauigi = To surround. Footnote: [19] It will be seen from the examples that the preposition cirkau may be followed by the accusative of direction: Jakobo metis sakon cirkau siajn lumbojn (Rabistoj, 52, 2); La virino jetis ambau brakojn cirkau la kolon de la knabino (Marta, p. 8); Jetante siajn brakojn cirkau lian kolon (Faraono, II, 57). 259 (7). Da = Of. Used only after words denoting quantity, measure, weight, number, etc. Between two words, da shows that the first word measures the second. Quantity = Of. Examples.—Granda nombro da ideoj = A great number of ideas. Dudeko da homoj = A score of people. Funto da teo = A pound of tea. Sur la arbo sin trovis multo (or, multe) da birdoj = On the tree were (found themselves) many (of) birds. Often de and da may be equally correct. Funto da teo emphasizes the quantity required (funto); funto de teo emphasizes the thing required (teo). Do not use da before definite words like la, tiu, numbers, or pronouns. Funto de la teo, de tiu teo, de mia teo, de gi. Note the difference between "He ate a piece of bread" and "He ate a piece of the (particular) bread." The former is Li mangis pecon da pano, and the latter Li mangis pecon de la pano, de tiu pano. N.B.—Glaso da vino = A glass of wine. Glaso de (or, por) vino, or, vinglaso = A wineglass. Alportu al mi tetason, kaj elversu por mi tason da teo = Bring me a teacup, and pour me out a cup of tea. Note.—Particular attention should be paid to the prepositions da, de, and el, all of which are often translated by the English preposition "of." Note the following examples:— Da.—Cento da pomoj = A hundred (of) apples. Dekduo da kuleroj = A dozen (of) spoons. Miliono da logantoj = A million (of) inhabitants. Kvar metroj da stofo = Four metres of material. Ducent kilometroj da longo = Two hundred kilometres in (of) length. De.—Tri estas duono de ses = Three is half of six. Ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek = Eight is four-fifths of ten. La domo de mia frato = The house of my brother, or, My brother’s house. Doktoro de juro = A doctor of laws. El.—Ciu el la infanoj = Each of the children. Unu el ni = One of us. Ni faru uzon el tio = Let us make use of that. Domo konstruita el stono = A house built of stone. La plej bela floro el la gardeno = The most beautiful flower of the garden. 259 (8). De = Of, from, by. De denotes origin, possession, place, time, cause, agency, and disconnection or abstraction. It serves to form the genitive or possessive case. These are all variations of the one primary idea: origin. De is not used in speaking of places, etc., when English uses the preposition "of," where nomata = named might be inserted between two substantives. Examples.—La urbo Londono = The City of London. La monato Julio = The month of July (par. 106 (d)). Care must be taken not to confuse de with da. Possession = Of. Examples.—La libro de Petro = The book of Peter, or, Peter’s book. La domo de mia kara patro = My dear father’s house. Origin or Dependence = Of, on, from. Examples.—Gi dependas de la nombro de vortoj = It depends on the number of words. Tio venis de (or, el) lia unua eraro = That came from his first error. Li estas doktoro de medicino = He is a doctor of medicine. Li venis de (or, el) Parizo kaj nun iras al Berlino = He came from Paris and is now going to Berlin. Kaj Dio diris: "Kolektigu la akvo de sub la cielo en unu lokon" = And God said: "Let the waters (water) (from) under the heaven be gathered together (collect itself) into one place." Place = From, of, to. Examples.—For de tie ci, fripono! = Away from here, rascal! Li forestas de tie ci = He is away from here. Li staris meze de la malamikoj = He stood in the midst of the enemy. Proksime de la domo staris arbo = Near (to) the house stood a tree. Ne malproksime de la dometo staris pregejo = Not far from the cottage was (stood) a church. Time = From, since, for. Examples.—De tiu tempo = From (since) that time. De la kreo de la mondo = Since the creation of the world. De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana = For three weeks I have been (am) ill. Cause = From, of, with. Examples.—Li eksaltis de surprizo = He started (jumped) with surprise. Li mortis de febro = He died of (from) fever. Kauze de tio = Because of (due to) (owing to) that. Agency = By (after a passive verb, to show the agent). To show the means per is used. Examples.—Mi estas amata de mia patro = I am loved by my father. La domo konstruita de mia patro estas kovrita per ardezoj = The house built by my father is covered with slates. Disconnection or Abstraction = From. Example.—Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno = Separate the straw from the hay. As a prefix, de signifies "off," "from," as:—Li deprenis la libron de la breto (or, li prenis la libron for de sur la breto) = He took the book off the shelf. Li demetis la capelon = He took off his (the) hat. 259 (9). Dum = During. Dum, whether used as a preposition or conjunction, always relates to duration of time (see note below). Time = During. Examples.—Dum la tuta tago (or, La tutan tagon) li restis sola = During the whole day he remained alone, or, He remained alone the whole day. Dum (or, En la dauro de) kelkaj monatoj, si ne eliradis el sia cambro = During (for the space of, for) some months she did not leave (go out of) her room. Li dormis dum la tuta koncerto, or, Li dormis la tutan koncerton = He was sleeping during the whole (all through the) concert. Dum ilia konsiligo (or, Dum ili konsiligis) mi restis en la apuda cambro = During their consultation (or, whilst they were consulting) I remained in the adjoining room. Note.—Dum, although frequently used as a conjunction by Dr. Zamenhof, is rarely, if ever, used by him as a preposition. For our preposition "during" he generally uses the accusative of duration, or the prepositional expression en la dauro de, or simply en, or turns the phrase by employing an adverbial present participle. 259 (10). Ekster = Outside. Place = Outside. Ekster is the opposite of en = in. Examples.—Li iris en la domon, sed mi restis ekster gi = He went into the house, but I remained outside it. Li logas ekster la urbo = He lives outside the town. Connection or Disconnection. Ekster is sometimes used as a synonym of krom (par. 259 (17)). Examples.—Ekster tiuj ci legoj, ekzistas aliaj = Outside (besides, or, in addition to) these laws others exist. Ekster tiuj ci legoj ne ekzistas aliaj = Outside (beside, or, apart from) these laws others do not exist. As a root-word or prefix, we have:—Eksterajo = The exterior, outside. Eksterlande = Abroad. 259 (11). El = Out of. El is the opposite of en = in, but only when movement in and out is implied. Care must be taken not to confuse el with da or de, both of which also signify "of," that English preposition with so many meanings. El means essentially "out of," denoting that the noun specified is a portion of something, or is made of some particular material, or issues from something (see par. 259 (7)). Origin or Dependence = Of, with, from. Examples.—Mi estas la plej rica el ciuj = I am the richest of all. Unu el ni estos elektata = One of us will be chosen. Li faris uzon el cio = He made use of everything. Mi faros uzon el la okazo = I shall take (make use of) the opportunity. Kion ni faros el hundo? = What shall we do with (make out of) a dog? El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke ... = From the said rule, it follows that ... Mi ricevis leteron el Parizo = I received a letter from Paris. Disconnection = Out of, from. Examples.—Tri musoj elsaltis el la tirkesto = Three mice jumped out of the drawer. Mi eliris el la domo guste kiam li eniris en la veturilon = I went out of the house just as (when) he entered the carriage. La violono falis el la violonujo = The violin fell out of the violin case. El sub la lito = Out of (out from under) the bed. As a prefix, el signifies "out," and also denotes something done thoroughly well or completely, as:—Elpensi = To think out, to invent. Elfosi = To dig out. Elirejo = An exit, way out. Ellabori = To work out thoroughly, to achieve, elaborate. Eltrinki = To drink up. Ellerni = To master, to learn thoroughly (to study). 259 (12). En = In, into. May take after it the accusative of movement, and has then the meaning of "into." Place = In, into, within, at. Examples.—Li estas en la gardeno = He is in the garden. Li iris en la gardenon = He went into the garden. Mi logas en Parizo = I live in Paris. La birdo flugas en la cambro (gi estas en la cambro, kaj flugas en gi) = The bird is flying within the room (it is in the room, and is flying in it). La birdo flugas en la cambron (gi estis ekster la cambro, kaj nun flugas en gin) = The bird is flying into the room (it was outside the room, and now is flying into it). Helpu min porti tiujn ci kestojn en mian fiakron = Help me to carry these trunks to (into) my cab. Li iris en la domon, sed mi mem restis ester gi = He went into the house, but I myself remained outside of it. La cefa vorto staras en la fino = The chief word stands at the end. Time = In, on, at, during. Examples.—En printempo floroj aperas = In (during) spring flowers appear. En la tago = On the day. En la unua tempo = At the outset (first time), at first. Mi finos la tasketon en dek tagoj, se mi laboros en ciu tago po ok horoj = I shall finish the job (little task) in 10 days if I work 8 hours a day (lit., if I shall work in each day at the rate of 8 hours). Origin or Dependence = Of, into. Examples.—Apartamento konsistanta en (or, el) Footnote: [20] El is preferable. En cannot be correctly used here. Connection = In. Example.—Manon en mano = Hand in hand. 259 (13). Gis = Till, as far as. Place = To, down to, up to, as far as. Examples.—Ni akompanis ilin gis ilia domo = We accompanied them as far as (to) their house. Iru gis la rivero = Go to (down to, as far as) the river. Time = Till, until, to. Examples.—De sabato gis mardo = From Saturday till (to) Tuesday. Ni devas atendi gis Junio = We must wait till June. Cu ne estus pli bone atendi gis ni havos la hundon? = Would it not be better to wait till we have the dog? Gi povas kusi ok gis nau jarojn = It can lie eight to nine years. N.B.—Jarojn is the accusative of duration (par. 68 (b)), for gis has here no influence over it, being simply an item in the phrase; but if a preposition be placed before ok, then the preposition will influence its complement "jaroj," which will be in the nominative; as:—Gi povas kusi dum (or, je) ok gis nau jaroj = It can lie during eight (up) to nine years. 259 (14). Inter = Between, among. Inter differs from en, in that en implies that something is actually in, or within, something else, while inter implies that something is between, or among, some other things. Place = Between, among. Example.—Inter Rusujo kaj Francujo estas Germanujo = Between Russia and France is Germany. Time = Between. Example.—Inter la deka kaj dek-unua matene, mi renkontis mian amikon = Between 10 and 11 o’clock in the morning I met my friend. Manner = Among, amongst. Example.—Ili dividis inter si dek du pomojn = They divided amongst themselves twelve apples. As a prefix, inter has much the same meaning as in English, as:—Intermeti = To interpose. Intermiksi = To intermingle. Interkonsenti = To agree mutually. 259 (15). Je. The preposition je has no fixed meaning. It is used only when we have to employ a preposition and we do not know which one the sense requires. We can, however, use the accusative case in place of it (Rule 14, pars. 251, 253). The following are a few of the examples in which it has been used:— Cause = At, over, of. Example.—Mi enuas je la hejmo, or, Mi enuas la hejmon = I am weary (tired) of home. Manner = By, on. Examples.—Li tenis lin je la maniko per unu mano, kaj per la alia li batis lin sur la vizagon (or, li frapis al li la vizagon) = He held him by (at) the sleeve with one hand, and with the other he struck him on the face (struck to him the face). Mi gratulas vian princan moston je (or, pri) la reveno Danujon = I congratulate your Royal (Princely) Highness on (regarding) your (the) return to Denmark. Time = At, on. Examples.—Je la kvara horo = At 4 o’clock. Je la lasta fojo (or, La lastan fojon) mi vidis lin ce vi = On the last occasion (last time) I saw him with you. Measure = Of, by. Example.—Longa je dek futoj, or, Longa dek futojn = Ten feet long. 259 (16). Kontrau = Against, opposite. Never used in the sense of "by the side of." May take the accusative of direction. Place = Towards, overlooking, against, facing, opposite. Example.—La fenestro kontrau la strato = The window overlooking (towards) the street. Opposition = To, against, from. Examples.—Vizagon kontrau vizago = Face to face. Kontrau min mem, sin turnis mia ruzo = Against myself my cunning turned (itself) (Hamlet, V, 2). Kien ili iras? Kontrau Polujon = Whither are they going? Against Poland (Hamlet, IV, 4). Mi sidis sur stono, kie mi estis sirmata kontrau la orienta vento = I was sitting on a stone where I was sheltered from (against) the east wind. Li batalis kontrau la grekoj = He fought with (= against) the Greeks. As a prefix, kontrau denotes opposition, as:—Kontraudiri = To contradict. Kontraumeti = To oppose. 