48. Order of roots in compound words.—The principal root is always placed last, and receives the grammatical termination, with or without a suffix. The root of a subordinate word is sufficient without any suffix.

Examples.—Cas-gard-ist-o = A gamekeeper, (casi = to hunt, cas-ajo = a thing hunted, game; but it is unnecessary to add the suffix -aj- to the subordinate root). Roz-kolora = Rose coloured. Skrib-tablo = Writing table. Lerno-libro = Instruction book, manual (lern-o, the root, made a full word for euphony). Compare: librolerno, book-learning. Tir-kesto = A drawer (tir-i = to draw, kesto = a chest). Lum-turo = Lighthouse (lum-i = to shine, turo = a tower). Lip-haroj = Moustache (lip-o = a lip, haroj = hairs). Vang-haroj = Whiskers (vang-o = a cheek).

49. When the root should be a noun, adjective, or adverb.—When the joining of the root alone makes the compound word difficult to pronounce, the root is generally made a noun by adding O for the sake of euphony, as:—Lerno-libro = manual, instruction book. If the prefixed root alone would not give the required meaning, the suitable grammatical ending must be added. Estis unu-taga laboro = it was one day’s work. Estis la unua-taga laboro = it was the first day’s work. La supre-citita paragrafo = the above-quoted paragraph. In case of adverbs, N to form the accusative is also added, if direction is implied, as:—Li supren-iris la monton = he ascended the mountain (see 67 (b)).

N.B.—The hyphens are not necessary.

50. The idea conveyed by the root.—In forming a word, the first thing is to find out the exact primary idea contained in the root. Do not think, for instance, that because you happen to know that one of the meanings of cel-o is end, that cel-i will mean to finish or end. The primary idea of cel- is aim, or purpose, therefore cel-i is to aim, to purpose. Do not, in the case of a word with one or more suffixes, think that because you know one of its meanings, you know also the idea conveyed in its root. For instance, kresk-aj-o is a plant, but do not at once say that kresk-i is to plant; kreskajo comes quite logically from kreski = to grow, therefore kreskajo is a thing grown, a growth, a plant. In other words, make certain that you understand the exact meaning of the Esperanto root; and be careful not to be misled by the fact that many English words have a number of different meanings.

51. The Primary words are 158 in number, and must be carefully learnt (see list, page 334). They are not only complete words in themselves with a definite meaning, but they can be treated as root-words and receive prefixes, suffixes, and grammatical terminations. There is no rule to prevent any of these words, ending in a vowel, from receiving, if logically allowable, the accusative N or the plural J (see par. 142).

Examples.—Jen (behold), jene = As follows. Ne (no, not), nei = To deny. Tie (there), tieulo = A man from there (that place). Cirkau (around, round), cirkaui = To surround. Jes (yes), jeso = An affirmation. Tiaj esprimoj = Such expressions. Tiuj cevaloj = Those horses. Li acetis ciujn cevalojn = He bought all the horses. Faru al mi ian respondon = Make me some (kind of) reply. Venu tien ci = Come hither. Diru al mi tion, kion vi faris = Tell me what (that which) you did (have done). Unuj faris tion ci, aliaj tion = Some did this, others that.

Among the Primary Words are found all the personal and demonstrative pronouns, all the cardinal numbers and prepositions, and also many common adverbs and conjunctions. It is important, therefore, that the student should thoroughly master their meaning.

52. Foreign words are those which in most languages are derived from the same source, and, being consequently much alike in formation, are easily understood by most nations, there being only a slight difference in spelling and that difference of termination which occurs in all languages. Dr. Zamenhof wisely lays down that they should undergo no change, beyond conforming to Esperanto orthography and its grammatical terminations.

In order to show their change from English spelling, the following examples are given, not only of words which may be called "foreign," but of others that are a near approach to English in formation. It must be borne in mind that these changes of letters by no means invariably take place; they are only general.

52 (a).—Initial and Medial Letters.

C (hard) = K generally, as:—Declare = deklari, economy = ekonomio, decameter = dekametro, hectogram = hektogramo. In a few cases C becomes C, as:—Dedicate = dedici, carpenter = carpentisto (probably from the French charpentier).

C (soft) generally undergoes no change, so remains C with its sound of TS, as:—Cipher = cifero, cigar = cigaro, glycerine = glicerino, grimace = grimaco, spice = spico. Some few words change to Z, as:—Price = prezo.

Ch (soft) = C generally, as:—Chamber = cambro, charming = carma, chaste = casta, chief = cefo.

Ch (hard) = H generally, as:—Chameleon = hameleono, chaos = haoso, chemistry = hemio, cholera = holero, hypochondria = hipohondrio, chorister = horisto. It will be seen that these words are mostly derived from the Greek.

G (soft or hard) = G generally, as:—Geology = geologio, elegant = eleganta, general (officer) = generalo. The exceptions in which G is used are mostly words following the French pronunciation, as:—Danger = dangero, garden = gardeno, general (adjective) = generala, germ = germo, giraffe = girafo, etc.

PH = F, as:—Elephantiasis = elefantiazo, sphere = sfero, etc.

QU = KV, as:—Equivalent = ekvivalenta, eloquent = elokventa, inquisition = inkvizicio, quantity = kvanto, quadratic = kvadrata.

S = S, but in a few instances it becomes S (probably following German pronunciation) as:—Slime = slimo, smear = smiri, spare = spari, spin = spini, etc.

S (sounded like Z) = Z generally, as:—Desert = dezerto, rose = rozo, present = prezenti, preside = prezidi, etc.

Sh = S generally, as:—Shark = sarko, ship = sipo, shoe = suo.