259 (17). Krom = Not including, putting aside, apart from. One of the prepositions that may be used before the Infinitive (par. 177). Separation, Exclusion = Besides, except, save, but. Examples.—Li estas bona, kaj, krom tio, rica = He is good, and, besides that, rich. Krom Esperanto, mi scias la lingvon germanan = Besides Esperanto, I know the German language. Mi estas anglo, kaj mi scias nenian lingvon krom mia propra = I am an Englishman, and I know no language except (but, besides, save) my own (see remarks on ekster (par. 259 (11)). 259 (18). Kun = With. Never used as "with" in the sense of the instrument or means by which something is done (see per, par. 259 (22)). Connection = With, to. Examples.—Li paroladis kun sia amiko = He was conversing with his friend. Li fiancigis kun Fraulino Berta = He became engaged to Miss Bertha. Resti kun leono estas dangere = To stay with a lion is dangerous. Li promenadis kun sia amiko, kiam mi lin renkontis = He was walking with his friend when I met him. Manner = With, of. Examples.—Li parolas kun granda sageco = He speaks with great wisdom. Li estas homo kun gusto = He is a man of (with) taste. Li estis atendata kun granda senpacienco = He was expected with great impatience. As a root-word or prefix, Kunigi = To connect. Kunulo = A companion. Kunveni = To come together, to assemble. 259 (19). Lau = According to. Manner = According to, from, in, in accordance with. Examples.—Li agis lau sia opinio = He acted according to his own opinion. Tiu vazo estas farita lau modelo el (or, en) nia muzeo = That vase has been made according to (from) a model out of (in) our museum. Li parolas lau saga maniero = He speaks in a wise manner. Ili gin faris lauvice = They did it in turn. La pli juna filino estis la plena portreto de sia patro lau sia boneco = The younger daughter was the complete portrait of her father in (according to) her goodness. Place and Direction = In, along. Examples.—Ni foriris lau malsamaj direktoj (or, en diversajn flankojn) = We went away in a different direction (or, in different ways). Aleksandro iris lau tiu ci rivero gis li venis al la palaco = Alexander went along this river till he came to the palace. N.B.—Lau is used in such expressions as:—Laulonge = Lengthways. Laularge = Across, athwart. 259 (20). Malgrau = Notwithstanding. Opposition = In spite of, notwithstanding, for, despite. Examples.—Li sukcesis malgrau la malhelpoj = He succeeded in spite of the hindrances. Li faris sian eblon, sed malgrau cio, li ne sukcesis = He did his best (his utmost), but for all that (notwithstanding) he did not succeed (see remarks on spite, par. 259 (30)). 259 (21). Per = By, by means of. Cause = By, by means of, with, through. Examples.—Ni flaras per la nazo, vidas per la okuloj, kaj audas per la oreloj = We smell with the nose, see with the eyes, and hear with the ears. Li mortigis lin per glavo = He killed him with a sword. Tion mi eksciis per mia frato = I learnt that through my brother. Manner = With, by, in. Per, used after a passive verb, denotes the means or instrument; de denotes the agent. Examples.—La domo, kiu estas acetita de mia patro, estas kovrita per pajla tegmento = The house, which was bought by my father, is covered with thatch (a straw roof). Li tenis lin ce la kolo per ambau manoj = He was holding him by the neck with both hands. Li iris el la urbo per (or, lau) flanka vojeto = He went out of the town by a by-path. Mia onklo ne mortis per natura morto = My uncle did not die (by) a natural death. Per unu vorto (or, unuvorte), la cambro estis tute bela = In a word, the room was quite beautiful. As a prefix or root-word, per is not much used. Perlabori = To acquire by one’s labour, to earn. Peri = To mediate, to interpose. 259 (22). Po = At the rate of. Po has a distributive sense, and is used generally before numerals (see par. 123). Do not confuse po with por. Distribution = At the rate of, in the proportion of, at. Examples.—Mi acetis kvar pomojn po du pencoj = I bought four apples at the rate of twopence (each). "Por du pencoj" would mean "for twopence" (all four for twopence). Tiu ci libro havas sesdek pagojn; tial, se mi legos en ciu tago po dek kvin pagoj, mi finos la tutan libron en kvar tagoj = This book has 60 pages; therefore, if I (shall) read (in) each day at the rate of 15 pages, I shall finish the whole book in 4 days. Silko po 5 silingoj por ulno = Silk at 5 shillings a (for a) yard (ell). As a prefix, Poduone = By half, or, by halves. Pogrande = Wholesale. 259 (23). Por = For, for the sake (benefit) of, in order to. One of the prepositions that may be used before the infinitive (see remarks on infinitive, par. 177). Purpose = In order to, to, for, at, for the purpose of, of, on. Examples.—Mi mangas por vivi = I eat in order to live. Por mi gi havas bonan guston = To me it has a pleasant (good) taste. Li sin kuracis por resanigi = He treated himself (took remedies) in order to recover (be restored to health). La plej bona metodo (por) akiri gin = The best way of getting it (in order to get it). Mi havas multon por fari = I have much to do. Por miaj kvar infanoj mi acetis dek du pomojn = For my four children I bought twelve apples. Litoj por du personoj = Beds for two people. Tiu ci ringo estas por vi = This ring is for you. Por cio (or, pro cio) ni lin dankas = We thank him for everything. Por tiu ci prezo = At this price. Ni devas konfesi por sia laudo, ke ... = We must confess to her praise that ... Mi ne havas tempon por fari tion = I have not time to do that. Kiam la momento por foriri alvenis, or, Kiam la momento de foriro alvenis ... = When the moment for departure arrived ... Tiu libro estas facile komprenebla por ciuj = That book is easily comprehensible by (for) all. Li acetis por unu penco da teo = He bought a pennyworth (for a penny) of tea. 259 (24). Post = After, behind. Is a preposition of place and time. Like its English equivalent "after," care must be taken not to confuse its meaning. For instance, "He came after me" might mean (a) next in succession or behind me, (b) after my arrival, (c) in pursuit of me. In Esperanto we should say:—(a). Li venis post mi. (b) Li venis post mia alveno. (c). Li postsekvis min (see also remarks on antau, which is the opposite of post (259 (3)). Place = After, behind. Examples.—Post la rego venis lia sekvantaro = After (behind) the king came his suite. "Da" post ia vorto montras, ke tiu ci vorto havas signifon de mezuro = "Da" after any (some) word shows that this word has the signification of measure. Time = After, in, by, hence. Examples.—Resendu al mi la libron (post) kiam vi estos traleginta gin = Send back to me the book after you have read it through. Post tri monatoj estos la edzigo = The wedding will be three months hence (in three months). Post kvarono da horo = In a quarter of an hour. Tagon post tago = Day by day. Manner = After, by. Examples.—Ili sekvis unu post la alia = They followed one after another. Iom post iom si pli trankviligis = Little by little she became more tranquil. As a prefix, Postveni = To come after, to succeed. Posttagmezo = Afternoon. Postvivi = To survive. 259 (25). Preter = Beyond, past, by. Differs from trans = across (beyond), in that preter shows the movement of something passing by, or alongside, something else. Trans signifies that something is on the other side of a boundary, or is crossing, or has crossed that boundary (see also tra, par. 259 (33)). Place = Beside, by, past. Examples.—Mi iris preter la fenestroj de la domo = I went by (past, beside) the windows of the house. Du sinjorinoj iris preter ni, kaj transiris la straton = Two ladies passed (went) by us, and crossed the street. Preter, as a prefix, has a similar meaning. Examples.—Mi preteriris la fenestrojn de la domo = I passed by the windows of the house. Du sinjorinoj preteriris nin = Two ladies went by (passed) us. Mi preterlasis lin = I let him pass by (I let him beyond). Li preterlasis la okazon = He let the occasion (opportunity) pass, or, he missed the opportunity. 259 (26). Pri = Concerning. Pri can be translated in various ways. Reference = Concerning, respecting, regarding, as regards, with regard to, as to, as for, about, of, on. Examples.—Pri mia lerteco, mi povas diri ... = Concerning my skill, I can say ... (In this sentence it will be observed that any of the above meanings of pri instead of "concerning" will give the exact sense.) Pri tio ne diru vorton = As to that, don’t say a word. Ne pensu pri gi = Do not think of (about) it. Li parolis pri la pentrarto = He spoke about (the art of) painting. Ili miregis pri (or, je) lia kolero = They were astounded at (about) his anger. Sed pri sia fratino, ni povas diri, ke ... = But of her sister, we can say that ... Tio estas verko pri la politiko = That is a work on politics. Vi estas prova pri tio = You are right in that. As a prefix, Pripensi = To think about, to reflect. See par. 258 (a) as regards the use of the prepositional expressions rilate, koncerne. 259 (27). Pro = Because of. Pro always relates to the cause or reason for something happening or being done. Do not confuse it with por. Cause = Because of, by reason of, on account of, for the sake of (cause), through, owing to, from, for, of. Examples.—Li demandis sin, pro kio si ploras = He asked her for what reason (because of what) she wept (weeps). Li min mokis pro mia kredemo = He ridiculed me owing to (for) my credulity. Li estas mortanta (or, ekmortas) pro (or, de) malsato = He is dying of (from) hunger. Si agas pro jaluzemo = She acts from jealousy. Li ne povis piediri pro sia malforteco = He could not walk owing to (on account of, through) his weakness. Pro tio, mi ne povas akompani vin = On that account, I cannot accompany you. Li gin faris pro sia edzino = He did it because of his wife. Pro is not used much as a prefix. Propeti = To intercede. Propekulo = A scapegoat. 259 (28). Sen = Without. Sen always denotes disconnection. Disconnection = Without, less, minus. Examples.—Li alvenis sen sia amiko = He arrived without his friend. Sen vi, ni estus kiel sen kapo = Without you we should be as without a head. Dek sen tri estas sep = Ten less (minus) three is seven. Sen is frequently used as a prefix, having the same meaning as our English suffix "less," as:—Sendube = Doubtless, without doubt. Sensenta = Senseless, without feeling. Sensenca = Senseless, without meaning. Senhonta = Shameless, without shame. 259 (29). Spite = In defiance of. Spite, like malgrau, marks opposition, but in a stronger sense. Spite means "in defiance of opposition," whilst malgrau has more the sense of "notwithstanding." Spite is not a preposition, but an adverb, and to translate the prepositional form "in spite of" it is usually better to use malgrau. Opposition = In defiance of, defiantly. Examples.—Spite cion, kion mi povis diri, li vangfrapis la infanon = In defiance of all I could say, he slapped the child’s face. Spite mian malamikon = In defiance of my enemy. Footnote: [21] The root spit is often used as a verb: spiti, to brave, flout, act in defiance of. Amason ne spitu (Prov. 1191). Se vi malgrau tio spitos min (Lev. 26, 21). From this root we get the adjective spitema (Ps. 37, 35) and the adverb spite. Hence there are often found in the literature such forms as spite al vi, spite de tio; and, consequently (with the accusative instead of the preposition), spite vin, spite tion, spite mian malamikon (par. 247). 259 (30). Sub = Under. Sub may be followed by the accusative of direction. It is the opposite of sur = on. Place = Under, beneath. Examples.—La hundo kuris sub la tablon por ekkapti la katon, kiu kusis sub la tablo = The dog ran under the table to seize the cat that was lying under the table. Muso estas sub la kanapo = A mouse is under the sofa. Manner = In, on. Examples.—Io, sub la formo de kato, transkuris la straton = Something, in the shape of a cat, ran across the street. Li iris sub la kondico, ke neniu lin akompanu = He went on (under) the condition that no one should accompany him. As a prefix, Subetago = A basement (floor below). Submeti = To put under, to subdue. Subtegmento = A garret (under roof). 259 (31). Super = Over, above. May be followed by the accusative of direction. It differs from sur, since sur generally means that something is upon or touching something else, whilst super signifies that the object is over or above something, but not in actual contact. Place = Over, above, beyond. Examples.—La balono estis vidata super la urbo = The balloon was seen over the town. Super mia kapo preterflugis birdo = A bird flew by, over my head. Li jetis stonon super la muron, sed li ne havis sufice da forto, kaj la stono falis sur la muron = He threw a stone over the wall, but he had not sufficient (of) strength, and the stone fell upon (on to) the wall. La spirito de Dio svebis super la akvo = The Spirit of God moved upon the face of (above) the waters (water). Mi konas nenion super tio = I know nothing beyond that. Super is the root of Superi = To surpass. As a prefix, Superflui = To overflow. Superhoma = Super-human. Supervesto (or, palto) = An overcoat. 259 (32). Sur = On, upon, on to. May be followed by the accusative of direction. See remarks on sub and super. Do not confound sur with super. Place = On, upon (resting on, touching). Examples.—Sur lia vizago mi vidis gojan rideton = On his face I saw a joyful smile. Vi trovos la paperojn sur la skribtablo = You will find the papers on the writing-table. La birdo (sur)flugis sur la tegmenton = The bird flew on to the roof. Li metis la capelon sur sian kapon = He put his (the) hat on his head. Li staris supre sur la monto, kaj rigardis malsupren sur la kampon = He stood above on the mountain, and looked down (below) upon the field (note the accusatives of direction, malsupren and kampon). Lau la komando "tri" vi ekpafos sur la arbon = At the command "three" you will shoot at (on to) the tree. Dependence = On, to. Examples.—Tio ci povas tre influi sur la sukceson de nia afero = This can have much influence on the success of our business. Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = I have rights on (to) the Danish throne. As a prefix, Surmeti = To put on. 259 (33). Tra = Through. Tra, trans, and preter. The following compound verbs will best show the meaning of the three prepositions:— Preterpasi = To pass by, go beyond. Trapasi = To pass through, to traverse. Transpasi = To pass over, to cross over. Example.—Trapasinte la arbaron, li preterpasis la pregejon, kaj poste transpasis la riveron per la ponto = Having passed through (traversed) the wood, he passed by the church, and then crossed the river by the bridge. Place = Through, across. Examples.—Li iris tra la amaso, kaj eniris en la domon = He went through the crowd and entered the house. Tra la mondo iras forta voko = Through the world goes a powerful call. Li estas tiel dika, ke li ne povas trairi tra nia mallarga pordo = He is so stout (thick) that he cannot go through our narrow door. Adverb: trae = right through. Occasionally the accusative of direction is used after tra, when this seems useful for emphasis, or to remove ambiguity. As a prefix, Tralegi = To read through. Trapasi = To pass through, to traverse. Traguti = To percolate. 259 (34). Trans = Across; on the other side of, beyond. May be followed by the accusative of direction. Place = Across, beyond, on the other side of. Examples.—La hirundo flugis trans la riveron, car trans la rivero sin trovis aliaj hirundoj = The swallow flew across the river, because on the other side of (beyond) the river were (found themselves) other swallows. As a prefix, Transiri = To go over, to cross. Transmigri = To migrate. Transvivi = To outlive, survive (a period of time). ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS.260. English prepositions are used with many various meanings. In fact, to express the sense of some of those in common use correctly, five or six or more Esperanto prepositions have to be used to give the different meanings of one English preposition. For instance, "by" has five different meanings in the following expressions:—"He went by the house." "He was hit by a stone." "By his advice." "Little by little." "He stood by the door." 261. The following common English prepositions are given with their Esperanto equivalents and examples of their use, viz., "At, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with." At. 261. (a). Represented by:— Apud, as:—La gefiancoj staris apud la altaro = The betrothed stood at the altar. Ce, as:—Ce ciu paso kiun si faris = At every step that she took. Si estas ce la pordo = She is at the door. De, as:—Li estas mirigita de la lukso de la kortego = He was astonished at the luury of the court. En, as:—En la unua tempo = At (in) the outset. En Parizo = At Paris. En la fino = At the end. En la kunveno = At the meeting. En la interspaco de ... = At the distance of ... Je, as:—Je la kvara horo = At four o’clock. Po, as:—Piroj po du pencoj por funto = Pears at (at the rate of) twopence a (for a) pound. Por, as:—Por tiu ci prezo = At (for) this price. Pri, as:—Si ridetis pri (je) lia kolero = She smiled at (about) his anger. Sur, as:—Ili pafis unu sur la alian = They fired at one another. Accusative, as:—Si mokadas lian kredemon = She jeers at his credulity. Adverb, as:—Tuj = At once. Almenau = At least. Iafoje = At times. Nune = At present, etc. By. 261 (b). Represented by:— Apud, as:—Mi volus stari apud la patrino = I would like to stand by mother. Ce, as:—Mi tenis lin ce la kruro per snurego = I held him by the leg with a rope. De, as:—Li estas amata de ciuj siaj amikoj = He is loved by all his friends. Lau, as:—Mi restadas tie ci lau la konsilo de mia kuracisto = I am remaining (staying) here by (according to) the advice of my doctor. Per, as:—Li eliris el la urbo per flanka vojeto = He left the town by a by-path. Post, as:—Iom post iom, si pli trankviligis = Little by (after) little she became more tranquil. Preter, as:—En tiu momento iris preter ni du sinjorinoj = At that moment two ladies passed by (beside) us. Adverb, as:—Legante, ni lernas = By reading, we learn. Tage = by day. Lautage = By the day. Mi staris apude dum li paroladis = I stood by (near to, close by) whilst he was talking. For. 261 (c). Represented by:— Al, as:—Ili ekiris al Berlino (or, Berlinon) = They started for Berlin. Anstatau, as:—Li skribis trion anstatau kvaro = He wrote a three for (instead of) a four. De, as:—Tro baldau alvenis la horo de foriro = Too soon came the hour for (of) departure. De tri semajnoj mi estas malsana = For three weeks I have been (am) ill. Dum, as:—Dum la tuta tago li restis sola = For (during) the whole day he remained alone. Lau, as:—Si estas granda lau sia ago = She is big for (according to) her age. Malgrau, as:—Malgrau cio li ne estis felica = For (notwithstanding) all that, he was not happy. Por, as:—Tiu ci monujo estas por vi = This purse is for you. Pri, as:—Li petis lin pri helpo, or, Li petis helpon de li = He asked him for help. Vi ne devas peti pri tio, kio estas nia suldo = You have not to beg for that which is our obligation. Pro, as:—Oni laudis lin pro lia boneco = They praised him for (because of) his goodness. La domo estis vendita pro suldoj = The house was (had been) sold for debt. Mi volas esti amata pro mi mem, ne pro mia riceco = I want to he loved for myself, not for my wealth. Pro tio, ke, as:—Li riprocis min pro tio, ke mi foriris = He reproached me for having gone away (lit., because of that that I went away). Tra, as:—Li ne povas gin porti tra tia interspaco = He cannot carry it for (through) such a distance. Accusative, as:—Li restis sola la tutan tagon = He remained alone all day long (for the whole day) (see the example under dum). From. 261 (d). Represented by:— Al, as:—Ni ne vidas, car la lumo estas kasata al ni per la kurtenoj = We do not see, because the light is hidden from (towards) us by the curtains. De, as:—Apartigu la pajlon de la fojno = Separate the straw from the hay. De tiu tempo = From that time. De lundo gis vendredo = From Monday to Friday. El, as:—Mi konkludis el lia mieno, ke li estas oficiro = I concluded from (out of) his appearance that he was (is) an officer. Kontrau, as:—Tie mi estis sirmata kontrau la vento = There I was sheltered from (against) the wind. Lau, as:—Tiu ci figuro estas skulptita lau mia modelo = This figure is sculptured (carved) from (in accordance with) my model. Per, as:—Tion mi eksciis per mia frato = I learnt that from (by means of) my brother. Pro, as:—Li tremis pro (or, de) timo = He trembled from (because of) fear. Sen, as:—Ok sen du estas ses = Two from eight (lit., eight without two) is six. In. 261 (e). Represented by:— Ce, as:—Tio donas helpon ce la lernado de la vortoj = That gives help in the learning of the words. Da, as:—Tri metroj da longo = Three metres in length. En, as:—Li estas en la domo = He is in the house. Je, as:—La suna disko sajne duobligis je grandeco = The sun’s disc apparently became doubled in size. Lau, as:—Lau mia opinio (or, miaopinie) ili estas tute pravaj = In (according to) my opinion they are quite right. Li edukigis lau la timo al Dio = He was brought up in (according to) the fear of God. Per, as:—La ambau estis similaj per la vizago kaj la karaktero = The two were alike in (by means of) features (the face) and (the) character. Post, as:—Ni foriros post du au tri tagoj = We are (shall be) going away in (after) two or three days. Pri, as:—La instruisto povas pri nenio lin instrui = The teacher can instruct him in nothing. Sub, as:—Io, sub la formo de homo, aperas = Something, in (under) the shape of a man, appears. Sur, as:—Promenante sur la strato, mi falis = While walking in (on) the street, I fell. Accusative, as:—Li estis naskita la vintron de 1902a = He was born in the winter of 1902. Adverb, as:—Forme = In shape. Troe = In excess. Vespere = In the evening. Alivorte = In other words, etc. Of. 261 (f). Represented by:— Al, as:—La amo al Dio = The love of (towards) God. Ilia timo al la morto estas granda = Their fear of (to) death is great. Pro malamo al mi li foriris = Through hatred of me he went away. Da, as:—Granda nombro da ideoj = A great number of ideas. De, as:—La unua vorto de la linio = The first word of the line. La amo de Dio = The love of (from) God, God’s love. Dum, as:—Vojago dum dek kvin tagoj, or, Dekkvintaga vojago = A journey of (during) fifteen days. El, as:—Unu el ni estos elektata = One of (out of) us will be chosen. El ciuj miaj amikoj, li estas la plej forta = Of (out of) all my friends, he is the strongest. En, as:—La plej granda cambro en la domo = The largest room of (in) the house. Inter, as:—La plej malgranda inter (or, el) ciuj arboj en la gardeno = The smallest of (among) all the trees in the garden. Kun, as:—Si estas virino kun gusto = She is a woman of (with) taste. Pri, as:—Ne pensu pri gi = Do not think of (about) it. Si parolis pri sia frato = She spoke of (about) her brother. Pro, as:—Li mortis pro (or, de) malsato = He died of (owing to) hunger. Adjective, as:—Li estas sperta homo = He is a man of experience (an experienced man). On. 261 (g). Represented by:— Al, as:—Peston al la trancilo! = Plague on the knife! Ce, as:—Ce (or better, sur) la alia flanko de la strato = On (at) the other side of the street. Ce tio mi eliris el la cambro = On that, I left the room. Cirkau, as:—La rado turnigis cirkau sia akso = The wheel turned on its axis. De, as:—Gi dependas de la nombro de vortoj = It depends on (from) the number of words. En, as:—En la tago difinita = On (in) the appointed day. Je, as:—Mi gratulas vin je (or, pri) via reveno = I congratulate you on (concerning) your return. Kun, as:—Si gin donis al mi kun (or, sub) tiu kondico = She gave it me on (with) that condition. Post, as:—Post plua konsiderado = On (after) further consideration. Pri, as:—Li gratulis min pri mia edzigo = He congratulated me on (concerning) my marriage. Pro, as:—Pro tio mi lin lasis = On that account I left him. Sub, as:—Li vizitis min sub la preteksto, ke li estas parenco = He visited me on (under) the pretext that he was (is) a relation. Sur, as:—La paperoj kusas sur la tablo = The papers are lying on the table. Accusative, as:—Li gin donis al mi lundon = He gave it me on a Monday. Adjective, as:—La veturilo estas luebla = The carriage is on hire (is able to be hired). Adverb, as:—Li staris dekstre = He stood on the right. Li gin faris intence = He did it on purpose. Prunte = On loan. To. 261 (h). Represented by:— Al, as:—Mi iras al Parizo = I am going to Paris. Li diris al mi = He said to me. En, as:—Li ridetis en si mem = He smiled to (in) himself. Li reiris en la urbon = He went back to (into) the town. Gis, as:—De sabato gis mardo = From Saturday to (till) Tuesday. Li amis gis frenezigo = He loved to frenzy. Ke (with a personal pronoun), as:—Vi bone faris, ke vi venis = You did well to come (that you came). Kontrau, as:—Vizagon kontrau vizago = Face to (opposite) face. Kun, as:—Li fiancigis kun mia kuzino = He became engaged (affianced) to my cousin. Por, as:—Mi havas multe (or, multon) por fari = I have much to do (for to do). Si estis muta por ciuj liaj demandoj = She was dumb to (for) all his questions. Tia agado estas dangera por ni = Such action is dangerous to (for) us. Pri, as:—Pri tio lasu min zorgi = Let me look to that. Sub, as:—Sub la sono de muziko = To (under) the sound of music. Sur, as:—Iri sur la kamparon = To go to (into) the country. Adverb, as:—Li iris dekstren = He went to the right. Morte kondamnita = Condemned to death. Accusative, as:—Mi iris Parizon = I went to Paris. With. 261 (i). Represented by:— Ce, as:—Por esti ce li, mi fordonis cion = To be with (at) him, I gave up everything. De, as:—Li eksaltis de surprizo = He started with (from) surprise. El, as:—Kion ni faros el tio? = What shall we do (make) with (out of) that? Je, as:—Li okupis sin je (or, pri) mehaniko = He occupied himself with (concerning, about) mechanics. Kontrau, as:—Li batalis kontrau la malamiko = He fought with the enemy. Kun, as:—Li paroladas kun sia amiko = He is conversing (talking) with (to) his friend. Lau, as:—Li kuris lau granda rapideco = He ran with great rapidity. Per, as:—Li mortigis sin per glavo = He killed himself with (by means of) a sword. Pri, as:—Pri tio mi havas nenion por diri = With regard to (concerning) that, I have nothing to say. Sub, as:—Mi gin donis al li sub tiu kondico = I gave it to him with (under) that condition. Adverb, as:—Rilate vian leteron = With reference to (relating to) your letter. CONJUNCTIONS (Konjunkcioj).262. Conjunctions serve to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Examples.—Somero kaj Vintro = Summer and Winter. Tage au nokte = By day or by night. Li diras, ke vi estas mallaborema = He says that you are lazy. Li estas fiera, sed vi estas humila = He is proud, but you are humble. 263. Conjunctions are of two kinds, Co-ordinating and Subordinating. They have no influence over the moods of verbs (par. 171 (b)). 264. Co-ordinating conjunctions connect two sentences, or two members of a sentence that are independent of each other. These are of five classes:—
265. Subordinating conjunctions introduce a clause that is dependent on another. There are six classes, viz., conjunctions of:—
266. Conjunctions connect the same cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. When there is a diversity of case, it is due to ellipsis (see par. 105). Example.—Mi vidis lin kaj lian fraton, sed ne lian fratinon = I saw him and his brother, but not his sister. 267. The co-ordinating conjunction is sometimes omitted. Examples.—Li venis, li vidis, li venkis = He came, he saw, he conquered! Vi iros, Johano restos tie ci = You will go, John will remain here. 268. Conjunctions and adverbs.—Some English words are sometimes adverbs and sometimes conjunctions, more especially those introducing clauses of time or place. Some are also prepositions as well as conjunctions and adverbs, and care must be taken to use the correct Esperanto words in such cases. For instance, in English "before," "after," and "since" are prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions. Before (prep.) = Antau. Example.—Li staris antau la rego = He stood before the king. Before (adv.) = Antaue. Example.—La rego neniam lin vidis antaue = The king never saw him before. Before (conj.) = Antau ol. Example.—Pripensu antau ol paroli = Reflect before speaking. After (prep.) = Post, or, malantau. Example.—Post la hundoj, venis la homoj = After (behind) the dogs came the men. After (adv.) = Poste, or, malantaue. Example.—La rajdantoj iris antaue, kaj la hundoj venis poste (or, malantaue) = The riders went in advance, and the dogs came after. After (conj.) = Post kiam, or, kiam. Example.—Resendu al mi la libron, post kiam (or, kiam) vi estos gin traleginta = Send me back the book after you (will) have read it through. Since (prep.) = De. Example.—De la kreo de la mondo = Since the creation of the world. Since (adv.) = De tiu tempo; de tiam; de kiam; de la tempo, kiam. Example.—Mi lin vidis hierau, sed mi lin ne vidis de tiu tempo = I saw him yesterday, but I have not seen him since. Since (conj.) = Car. Example.—Mi devas gin fari, car vi insistas = I must do it, since you insist. LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS (Including Conjunctive Adverbs). 268. (a). The following is a list of the principal conjunctions. Some of them, according to the sense in which they are used, are employed also as adverbs or prepositions, and will be found in the lists of adverbs and prepositions in pars. 248 (b) and 259. Alie = Otherwise, or, else. Example.—Mi ne vidis lin, alie mi estus vin sciiginta = I did not see him, otherwise (else, or) I should have told (informed) you. Aliflanke = On the other hand. Example.—Kelkaj personoj diras, ke Johano estas fripono: aliflanke, aliaj diras, ke li estas naivulo = Some persons say John is a knave; on the other hand, some say he is a simpleton. Almenau = At least. Example.—Almenau li provis gin fari = At least he tried to do it. Ankau = Also, too, as well (also adverb). Examples.—Mi ankau gin vidis = I, too, saw it. Johano kaj ankau Mario estis tie = John and also Mary were there. Antau ol = Before, ere. Examples.—Antau ol morti, li diris ... = Before dying he said ... Li vespermangis, antau ol li foriris = He dined before he went away. Antau ol ni atingos lin, li estos malproksime = Ere we (shall) reach him, he will be far away. Antau ol iri Londonon, ni veturis Berlinon = Before going to London, we travelled to Berlin. Au = Or. Example.—Oni ne scias, cu li ploras au ridas = One does not know whether he is weeping or laughing. Au ... au = Either ... or. Example.—Au vi au mi devos gin fari = Either you or I must (will have to) do it. Cetere = Besides, for the rest, for the matter of that. Example.—Li ne venis; cetere, se li estus veninta, mi ne estus vidinta (or, vidus) lin = He did not come; besides, if he had (should have) come, I should not have seen him. Car = Because, for, since. Examples.—Tion mi scias, car tie mi estas = I know that, because (for) I was there. Car vi ne estis tie, vi ne povas gin scii = Since you were not there, you cannot know it. Ciufoje kiam, ciun fojon kiam = Every time when, each time when. Example.—Mi lin renkontadis ciufoje, kiam mi iris Londonon = I met him every time (when) I went to London. Cu = Whether, or, if (see remarks on cu in the list of adverbs, par. 248 (b)). Cu ... au = Whether ... or. Example.—Mi iros, cu li venos au ne = I shall go, whether he come (will come) or not. Cu ... cu = Whether ... whether. Example.—Cu li skribos, cu li ne skribos, mi ne respondos al li = Whether he writes, whether he does not write, I shall not reply to him. De l’ tempo kiam, or, de kiam = Since, from the time when. Example.—De l’ tempo kiam li mortis.... = Since he died.... Des pli = So much the. Des pli is generally used with Ju pli (which see), but sometimes alone in reply to questions (par. 112). Example.—Mi devas averti vin, ke li eble ne estos hejme = I must warn you, that perhaps he will not be (or, that he may not be) at home. Des pli bone! mi tute ne deziras lin vidi = So much the better, I don’t at all wish to see him. Do = Then, therefore, consequently (argumentative). Examples.—Mi do povas dormi trankvile = Then I can sleep tranquilly. Estis do vidajo mirinda! = It was then a wonderful sight! Kion do Johano diros? = What then will John say? Dum (also preposition) = While, whilst (par. 259 (10)). Examples.—Dum li estis parolanta, ni eliris el la cambro = Whilst he was speaking, we went out of the room. Li povas labori, dum mi estas for = He can work, whilst I am away. Dume = Meantime, meanwhile (also adverb). Example.—Ili ekbruligis la fajron, dume ni pretigis la mangajon = They lighted the fire, meanwhile we got the food ready. Ec se = Even if. Example.—Ili ne volus iri, ec se ili estus invititaj = They would not wish to go, even if they were (should be) invited. Foje kiam = Once when, one day when, once upon a time. Example.—Foje kiam mi promenis, mi renkontis vian amikon = Once (one day), when walking, I met your friend. Gis (also preposition) = Till, until (par. 259 (13)). Example.—Atendu, gis mi revenos Footnote: [22] N.B.—Some writers would say gis kiam. Zamenhof never did—the second word appears superfluous. Jen = Behold, here (also an adverb and interjection). Example.—Jen la malsameco de la rezulto klarigas = Here the difference of the result is explained. Jen ... jen = Now ... now, sometimes ... at other times. Example.—Jen li kuras rapide, jen li haltas! = Now he runs rapidly, now he stops! Ju malpli ... des malpli = The less ... the less (par. 112). Example.—Ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li enspezas = The less he works, the less he earns. Ju malpli ... des pli = The less ... the more. Example.—Ju malpli li trinkas, des pli li mangas = The less he drinks, the more he eats. Ju pli ... des malpli = The more ... the less. Example.—Ju pli ni trinkas, des malpli ni mangas = The more we drink, the less we eat. Ju pli ... des pli = The more ... the more. Example.—Ju pli bona vi estos, des pli vi estos amata = The better you are, the more you will be loved. Kaj = And. Example.—Vi kaj mi devas gin fari = You and I must do it. Kaj ... kaj = Both ... and. Example.—Mi vidis tie kaj Johanon kaj Georgon = I saw both John and George there. Kaj ceteraj = And the rest, et cetera (commonly written k.c.). Kaj tiel plu = And so forth, and so on (commonly written k.t.p.). Ke = That. Be careful not to use ke for the pronouns kio, kiu, tio, or tiu = that. Examples.—Mi esperas, ke tio, kion vi havas en la mano, ne estas venena insekto = I hope that that which you have in your (the) hand is not a poisonous insect. Mi pensas, ke tiu vorto estas malguste tradukita = I think that that word is wrongly translated. Kial = Wherefore, why (par. 150) (also adverb). Example.—Demandu lin, kial li tion faras = Ask him why he does that. Kiam = When, as, after (kiam = after, when used with the English pluperfect) (par. 151). Examples.—Pluvis forte, kiam ni atingis (alproksimigis) la lagon = It rained heavily when (as) we reached the lake. Kiam mi estis kolektinta la sumon, mi acetis novan libron = After (when) I had collected the amount, I bought a new book. Kiam ajn = Whenever (par. 145). Example.—Li balbutis, kiam ajn li parolis = He stammered whenever he spoke. Kie = Where (par. 152) (also adverb). Example.—Sciigu min, kie li estas = Tell (inform) me where he is. Kie ajn = Wherever (par. 145). Example.—Mi lin trovos, kie ajn li estas = I shall find him wherever he is. Kiel = As (in comparison) (par. 153). Example.—Li estas tiel forta, kiel vi = He is as strong as you. Kiel ajn malmulte = However little. Example.—Kiel ajn malmulte vi volos (or, volas) ... = However little you may (will) wish.... Kiel ankau = As also, as well as. Example.—Mia patro, kiel ankau mi, pensas, ke.... = My father, as well as I, thinks that.... Kiel eble plej baldau = As soon as possible (lit., as possible, most soon). Kiel eble plej should be used as follows:— Examples.—Kiel eble plej frue = As early as possible. Kiel eble plej rapide = As quickly as possible. Sendu lin al mi kiel eble plej baldau = Send him to me as soon as possible. Kiel ekzemple = As for example. Example.—Oni ne mangas kelkajn birdojn, kiel ekzemple aglojn, akcipitrojn, vulturojn, cikoniojn, kaj aliajn = People do not eat some birds, as, for example, eagles, hawks, vultures, storks, and others. Kio ajn okazos (or, ciuokaze) = At all events (lit., whatever shall happen). Example.—Mi venos morgau, kio ajn okazos = I shall come to-morrow whatever happens. Kondice, ke = On condition that. Example.—Mi vin forpermesos, kondice, ke vi revenu postmorgau = I will give you leave of absence, on condition that you return the day after to-morrow. Konsente, ke = It being agreed that. Example.—Mi iros, konsente, ke vi ankau estu tie = I will go, it being understood that (agreed that) you also be there. Kontraue = On the contrary (also adverb). Example.—Vi preferas la bovajon, mi, kontraue, preferas la safajon = You prefer beef, I, on the contrary, prefer mutton. Krom se = Unless. Examples.—Krom se ili rapidos (or, se ili ne rapidos), ili maltrafos la vagonaron = Unless they (will) make haste, they will miss the train. Krom tio = Besides, moreover, apart from that. Example.—Si estis krom tio tre bela knabino = She was, besides (moreover), a very beautiful girl. Kun la kondico, ke = On (with) the condition that. Example.—Mi pruntis al li la libron kun la kondico, ke li redonu gin al mi postmorgau = I lent him the book on the condition that he should (is to) return it to me the day after to-morrow. Kvankam = Although, though. Examples.—Kvankam li estas rica, tamen li ne estas felica = Although he is rich, yet he is not happy. Kvankam mi konsentas vian opinion, tamen mi ne povas akordigi kun vi = Though I agree with your opinion, I cannot nevertheless be in accord with you. Kvazau = As if, as though (also adverb). Example.—Li staris, kvazau li vidas terurajon = He stood as if he saw a terrible object. Lau tio ... ke = According as. Example.—Lau tio, ke vi estos atenta au maldiligenta, la lernejestroj vin laudos au mallaudos = According as you are (will be) attentive or idle, the schoolmaster will praise or blame you. Malgrau cio = In spite of all (everything), after all. Example.—Li foriris malgrau cio, kion mi diris = He went away in spite of all I said. Malgrau tio, ke = Notwithstanding that. Example.—Malgrau tio, ke mi ne havis palton, mi eliris = Notwithstanding that I had no overcoat, I went out. Malpli ... ol = Less ... than (par. 112). Example.—Li estas malpli kuraga, ol lia frato = He is less courageous than his brother. Ne nur, ne sole = Not only. Example.—Li ne nur stelis, sed li mortigis ankau = He not only stole, but he committed murder (murdered) also. Nek = Nor (par. 59 (c)). Example.—Li ne estis tie, nek mi = He was not there, nor I. Nek ... ankau = Nor ... also, nor ... too, nor ... either. Example.—Vi ne estis tie, nek mi ankau = You were not there, nor I either. Nek ... nek = Neither ... nor (par. 59 (c)). Example.—Nek vi nek mi estis tie = Neither you nor I was there. Ol = Than (par. 112). Examples.—Pli bone malfrue, ol neniam = Better late than never. La libro ne kostos pli ol tri silingojn = The book will not cost more than three shillings. Per (or, pro) tio, ke = In that, since. Example.—La akvo diferencas de la glacio per tio, ke tiu estas fluida, kaj ci tiu malfluida = Water differs from ice, in that the former is fluid and the latter solid. Pli ... ol = More ... than (par. 112). Example.—Li estas pli forta, ol vi = He is stronger than you. Plie = Moreover, further (also adverb). Example.—Plie, mi diras al vi, ke ... = Moreover, I tell you that.... Por ke = In order that, so that, to the end that. Por ke is always followed by the Imperative mood, because, when used, this expression implies order (see remarks on Imperative, par. 201). Examples.—Por ke mi rekompencu vin, konvenas, ke vi gin meritu = In order that I may recompense you, it is proper (fitting) that you merit it. Mi volas cion fari, por ke vi estu kontenta je mi = I wish to do everything, so that you may be satisfied with me, or, I will do everything to please you. Post kiam = After. Example.—Post kiam la suno subiris, ni revenis hejmen = After the sun set we returned home. Same kiel = As, just as (par. 112). Example.—Same kiel la patrino amas sian infanon, tiel mi amas vin = Just as the mother loves her child, so do I love you. Se = If. Example.—Mi gin faros, se mi povos = I shall do it if I can (shall be able). Se ne = If not, otherwise, lest. Example.—Lernu vian lecionon, se ne, mi vin vergos! = Learn your lesson, otherwise I shall cane you! Se nur = If only, provided that. Example.—Vi vidos Johanon, se nur vi alvenos frue = You will see John, provided that you (will) arrive early. Se okaze = If perchance, in case, in the event of. Example.—Se okaze vi venus malfrue, Johano ne estus tie ci = If perchance you should come late, John would not be here. Se tamen = If however, if still, if though, if notwithstanding. Example.—Se tamen vi ne povos veni morgau matene, venu vespere = If, however, you are not (will not be) able to come to-morrow morning, come in the evening. Sed = But. Example.—Li legas, sed ne komprenas tion, kion li legas = He reads, but does not understand what he reads. Sed ankau = But also. Example.—Si donis al mi ne nur hundon, sed ankau cevalon = She gave me not only a dog, but also a horse. Sed ec = But even. Example.—Ne sole viroj, sed ec infanoj estis tie = Not only men, but even children were there. Sekve = Consequently. Example.—Ekpluvis, sekve ni revenis domen = It began to rain, consequently we returned home. Tamen = However, yet, still, nevertheless, but. Examples.—Kvankam li estas rica, tamen li ne estas felica = Although he is rich, yet (still) he is not happy. Mi ne povis veni hodiau, tamen mi venos morgau = I could not come to-day, however, I will come to-morrow. Kvankam li perdis monon, tamen li ne mortis malriculo = Although he lost money, nevertheless he did not die a poor man. Tia, ke = Such that. Example.—Mia teruro estis tia, ke mi ne povis paroli unu vorton = My terror was such, that I could not utter a single word. Tial = So, therefore (par. 150) (also adverb). Example.—Li rifuzis labori, tial mi eksigis lin = He refused to work, therefore (so) I dismissed him. Tial, ke = Inasmuch as, since, because. Example.—Mi vin ne mallaudas, tial, ke tio ne estis via eraro = I do not blame you, inasmuch as (since) it (that) was not your mistake. N.B.—Do not confuse tial, ke with tiel, ke = so that. Tiam, kiam = Then when, when (par. 151). Example.—Tiam, kiam mi estis rica, mi ne estis felica, or, Kiam mi estis rica, (tiam) mi ne estis felica = When I was rich, (then) I was not happy. Tiamaniere, ke = In such a manner that, so that. Example.—Parolu tiamaniere (or, tiel), ke mi povu vin kompreni = Speak in such a manner (so) that I can (may be able to) understand you. Tiel, ke = So that. Example.—Estis muro inter ili, tiel, ke ili ne povis vidi unu la alian = There was a wall between them so that they could not see one another. Tiel ... ke = So ... that. Example.—Li estas tiel bona, ke li cion pardonas = He is so good that he pardons everything. Tiel ... kiel = As ... as (par. 112). Example.—Si estas tiel bona, kiel (si estas) bela = She is as good as she is beautiful. Timante, ke, or, pro la timo, ke = For fear that, fearing that, lest. Example.—Mi tion diris, timante, ke li venos = I said that, fearing that (lest) he would (will) come. Note the use of the future tense here. "What is my fear?" I fear he will perhaps come. Tio estas (t.e.) = That is, that is to say, to wit. The initial letters are nearly always used just as we say id est = i.e. Tiom ... ke = So many ... that, so much ... that. Example.—Mi havis tiom da pomoj, ke mi devis ilin fordoni = I had so many apples that I was obliged to give them away. Tiom ... kiom = As much ... as, as many ... as. Example.—Donu al mi tiom, kiom vi povas = Give me as much (many) as you can. Tuj kiam = As soon as, immediately when, directly. Example.—Mi fermis la pordon, tuj kiam li eliris = I shut the door as soon as (directly) he went out. INTERJECTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS.269. Interjections (interjekcioj) and interjectional expressions vary so considerably in force and meaning in different languages that it is impossible to translate some of them. If we translated our English interjections literally into Esperanto, many of them would have no meaning to a foreigner. The following short list appears at present to be in use, but, no doubt, as the language becomes more widely spoken, more will be added. Adiau! = Adieu! farewell! good-bye! Ah! Aha! = Ah! hah! Aj! = An exclamation of disgust. Antauen! = Forward! Atentu! = Look out! Take care! Attention! Auskultu! = Hark! hist! Bis! = Encore! Bone! = Good! Bonvenu! Bonvenon! = Welcome! Brave! = Bravo! capital! splendid! Certe! = Certainly! Cu estas eble! = Is it possible! Cu ne! = Isn’t it! etc. Cu! = Is it! etc. Cu ne vere! = Is it not so! Dio gardu! = God save us! Dio mia! = God bless me! Dio min savu! = God save me! Dio volu! = Would to God! may God! Efektive! = Really! Fi! = Fie! for shame! For! = Away! be off! For de tie ci! = Begone! be off! avaunt! Ha! = Ah! ha! Haltu! = Stop! He! = Halloo! hey! Helpon! Helpu! = Help! Ho! = O! oh! ho! Ho ve! = Alack! alas! oh dear! welladay! Hontu! = For shame! Hura! = Hurrah! huzza! Ja! = Indeed! Jen! = Lo! there! behold! see! Kial do! = Why indeed! why then! Kiel abomene! = How abominable! Kion! = What! Kion do! = What then! Kompreneble! = Of course! Kurage! = Courage! Ne! = No! Nu! = Well! Nu do! = Well then! Pacience! Paciencu! Paciencon! = Be quiet! Patience! Peston! = Plague on’t! Pluen! Daurigu! = Proceed! Go on! Pro Dio! = For God’s sake! Rapidu! Rapide! = Quick! Silentu! Silenton! = Hist! hush! Ss! = ’Sh! Hush! Ts! = Hist! Ve! = Woe! Vere! = Really! True! Verege! Tre vere! = Very true! Vivu! = Long live! 269 (a). When adjectives are used as interjections, the adverbial form in E is used, because there is neither noun nor pronoun with which they can agree, as:—Neeble! = Impossible! (par. 245). REMARKS ON THE SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES.270. Suffix -AC-. Prefixes FI- and FUS-. The suffix -ac- denotes badness of quality or condition, and is used with any part of speech to show disparagement, contempt. Fusi, to botch, bungle, do blunderingly, is sometimes used as a prefix with a similar meaning, though it is less frequently used than -ac. Aca = nasty; domaco = a hovel; veteraco = vile weather; capelaco = a shabby hat; fuskonstrui, or, konstruaci = to jerry-build. The exclamation Fi = fie! for shame! is used as a prefix to denote shamefulness, disgustingness, nastiness. Fi- denotes moral rather than physical badness, and is stronger than -ac-, which has a more general sense. Fidomo = a house of ill repute; fivorto = a naughty word; firakonto = a low story. 270 (1). Suffix -AD-. (Ex. 19.) (a). This suffix marks that an action is being continued or is habitual. It marks an action of some duration, not momentary. Thus, pafo = a shot from a gun (the gun is fired, and the action is over); but pafado = a fusillade (a continuance of shots of more or less duration). Thus dancado = dancing, desegnado = designing, drawing, kantado = singing, legado = reading, pentrado = painting, skulptado = (the art of) sculpture, skribado = writing. These words signify not momentary acts, but habitual actions; in fact, they are used to denote arts or practices, as the art of painting, singing, etc. Kanto = A song. Sia kanto placas al mi = Her song pleases me. Sia kantado carmas min = Her singing charms me. (b). If we wish to speak of the faculties of hearing, smelling, touching, thought, feeling, will, we say audado, flarado, palpado, pensado, sentado, volado; but if we speak of isolated acts of such faculties, we say audo, flaro, palpo, penso, sento, volo. (c). Sometimes the word arto is used when we wish to specify that some -ado is an art. Examples.—Danc-arto (dancado) = the art of dancing, kant-arto (kantado) = the art of singing, pentr-arto (pentrado) = the art of painting. N.B.—The hyphens are not necessary. (d). The difference in meaning of words with and without the suffix is seen in such words as:— Movo = a motion, movado = movement (general), progreso = a step of progress, progresado = progress (general), parolo = word (spoken), parolado = speech, discourse, fumo = smoke, fumado = smoking (habit of smoking), verko = a work (literary or musical), verkado = composition (lit.). (e). In the verb itself we use this suffix to show that the action is not merely momentary, but is being continued, repeated, or is habitual; an aspect of the verb which is, in English, often expressed by the words "keep on," "used to," etc. Examples.—Mi saltadis la tutan tagon de loko al loko = I jumped (about) all day long from place to place (kept on jumping). Viziti = To visit. Vizitadi = To frequent, to haunt. (f). Where the root plus o denotes the name of an object, the ending -ado introduces the idea of action, thus: krono = a crown; kronado = coronation; martelo = a hammer; martelado = hammering, etc. (g). Do not therefore use -AD- without thinking of its significance, or merely for the sake of euphony. 271. Suffixes -AJ- and -EC-. (Ex. 20). (a). -AJ- denotes something having the quality denoted by the root, or made or derived from that which is named by the root. It is also used to denote the flesh of animals intended for food. Examples.—Casi = to hunt, casajo = game. Armi = to arm, armajo = armour. Bovo = an ox, bovajo = beef. Ovo = an egg, ovajo = an omelet. (b). -EC- denotes an abstract quality, similar to the English suffixes, -nce, -ncy, -ness, -tude, -ity. Examples.—Pura = clean, pureco = purity, cleanness. Felica = happy, feliceco = happiness, felicity. Sen = without, seneco = dearth, want. Kuraga = courageous, kurageco = fortitude. Danki = to thank, dankeco = gratitude, thankfulness. Rica = rich, riceco = wealth. (c). Both suffixes apply to good or bad qualities. They can be used as roots, as ajo = a thing, eco = a quality, a distinctive mark. (d). A comparison of the following words will best illustrate their meaning. Amiko = a friend, amikajo = a friendly act, amikeco = friendship. Bona = good, bonajo = a good (action or thing), boneco = goodness. Fortika = solid, robust, fortikajo = a stronghold, fortikeco = robustness. Mola = soft, molajo = a soft substance, pulp, moleco = softness. Sprita = witty, spritajo = a witticism, spriteco = wittiness. Malsprita = dull, stupid, malspritajo = a stupidity, a bÊtise, malspriteco = stupidity, a state of silliness. (e). To express an idea itself, namely, one that is neither concrete (-AJ-) nor abstract (-EC-), we add only the grammatical termination to the root. For instance, la bono = the good, good (itself), and from this arises bonajo = a good action, or, something good, the abstract quality being boneco = goodness. Again, acido = an acid, acidajo = an acid thing, something which has an acid taste, acideco = acidity. So, heroo = a hero, heroajo = an exploit (something heroic), heroeco = heroism. The student should guard against the tendency of some writers to over-use -ec-: e.g., to use feliceco, kurageco, boneco, rapideca, in cases where the sense does not call for a qualitative suffix, and simple felico, kurago, bono, rapida, would be more appropriate. In other words, use eco only when you wish to accentuate the abstractness, the "nessness" of the idea. Examples.—La bono, kiun vi faras estas rimarkinda, car via boneco ciam instigadas vin fari bonajojn = The good that you are doing is remarkable, for your goodness is always prompting you to do kind acts. Vitriolo estas acido, sed vinagro estas nur acidajo, kvankam ambau posedas acidecon = Vitriol is an acid, but vinegar is only a sour fluid, although both possess acidity. La heroo de la heroajo montris grandan heroecon = The hero of the exploit showed great heroism. La amiko montras sian amikecon per amikajoj = A friend shows his friendship by friendly acts. 272. Suffixes -AN-, -IST-, -ESTR-, -UL-. (Ex. 21). These four suffixes relate to individuals. When combined with a root, one or other of them serves to show a person’s country, religion, profession, occupation, character, etc. Each has its distinct meaning, and care must be taken not to confuse them. The feminine suffix -IN- is added to denote females. (a). Like the English -an, -man, -AN- denotes a member of something, such as a club, society, etc.; an inhabitant of a place or country; a partisan; an adherent to a party, faction, religion, etc. Examples.—Klubo = a club, klubano = a member of a club. Senato = senate, senatano = a senator. Ameriko = America, amerikano = an American. Londono = London, londonano = a Londoner. Parizo = Paris, parizano = a Parisian. Urbo = a town or city, urbano = a townsman or citizen. Kamparo = country (rural), kamparano = a countryman. Vilago = a village, vilagano = a villager. Insulo = an island, insulano = an islander. Kristo = Christ, Kristano = a Christian. Partio = a party, partiano = a partisan. (b). The suffix -AN- itself is used as a root. Ano = a member, anaro = a band (a collection of members of something). (c). -IST-, like the English affix -ist, denotes a person following a profession or trade, or some occupation by which he gains his livelihood, or who is habitually engaged in science, art, etc. In short, it denotes habitual occupation (not necessarily for the sake of gain). Examples.—Jugi = to judge, jugisto = a judge. Kuraci = to treat the sick, kuracisto = a doctor. Drogo = a drug, drogisto = a druggist. Maro = sea, maristo = a sailor (by occupation). Rabi = to rob, rabisto = a robber. Steli = to steal, stelisto = a thief. Pentri = to paint, pentristo = a painter (art). Kolorigi = to colour, paint, kolorigisto = a painter (house). Servi = to serve, servisto or servistino = servant (male or female). Astrologio = astrology, astrologiisto (or, astrologo) = an astrologer. (d). -IST- is used only when there is a root to which it may be added to form the name of someone engaged in a trade, occupation, etc., as shown in the above examples. Thus, from Kudri = to sew, suo = a shoe, boto = boot, we get kudristino = a seamstress or dressmaker, suisto = a shoemaker, botisto = a bootmaker. When there is no such root, Esperanto provides an independent root, as:—Tajloro = a tailor, lakeo = a lackey, or valet. (e). When the person is engaged in a temporary occupation, or is not a professional, but an amateur, a participle is often used. Examples.—Juganto = a judge (of something), jugisto, a judge (by occupation or profession). Amanto = a lover, amisto = a lover, a sweetheart, a gallant. Fotografanto = a photographer, one who is now photographing, fotografisto = a professional photographer. Laboranto = a person working, laboristo = a labourer, or man who works for a livelihood. (f). -ESTR- denotes a person who is a chief, leader, ruler, principal, or head of a State, party, body, etc. In the same way as the suffix -AN- denotes a member of some profession, body, etc., so -ESTR- would designate the head of it, as:—Urbo = a city, urbano = citizen, urbestro = a mayor, a chief citizen. Examples.—Imperio = an empire, imperiestro = an emperor, imperiestrino = an empress. Regno = (the) State, regnestro = a ruler, head of (the) State. Sipo = a ship, sipestro = a captain of a merchant vessel, a skipper. Lernejo = a school, lernejestro = a schoolmaster, head master (a teacher would be instruisto). From polico = police, we get policano = a policeman (a member of the police force), policisto = an officer of police (one who has made the police his profession), policestro = chief of police. (g). Cefo = chief, head, is used as a prefix as an equivalent of the English chief, main, head-, prime. Examples.—Episkopo = a bishop, cefepiskopo = archbishop. Angelo = an angel, cefangelo = archangel. Compare -estro (the one in command over) with cef- (principal in honour, in comparison with the others). Cefsipo = principal ship, sipestro = ship’s captain. (h). -UL- denotes a person characterized by the idea contained in the root, the root being used in an adjectival sense to express that an individual is "rich," "poor," "just," "good," etc. Examples.—Rica = rich, riculo = a rich man. Malrica = poor, malriculo = a poor man, a pauper. Justa = just, justulo = a just or righteous man. Bona = good, bonulo = a good man. Bela = beautiful, belulino = a beauty, a beautiful woman. Paca = peaceful, paculo = a man of peace. Juna = young, junulo = a youth, junulino = a young woman. Avara = avaricious, avarulo = a miser. (i). Primary words can be used also as roots when applicable. Examples.—Tie = there, tieulo = an aborigine (a man of there). Tiam = then, at that time, tiamulo = a contemporary (a man of that time). Kun = with, kunulo = a companion (a person with you). (j). Since words like legi = to read, viziti = to visit, etc., are not adjectival in character, we use with them (in describing a person) by preference not -UL- but -IST- or a participial termination. Examples.—Leganto = a reader (who is reading), leginto = a reader (who has read), legonto = a reader (who is about to read), legisto = a reader (by habitual occupation). But legemulo = a person who is fond of reading. 273. Suffixes -AR- and -ER-. (Ex. 22.) Aro = a collection, and ero = an item; therefore aro da eroj might be termed "a collection of items." (a). -AR- denotes a reunion or a collection of the idea contained in the root; a whole formed from a union of the parts. Examples.—Vorto = a word, vortaro = a collection of words, a dictionary. Homo = a man, homaro = mankind. Arbo = a tree, arbaro = a wood, arbareto = a small wood, clump of trees. Arbeto = shrub, small tree, arbetaro = shrubbery, a grove. Insulo = an island, insularo = an archipelago. Vagono = a (railway) carriage, vagonaro = a train. Sekvanto = a follower, sekvantaro = suite, cortÈge, retinue. Nomo = a name, nomaro = list of names, a register. Stupo = a step, stuparo = a staircase, stupetaro = a ladder, succession of small steps. Aristokrato = an aristocrat, aristokrataro = (the) aristocracy. Aro = a collection, a flock, a herd. If we wish to specify the animals, we can add the suffix to the name, as:—Bruto = cattle, brutaro = a herd of cattle. Safo = a sheep, safaro = a flock of sheep. Abelo = a bee, abelaro = a swarm of bees. (b). -ER- denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment, one of many similar parts which together form the whole. Examples.—Sablo = sand, sablero = a grain of sand. Hajlo = hail, hajlero = a hailstone. Fajro = fire, fajrero = a spark. Mono = money, monero = a coin. Polvo = dust, polvero = an atom or speck of dust. Pulvo = gunpowder, pulvero = a grain of gunpowder. Sukero = sugar, sukerero = a grain of sugar. 274. Suffixes -CJ- and -NJ-. (Ex. 23.) (a). -CJ- is an affectionate diminutive to the Christian name of a man. It is placed after any letter of the name not later than the fifth (occasionally, the sixth). Examples.—Vilhelmo = William, Vilhelcjo = Willie, Vilhecjo = Will, Vilcjo = Billy, Vicjo = Bill. Petro = Peter, Pecjo = Pete. Johano = John, Johancjo = Johnnie, Jocjo = Jack. Nikolao = Nicholas, Nikolcjo = Nickie, Nikocjo, Nikcjo, or Nicjo = Nick. Ernesto = Ernest, Ernecjo, Erncjo, or Ercjo = Ernie. Patro = father, patreto, pacjo = papa. (b). -NJ- is a similar diminutive for a female Christian name. Examples.—Mario = Mary, Marinjo = Molly, Manjo = Polly. Klaro = Clara, Klanjo = Clarrie. Sofio = Sophia, Sonjo = Sophy. Patrineto, patrinjo, panjo = mamma, mammy, ma. 275. Suffixes -EBL-, -EM-, -IND-. (Ex. 24.) (a). These three suffixes, when used as roots, form the words ebla = possible; emo = propensity, tendency; indo = worth, merit, value. As suffixes they are mostly used to form adjectives or adverbs, and the following three, from kredi = to believe, will give an idea of their different shades of meaning. Kredebla = credible, possible of belief, believable; kredema = credulous, having a tendency to believe; kredinda = worthy of belief. (b). -EBL- denotes possibility, or what is likely to happen, similar to the English suffix -able, -ible. Examples.—Pagi = to pay, pagebla = payable. Fleksi = to bend, fleksebla = flexible. Rompi = to break, rompebla = breakable. Fidi = to rely upon, fidebla = reliable. Kompreni = to understand, komprenebla = comprehensible, kompreneble = of course, comprehensibly. (c). Do not confuse -EBL- with -EM- or -IND- in words which in English end in -able or -ible, but have two distinct meanings. For instance, "readable" may mean either "able to be read" or "worth reading." In Esperanto there is no such confusion, for legebla = readable, legible, but leginda = readable, worth reading. Hence we see that -EBL- must always denote possibility. It is possible to love or to honour all persons, whether they merit this or not; but when, in English, we talk of a lovable or honourable individual, we imply not possibility, but worthiness; therefore, in Esperanto, aminda = lovable, and honorinda = honourable. -EBL- is sometimes used for the infinitive. Examples.—Tiuj ci vortoj ne estas troveblaj en la vortaro = These words are not to be found (findable) in the dictionary. Tia amo estas malfacile imagebla = It is difficult to imagine such love. (d). -EM- denotes propensity, tendency, inclination, disposition, similar to the English suffix, -ful. Examples.—Paco = peace, pacema = peaceful. Helpi = to help, helpema = helpful, obliging. Trompi = to deceive, trompema = deceitful, trompemo = duplicity. Servi = to serve, servema = obliging, servemo = inclination to serve. Labori = to work, laborema = laborious. Pura = clean, pure, purema = cleanly, purigebla = cleanable. Babili = to chatter, babilema = talkative, chattering. Koleri = to be angry, kolerema = irascible, ekkolerema = quick-tempered. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = disposed to sleep, sleepy, drowsy. (e). Do not confuse -EM- with -IND- (or with -AM- (love) in compound words). For instance:— Envii = to envy, enviema = envious, inclined to envy, enviinda = enviable, worthy or deserving of envy. Honti = to be ashamed, hontema = bashful, inclined to be ashamed, hontemo = bashfulness, hontinda = shameful, deserving of shame, impudent. Dormi = to sleep, dormema = drowsy, dormama = fond of sleep. (f). -IND- denotes worthiness, worthy of. Examples.—Inda = worthy, malinda = unworthy. Laudi = to praise, laudinda = praiseworthy. Memori = to remember, memorinda = memorable, worthy of being remembered. Estimi = to esteem, estiminda = esteemable, or estimable. If we use "estimable" in the sense of "able to be valued," we must form the word from taksi = to estimate, to value, taksebla = estimable, appraisable. 276. Suffix -EDZ-. (Exs. 25, 34.) -EDZ- denotes a married person, and can scarcely be called a suffix, although classed as such, since it is generally used as a root. Examples.—Edzo = a husband, a married man, edzino = a wife, a married woman, edzeco = matrimony, a state of marriage, edzigo = a wedding, nuptials, edziga = nuptial, geedzoj = a married couple, husband and wife. When reference is made to a woman, the feminine suffix -IN- is added to verbs as well as nouns and adjectives. Examples.—Doktoredzino = a doctor’s wife; kudristinedzo = a seamstress’s husband; laboristedzino = a labourer’s wife; lavistinedzo = a washerwoman’s husband; tajloredzino = a tailor’s wife; edzigi (trans.) = to marry a couple, or to marry (a man to a woman), edzinigi (trans.) = to marry a woman to a man; edzigi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (man), edzinigi (intrans.) = to get (to be) married (woman). Note the following sentences:—Li edzigis kun sia kuzino, kvankam liaj gepatroj volis edzigi lin kun alia sinjorino = He was married to (with) his cousin, although his parents wished to marry him to (with) another lady. Si edzinigis kun sia kuzo, kvankam siaj gepatroj volis edzinigi sin kun alia sinjoro = She was married to her cousin, although her parents wished to marry her to another gentleman. 277. Suffixes -EG- and -ET-. (Ex. 26.) (a). These two suffixes are opposites, -EG- denoting augmentation, and -ET- diminution of degree. When employed in adjectives, the adverb "very" is often loosely used to denote the degree, as:—Grandega (very large), malgrandega (very little), but a better translation of these words is grandega = huge, enormous; malgrandega = tiny (see remarks on degrees of intensity of adjectives, par. 114). If we cannot find English adjectives as equivalents of -EG- or -ET-, we should use not the adverb "very," but a stronger term, as "excessively," "enormously," etc. (b). In the case of nouns we must be careful to use the right words to express the English meaning. Examples.—Montego = a huge mountain, granda monto = a big mountain, monto = a mountain, malgranda monto = a small mountain, monteto = a hill, altajo = an eminence, altajeto = a hillock. Again:—Riverego = a huge river, larga rivero = a wide river, rivero = a river, malgranda rivero = a small river, rivereto = a brook, stream, malgranda rivereto = a streamlet. (c). -EG- denotes augmentation, intensity of degree. Used as a root, ega = intense, egeco = intensity. (d). -ET- denotes diminution of degree. Equivalent to the English suffixes -let in "streamlet," -ule in "globule," "pustule." Used as a root, eta = little, tiny, etulo = a little one. Examples.—Pluvo = rain, pluvego = a downpour, pluveto = a shower. Ridi = to laugh, ridegi = to guffaw, rideti = to smile. Plori = to shed tears, ploregi = to weep bitterly, ploreti = to whimper. Dormi = to sleep, dormegi = to sleep heavily, dormeti = to doze, dormeto = a nap. Domo = a house, domego = a mansion, dometo = a cottage. Snuro = cord, snurego = rope, cable, snureto = string, twine. Ami = to love, amegi = to idolize, ameti = to have some liking for. N.B.—From the above we see that -EG- and -ET- may generally be translated by distinct words, and are not merely a substitute for adverbs, which will often more accurately express the meaning than the added suffix. 278. Suffixes -EJ-, -ING-, -UJ-. (Ex. 27.) These suffixes are akin, since they denote either a place or thing from which the idea of the root is produced, or in which it is contained. (a). -EJ- denotes the place of, used for, or allotted to, the idea contained in the root. As a root, ejo = a place, a locality. Examples.—Safo = a sheep, safejo = a sheepfold, or a place specially used for sheep. Pregi = to pray, pregejo = a church, a place allotted to prayer. Fruktarbo = a fruit-tree, fruktarbejo = an orchard, a place used for fruit trees. Kafo = coffee, kafejo = a cafÉ. Vinbero = a grape, vinberejo = a vineyard. Armilo = a weapon, armilejo = an armoury. Tombo = a tomb, grave, tombejo = a cemetery. Mangi = to eat, mangejo = a refectory, mangajo = food, mangajejo = a larder. Planti = to plant, plantejo = nursery. Mallibera = captive, malliberejo = a prison. Bovino = a cow, bovinejo = cowshed. Lerni = to learn, lernejo = a school. Jugi = to judge, jugejo = a court of justice. Dormi = to sleep, dormejo = a dormitory. Herbo = grass, herbejo = a meadow, a field. Paperfari = to make paper, paperfarejo = a paper manufactory. (b) -ING- denotes a thing for holding one object only. Used as a root, ingo = a socket, a sheath, a holder. Examples.—Kandelo = a candle, kandelingo = a candlestick. Plumo = a pen, plumingo = a penholder. Fingro = a finger, fingringo = a thimble. Cigaredo = a cigarette, cigaredingo = a cigarette mouthpiece. Glavo = a sword, glavingo = scabbard, sheath (sword). Bajoneto = bayonet, bayonetingo = a scabbard (bayonet). (c). -UJ- denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears. Used as a root, ujo = a receptacle, a container. It has a wide signification, for it can be used for:— (1). The names of countries in cases where the root-word denotes the inhabitant, as being the places which contain their various races. Examples.—Franco = a Frenchman, Francujo = France. Turko = a Turk, Turkujo = Turkey. Anglo = an Englishman, Anglujo = England. Germano = a German, Germanujo = Germany. Italo = an Italian, Italujo = Italy. Brito = a Briton, Granda Britujo = Great Britain. Hispano = a Spaniard, Hispanujo = Spain. N.B.—Lando can be used instead of -ujo, if desired. Where the root-word denotes not the inhabitant, but the country, uj is of course not used, e.g., Australio, Nederlando, Usono. In these cases the name of the inhabitant is formed by an from that of the country, thus: australiano. See par. 272 (a). (2). The names of trees producing fruits. Examples.—Pruno = a plum, prunujo = a plum-tree. Kastano = a chestnut, kastanujo = a chestnut-tree. Piro = a pear, pirujo = a pear-tree. Migdalo = an almond, migdalujo = an almond-tree. Moruso = a mulberry, morusujo = a mulberry-tree. Cerizo = a cherry, cerizujo = a cherry-tree. Arbo can be used instead of ujo in such cases, and is preferable, because clearer, thus: prunarbo, cerizarbo. (3). The names of receptacles commonly used for certain articles. Examples.—Teo = tea, teujo = a tea-caddy or canister (a teapot is a vessel in which tea is made, not kept, therefore tekruco = a teapot, from kruco = a vessel for fluids). Mono = money, monujo = a purse. Papero = paper, paperujo = a portfolio. Sukero = sugar, sukerujo = a sugar-basin. Karto = a card, kartujo = a card-case. Abelo = a bee, abelujo = a, beehive. Mustardo = mustard, mustardujo = mustard-pot. (d). The difference in meaning of these three suffixes is shown in the following examples:— For instance, cigaro = a cigar, cigarejo = a cigar depot; but if we wish to distinguish the kind of depÔt, viz., store, shop, etc., we add the word required. If it be a store, we add tenejo = a storehouse, as:—Cigartenejo = a cigar storehouse or depÔt. If a shop, we add vendejo = a market, or place where things are sold, as:—Cigarvendejo = a cigar shop, or we might say also cigarbutiko. Cigaringo = a cigar holder or mouthpiece, which holds one cigar. Cigarujo = a cigar case or box, which contains several cigars. Pomo = an apple, pomejo (or, pomarbejo) = an apple orchard, pomujo, pomarbo = an apple-tree. 279. Suffix -ID-. (Ex. 25.) -ID- denotes the young of, offspring, descendant. Used as a root, ido = offspring, descendant; idaro = issue, posterity. Examples.—Kato = a cat, katido = a kitten. Bovo = an ox, or a general term for the animal, hence bovido = a calf; if we wished to say a cow’s calf, we make bovo feminine, viz., bovino = a cow, bovinido = a cow’s calf of either sex. A cow calf we should call bovidino, and a bull calf, to determine it exactly, would be virbovido, viz., a male calf. It is important that suffixes should follow in their natural order (see order of suffixes, par. 46). Safo = a sheep, safido = a lamb. Cervo = a stag, cervido = a fawn. Hundo = a dog, hundido = a puppy. Cevalo = a horse, cevalido = a foal. Koko = a cock, kokido = a chicken, kokideto = a chick, a tiny chicken. Birdo = a bird, birdido = a fledgeling, a young bird. Izraelo = Israel, izraelido = an Israelite. Napoleono = Napoleon, napoleonido = a descendant of Napoleon. Rego = a king, regido = a prince, king’s son. 280. Suffixes -IG- and -IG-. (Ex. 28.) (a). These two are the most important and most widely used of all the suffixes. They form an infinity of words, especially verbs. Used as roots, (1). Igi = to make, to cause, as:—Igu sin veni al nia dancado = Make her come to our dance. Li penis igi sian amikon tusi la aferon = He tried to make his friend broach the subject (touch upon the matter). (2). Igi = to become (to be made, to get), as La vetero igas pli varma = The weather is getting (becoming) warmer. Li baldau igos maljunulo = He will soon become an old man. (b). Used as suffixes:— (1). -IG- denotes (like the English suffix -fy) to make, to cause (to get), to render, as ruga = red, rugigi = to make red, to redden, and from this verb is formed rugigo = the action of reddening, rugiga = reddening (adj.). (2). -IG- denotes to become, to get (in the sense of to become). Note the following difference in meaning of ruga with this suffix and with -IG- in the preceding paragraph; rugigi = to become or get red, to blush; rugigo = the action of getting red, a blush; rugiga = blushing (adj.). (c). The above instances are words derived from an adjective, but the suffixes can be applied to almost any part of speech, as the following examples will show:— (d). From adjectives. Examples.—Bona = good, bonigi = to make or render good, bonigi = to become good. Plibonigi = to make better, to improve, plibonigi = to become better, to improve, plibonigo = the act of making better, improvement (made), plibonigo = the state of becoming better, improvement (experienced). Laca = tired, fatigued, lacigi = to tire (active), lacigi = to get tired, lacigo = the act of tiring others, lacigo = the state of growing tired. Preta = ready, pretigi = to make ready, pretigi = to get (become) ready. From all these verbs nouns, adjectives, and adverbs can be formed. (e). From nouns. Examples.—Fianco = a fiancÉ (man), fiancigi = to betroth, to affiance, fiancigi = to become betrothed, to be engaged, fiancigo = betrothal, engagement, fianciga = betrothing, fiancige = by betrothal. These words speak of the betrothal of a man, but in case of a woman we add the feminine suffix, as:—fiancino, fiancinigi, fiancinigi, fiancinigo, etc., etc. (f). From verbs. Examples.—Morti = to die, mortigi = to cause to die, to kill, mortigi = to die out, to expire (become dead), mortigo = killing (murder), mortiga = deadly, mortiganto = a murderer, mortige = mortally. Sinmortigo = suicide, sinmortigi = to commit suicide. Sidi = to be sitting, to sit, sidigi = to cause to sit, sidigi = to sit down, to seat oneself, sidigo = the act of causing to sit, seating, sidigo = the act of sitting down, or of seating oneself, as:—Li kondukis la rigardontojn al iliaj sidejoj, sed la sidigo de tiom da gesinjoroj estis tasko malfacila, car la sidigo de ec unu sinjorino bezonas iom da tempo, kvankam ne tiom, kiom la sidigo de hundo, kiu ofte turnadas sin multfoje antau ol sidigi = He conducted the (about to be) spectators to their seats, but the seating of so many ladies and gentlemen was a difficult task, since the sitting down of even one lady needs some little time, although not so much as the sitting down of a dog, which often continues turning itself round many times before seating itself. Sciigi = to cause (someone) to know, or, to make (something) known. Mi sciigis la homon pri la novajo, or, Mi sciigis la novajon al la homo = I caused the man to know (or, I informed the man, or, I made the news known to the man). Sciigi = to become informed, to learn. Mi sciigis pri la novajo = I learnt the news. (g). Verbs formed by -IGI are transitive (par. 161), but those by -IGI are intransitive, and therefore have no passive voice (par. 162); with verbs in -IGI, therefore, we cannot use the passive participles, -ATA, etc., but only the active forms -ANTA, etc., as:—Li estis fariginta (or, li farigis) maljunulo, antau ol mi lin konis = He had become an old man before I knew him. (h). Intransitive verbs.—Some verbs, such as cesi = to cease, dauri = to continue, pasi = to pass, are neuter or intransitive. Examples.—La pluvo cesas fali (or, cesigas) = The rain ceases to fall (or, comes to an end). La pafado dauris kelkan tempon = The shooting continued some time. La tempo pasas = Time passes. In English these verbs are used both transitively and intransitively, but if we wish to give them a transitive signification in Esperanto we must add the suffix -IGI. Examples.—Cesigu tion! vi surdigas min per via bruo! = Cease that, you deafen me with your noise! Daurigu vian rakonton = Continue your narrative. Pasigu al mi la karafon = Pass me the decanter (see par. 237 (i)). (i). Transitive verbs.—On the contrary, fini = to finish, and komenci = to commence, are transitive, and therefore do not require the addition of -IG to make them transitive. Examples.—Finu vian laboron = Finish your work. Ni komencis nian vojagon je la dua horo = We commenced our journey at 2 o’clock. But if we wish to give an intransitive sense to these verbs we may use the suffix -IGI. Examples.—Lia laboro finigas = His work finishes. La jaro finigos post kelkaj tagoj = The year will end in a few days. La vojago komencigis je la tria horo = The journey commenced at 3 o’clock (see par. 237 (i)). (j). Numerals, prepositions, prefixes, and suffixes.—Joined to these, -IG- and -IG- serve to form numerous words. Examples.—Unuigi = to unify, unuigo = union, unuigi = to unite together, to be combined, unuigo = union (undergone). Duobligi = to double, duobligi = to become double. Aligi al = to attribute to, aligi = to join (oneself) to, to adhere, aligo = adhesion. Eksigi = to dismiss, eksigi = to become ex-, to resign (a position). Disigi = to separate, disigi = to separate mutually, disigo = act of separating, disjunction, disigo = disunion, schism. Kunigi = to connect, kunigi = to join together, to coalesce, kunigo = connection, kunigo = junction. Forigi = to do away with, forigi = to withdraw. 281. Suffix -IL-. (Ex. 29.) -IL- denotes the tool, instrument, or means by which something is done. As a root, ilo = a tool, an instrument, an implement, a means of. Examples.—Kombi = to comb, kombilo = a comb. Razi = to shave, razilo = a razor. Tranci = to cut, trancilo = a knive. Haki = to hack, to chop, hakilo = an axe, a hatchet, a chopper. Kudri = to sew, kudrilo = a needle. Tondi = to shear, to clip, tondilo = shears, scissors. Presi = to print, presilo = a printing press. Fermenti = to ferment, fermentilo = yeast, leaven (a means of fermenting). Batali = to fight, batalilo = a weapon. Armi = to arm, armiloj = arms, armilejo = an arsenal (a place for arms, see -EJ-, 278). 282. Suffix -IN-. (Ex. 25.) -IN- denotes the feminine gender. As a root, ino = a female, ina = female. Examples.—Frato = a brother, fratino = a sister. Patro = a father, patrino = a mother. Kuzo = a male cousin, kuzino = a female cousin. Avo = grandfather, avino = grandmother. Nepo = a grandson, nepino = a granddaughter. Onklo = an uncle, onklino = an aunt. Nevo = a nephew, nevino = a niece. Patra = paternal, patrina = maternal, patrineco = maternity. Frata = brotherly, fraternal, fratina = sisterly. Cevalo = a horse, cevalino = a mare, cevalido = a colt, cevalidino = a filly. Safo = a sheep, safino = a ewe. Hundo = a dog, hundino = a bitch. Bovo = an ox, bovino = a cow. 283. MOSTO. (Ex. 23.) (a). This is not a suffix, since it does not form part of a word. It is a word used by itself or added after a title to denote respect. Via mosto is a higher expression of respect than sinjoro = sir. (b). No special rule has been laid down for the use of mosto, but the usual practice is to make the title an adjective and add mosto. (c). In speaking to persons bearing titles by birth or profession it would be well to address them by their full title first, as shown below, and afterwards use the expression via mosto to represent "Your Majesty," "Your Royal Highness," "Your Grace," "Your Lordship," "Your Ladyship," "Your Honour," "Your Worship," "Your Excellency," "Your Eminence," "Your Highness," etc. The suffix -IN is hardly ever added. Examples:—
N.B.—No title beyond his rank is given to a General in England, like "Monsieur le General" in France. We usually say "General," or "Sir," but mosto might be used in Esperanto. (d). As regards addresses of letters, we can say:—
284. Suffixes -OBL-, -ON-, -OP-. (Ex. 18.) These three suffixes are used with numerals, making them multiples, fractions, or collectives (see pars. 119, 120, 121). (a). -OBL- added to a cardinal number denotes the number is a multiple. It is equivalent to the English suffixes "-fold" or "-uple." Examples.—Multoblo = a multiple, multobla = manifold. Unu = one, unuobla = single, unuoble = singly. Du = two, duobla = double, la duoblo = the double. Kvar = four, kvarobla = fourfold, quadruple, la kvaroblo = the quadruple. Cent = hundred, centoblo = a centuple. It is used in the multiplication table:—
(b). -ON- added to a cardinal number denotes a fraction. As a root, ona = fractional. Examples.—Du = two, duona = half, duone = by halves, duono = a half (1/2). Tri = three, triona = third, triono = a third (1/3). Kvar = four, kvarona = quarter, kvarono = a fourth (1/4). Dek = ten, dekona = tenth, dekono = a tenth (1/10), tri dekonoj = 3/10ths. Dek du = twelve, dek-duona = twelfth, dek-duono = a twelfth (1/12), kvin dek-duonoj = 5/12ths. Sesdek kvin centonoj = sixty-five hundredths (65/100). La kvinona parto (la kvinono) de cent estas la triona parto (la triono) de sesdek, tio estas dudek = The 5th part of 100 is the 3rd part of 60, that is 20. (c). -OP- added to a cardinal number denotes that the number must be taken in a collective sense. As a root, opa = collective. Examples.—Du = two, duope = two together, in twos. Tri = three, triope = in threes, in triplets. Dek = ten, dekope = in tens. Dudek = twenty, dudekope = in twenties, by scores. Cent = hundred, centope = in hundreds. Mil = thousand, milope = in thousands. Kvinope ili sin jetis sur min = Five together (five at a time) they threw themselves upon me. La soldatoj marsis kvarope = The soldiers were marching in fours. 285. Suffix -UM-. (Ex. 30.) -UM- has no special meaning. Its different meanings are easily suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. There are but few words in which it is used, and these should be learnt as simple words. The following embrace nearly all:—
N.B.—The 17 words marked * are given in Dr. Zamenhof’s "Fundamento de Esperanto." 286. Prefixes BO-, DUON-, GE-, PRA-. (Ex. 25.) These four prefixes all denote relationship in a greater or less degree. (a). BO- denotes relationship by marriage, and is equivalent to the English suffix -in-law, as patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law. (b). DUON- also denotes relationship by marriage, and is also a prefix in such words as duonpago = half-pay, duonjara = half-yearly, etc. As a root, duono = a half, so properly it should signify only half-blood relationship. As, however, there are few relationships of this nature, it is used also for step relationship, as:—Duonfrato = stepbrother or half-brother. (c). GE- denotes both sexes taken together. The words are always in the plural, and the feminine suffix is, of course, never added. Examples.—Edzo = a husband, geedzoj = husband and wife, a married couple. Sinjoro = Sir, Mr., gesinjoroj = Mr. and Mrs., or, ladies and gentlemen. Patro = father, gepatroj = father and mother, parents. Mastro = a master (of a household), gemastroj = master and mistress. Frato = brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s). (d). PRA- denotes great distance of time, past or future. As regards relationship, it is the equivalent of the English prefixes "fore-," "great," or "grand." As a root, praa = primeval. Examples.—Pratempo = primitive time. Praarbarego = primeval forest. Prapatroj = forefathers, ancestors. Praonklo = grand, or great, uncle. Praavino = great-grandmother. (e). The following are examples of these four prefixes:— Patro = father, bopatro = father-in-law, duonpatro = stepfather, gepatroj = father and mother, parents. Patrino = mother, bopatrino = mother-in-law, duonpatrino = stepmother. Avo = grandfather, boavo = grandfather-in-law, duonavo = stepgrandfather, geavoj = grandparents, prageavoj = great-grandparents. Filo = son, bofilo = son-in-law, duonfilo = stepson. Filino = daughter, bofilino = daughter-in-law, duonfilino = stepdaughter. Nepo = grandson, pranepo = great-grandson, genepoj = grandson(s) and granddaughter(s), grandchildren. Nepino = granddaughter, pranepino = great-granddaughter. Frato = brother, bofrato = brother-in-law, duonfrato = step, or half, brother, gefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s), bogefratoj = brother(s) and sister(s)-in-law. Fratino = sister, bofratino = sister in law, duonfratino = step, or half, sister. Onklo = uncle, praonklo = grand, or great, uncle, geonkloj = uncle(s) and aunt(s). Onklino = aunt, praonklino = grand, or great, aunt. Nevo = nephew, pranevo = grandnephew, genevoj = nephew(s) and niece(s). Nevino = niece, pranevino = grandniece. Infano = child, duoninfano = stepchild. 287. Prefixes DE-, DIS-, FOR-. (Ex. 31.) These three prefixes give the idea of separation or change of position. (a). DE- as a preposition = from, of. As a prefix it marks the point of departure, or movement from one place or position to another. (b). DIS- denotes a separation, in the sense of a rupture, or breaking up into parts, or in several different directions. (c). FOR- as an adverb = away. As a prefix it denotes distance from something. (d). Thus, birds on a tree can fly down from the tree to the ground = deflugi; or fly in different directions, viz., disperse = disflugi; or fly away altogether from the tree = forflugi. (e) The following examples will give a good idea of the meanings of these prefixes:—
288. Prefix EK-. (Exs. 19, 32.) EK- denotes an action just begun, of short duration, sudden, momentary. Examples.—Kanti = to sing, ekkanti = to begin to sing, or to start singing. Ridi = to laugh, ekridi = to burst out laughing. Krii = to cry, ekkrii = to exclaim, to cry out. Lerni = to learn, eklerni = to begin to learn. Iri = to go, ekiri = to start, to set out. Plori = to shed tears, ekplori = to burst out crying. Kapti = to catch, ekkapti = to seize. Dormi = to sleep, ekdormi = to fall asleep. Vidi = to see, ekvidi = to perceive. Tremi = to tremble, ektremi = to start (with fear, etc.). EK- is useful in such expressions as "begin to," "come to," frequently used in English before a verb, as:—Kiam mi ekpripensas = When I begin to (or, come to) reflect. Kiam mi ekpensas pri gi = When I come to think of it. 289. Prefixes MAL-, NE-, SEN-. (Ex. 33.) (a). These three prefixes give an opposite or negative meaning to the words before which they are placed, the nature of which varies with the prefix used. (b). MAL- is used as a root in the adjective mala = contrary, and the adverb male = on the contrary, conversely. As a prefix it signifies that the word has a meaning exactly the contrary to that which it had before MAL- was prefixed. It is never used to give the meaning of badness, unless because it is prefixed to some word signifying goodness. For instance, timulo = a coward has a bad signification, but its opposite maltimulo = a bold man has no such meaning. Bona = good, malbona = bad, simply because "bad" is the opposite of "good." (c). NE is a primary adverb, meaning "no," "not," and is often used as a prefix to give a negative signification to a word, as:—Plena = complete, full, neplena = incomplete, not full. Ne estas certe = it is not certain has the same signification as estas necerte = it is uncertain. Used as a root, it forms nei = to deny, nea = negative, etc. (d). SEN is a preposition meaning "without," and as a prefix it has the same signification; as cesi = to cease, sencesa = without ceasing, incessant, ceaseless; senco = meaning, sense, sensenca = without meaning, senseless; senkapigi = to decapitate. Used as a root, it forms senigi je = to deprive of, seneco = want, etc. (e). The student may at first wonder which of these three prefixes to use in a given case. He should bear in mind that MAL- denotes the exact opposite of the root, and therefore it may be much stronger in signification than the mere negative ne = not, or the privative sen = without. For instance, plena = complete, full, but neplena = incomplete, not full. Now the opposite to "complete" or "full" is not "incomplete" or "not full," but something stronger, viz., "void" or "empty," therefore malplena = empty, void, vacuous. Again, from rica = rich, we form the opposite, malrica = poor, which is clearly a worse state than nerica = not rich, or senrica, which, in its literal sense, means "without wealth or riches." A man not rich might be well off, a man without riches might have enough to live upon. Fermita = shut, closed; the opposite is malfermita = opened, open. Applied to a window it would mean the window was wide open, but if it were only ajar it would be better to say nefermita = not closed. (f) In using MAL- we must consider the strength of the word to which we are giving an opposite meaning, and not oppose a word like "destitute" to "rich," for "destitute" is the opposite to "rolling in wealth," the adjective for which would be "ricega," therefore malricega = destitute. So bela = beautiful, belega = splendid, magnificent; therefore their opposites are malbela = ugly, malbelega = hideous. (g). Generally speaking, it will be right (1), to use MAL- if we wish to give a stronger idea than NE or SEN would infer; (2), to use NE in cases where a simple negative will give the meaning; (3), to use SEN if "without" is more applicable than "not," as:—Senmova = without motion, stationary, but nemovebla = not movable, immovable. It will generally be right to employ SEN to represent the English suffix -less, as:—Sendanka = thankless, senmona = penniless, senhara = hairless, bald, senutila = useless. The opposite to "useful" is something stronger than "useless," therefore malutila = detrimental, prejudicial. (h). The following examples will give an idea of the use of these three prefixes:— Venko = victory, malvenko = defeat. Videbla = visible, nevidebla = invisible. Sangebla = changeable (in the sense "able to be changed"), nesangebla = unchangeable. Ofta = frequent, neofta = infrequent, malofta = scarce, rare. Simple = simple, malsimpla = intricate, complex. Permesi = to permit, malpermesi = to forbid. Helpi = to help, malhelpi = to hinder, nehelpi = to give no assistance. Sobreco = sobriety, malsobreco = intemperance, drunkenness. Sageco = wisdom, malsageco = foolishness. Modesta = modest, nemodesta = officious, malmodesta = conceited. Justa = just, maljusta = unjust. Pura = clean, nepura = soiled, malpura = dirty. Pia = pious, malpia = impious. Agrabla = agreeable, neagrabla = unpleasant, malagrabla = disagreeable, nasty. Glata = smooth, malglata = rough. Atento = attention, malatento = negligence. Respekto = respect, nerespekto = non-respect, malrespekto = violation. Brua = noisy, senbrua = noiseless. 290. Prefix RE-. (Ex. 32.) (a). RE-, like the English prefix re-, means "back" or "again." It denotes (1) the repetition of an action, or (2) the return of some person or thing to the person, place, or state with whom, or in which, such person or thing originally was. As a root, ree = again, in return. (b) (1). Repetition. Examples.—Refari = to make afresh, to remake; rediri = to say again, to repeat (ripeti is, however, more frequently used for "repeat"); rekanti = to sing again; rejunigi = to grow young again; renaskigo = rebirth, regeneration; repagi = to repay, to reimburse; reenmeti = to put in again, to reinstate; rekunigi = to reunite; rebruligi = to rekindle; reformi = to reform, to remodel; reprodukti = to reproduce. (2). Return, etc. Examples.—Redoni = to give back, to restore; repreni = to take back; rejeti = to throw back; resalti = to rebound; rebrili = to shine back, to reflect; reveni = to come back, to return; reporti = to carry back, to carry to the original place. N.B.—In addition to the 12 prefixes given in pars. 286–290, nearly all the prepositions are in common use as prefixes. Examples of these will be found in par. 259. When prefixed to a verb, the preposition is frequently repeated before the indirect complement (see par. 254). 291. Prefixes SIN- and MEM-. SIN- and MEM- are used as prefixes to translate the English -self. If the idea is reflexive, it is better to use sin-, otherwise mem-. Singardo = caution; sinmortigo = suicide; sinteno = attitude; memstara = independent; memvola = voluntary. 292. Prefix VIC-. The prefix VIC- denotes the English vice-; vicprezidanto = a vice-president; vicadmiralo = a vice-admiral. 293. Suffix -ISM-. The suffix -ISM- was officialized in 1914 with the rather wide meaning given it by international usage in most European languages: system, doctrine, school of thought, theory, party. Thus: absolutismo = absolutism. Similarly, we have agnostik-, alkohol-, braman-, despot-, epikur-, Esperant-, fatal-, fetic-, homaran-, katolik-, kvaker-, komun-, ideal-, liberal-, mistik-, presbiter-, protestant-, puritan-, radikal-, real-, respublik-, vegetar-ismo. It does not follow that if from any Esperanto word ending in -ism this syllable is subtracted, the remainder is an Esperanto root. Thus, -ism is not a suffix in the roots atavism, feminism, optimism, pesimism, silogism, solecism, sofism, any more than ist, in, il, ul, an, are suffixes in the roots optimist, turist; doktrin, vazelin; bacil, asimil; okul, formul; banan, turban, sultan. See par. 52 (b). |
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