Th = T, as:—Theatre = teatro, mythology = mitologio.

X = KS or KZ, generally, as:—Example = ekzemplo, exercise = ekzerco, dispatch = ekspedi, excite = eksciti, exposition = ekspozicio, exist = ekzisti. In a few instances X becomes S, as:—Extinguish = estingi, explore = esplori, express = esprimi. Occasionally L is used for X, as:—Expel = elpeli, excrescence = elkreskajo, etc. When L is substituted it will be observed that the English prefix EX means "out of," and that, therefore, Esperanto logically uses the preposition EL, meaning "out of," as the prefix.

52 (b).—Terminal Letters.

Terminal Letters.—If the last syllable ends in the sound of a consonant, it is generally right to add O to the last consonant of the English word, to form a noun, as:—Diadem = diademo, diagonal = diagonalo, granite = granito, dialogue = dialogo, debate = debato. There are, of course, exceptions. Beginners should always consult an Esperanto Dictionary if they have any doubt as to internationality or spelling. Note the following terminations, which have a peculiarity of their own:—

-ER. = RO generally, for a noun, as:—December = Decembro, diameter = diametro. Words like "centre," "theatre," etc., sometimes spelt "center," "theater," follow the rule, as:—Centro, teatro.

-IC and -ICAL. = A or IA. These terminations are English suffixes for adjectives. Esperanto, however, discards them and gives its own adjectival suffix A, as Galvanic = galvana, hypnotic = hipnota, theatrical = teatra, identical = identa, theoretic = teoria, geographical = geografia. (See remarks on -OGY and -ISM).

-ICS. = KO. The English termination -ICS has a plural form, but in Esperanto -CS is generally represented by -KO, and not the plural -KOJ, as:—Mathematics = matematiko, etc.

-INE. The I in this termination is occasionally turned into E, as:—Gelatine = gelateno. More commonly it is retained, as:—Glycerine = glicerino.

-ISH. = DUBE (doubtful) may be prefixed to colours to form the adjective in -ish, as:—Dubenigra = blackish, dubeblanka = whitish, dubeverda = greenish. It is, however, better to use the suffix -et, thus: nigreta, verdeta.

-ISM. In many cases the ending -ISM forms part of an international root, and is thus used in Esperanto also; e.g., paroksismo = paroxysm, sofismo = a sophism, fallacy, aforismo = an aphorism, are simple words, for there are no roots paroks, sof (in this sense), afor. In the majority of cases the English suffix -ism and the Esperanto suffix -ism coincide, thus: komunismo = communism, vegetarismo = vegetarianism. Sometimes the English -ism has the meaning -ec, thus: heroeco = heroism, fanatikeco = fanaticism. Catholicism may mean katolikismo or katolikeco.

-IST. Esperanto words ending in -ism often have companion forms in -ist, to which similar remarks apply, as:—sofisto = a sophist, komunisto = a communist.

-MENT. When this is the English termination of a noun derived from a root not ending in -MENT, it becomes O, as:—Embarrass = embarasi, embarrassment = embaraso, rebate = rabati, rebatement = rabato. But when -MENT is part of the English root it is retained, as:—Element = elemento, experiment = eksperimento, fundament = fundamento.

-OGY. Words derived from the Greek change Y into IO, as:—Geology = geologio, theology = teologio. The adjectives of these words end in -IC and -ICAL, and, as their Esperanto root ends in -I, A must be added to this to form the adjectives geologia, teologia.

-SIS. = ZO generally, as:—Apotheosis = apoteozo, hypothesis = hipotezo, oasis = oazo, synthesis = sintezo.

-TH. = T, as:—Hyacinth = hiacinto.

-TION. = CIO occasionally, as:—Declaration = deklaracio, exposition = ekspozicio, arbitration = arbitracio, generation = generacio, situation = situacio. Usually, however, English -tion corresponds to Esperanto -o, -ado, or -ajo, as:—information = inform-o, -ado, -ajo; and such forms are often used even when an alternative form in -cio exists, thus: deklar-o, -ajo.

-UM. = O generally, as:—Epithalamium = epitalamio, gymnasium (college) = gimnazio, geranium = geranio.

-Y. = IO generally in words derived from Latin or Greek, as:—Philosophy = filozofio, astronomy = astronomio, sympathy (liking) = simpatio, industry = industrio.

(Gramatikaj Finigoj).

N.B.—There are three forms of participles, the adjectival, substantival, and adverbial. The one given above is the adjectival. In the adverbial form the final A is changed into E. Farante tion, li ... = By (in, or through) doing that, he ... To form the substantive, change A into O. La faranto = The doer (the person doing). These three forms are applicable to all the three participles in both the active and passive voices (see pars. 208–210).

54. The following lists of suffixes (31) and prefixes (7 in number) should be carefully studied, since innumerable words of the finest shade of meaning can be formed by their aid, in fact, they are the ground-work of the language. In cases where a suffix can be used as a root, the word it helps to form is given. The hyphens are used only to show the root, suffix, and grammatical termination of the examples. The student should form other words himself, and study the works of the best authors. (For remarks on suffixes and prefixes, see pars. 270–290.)

• -AC- Denotes badness of quality or condition (ac-a, vile, bad), (par. 271):

  dom-o, a house, dom-ac-o, a tumble-down house.

  ceval-o, a horse, ceval-ac-o, a sorry nag.

• -AD- Denotes the continuation of an action (par. 270):

  paf-o, a shot, or discharge, paf-ad-o, a firing, fusillade.

  ir-i, to go, ir-ad-i, to continue going.

• -AJ- Denotes some real or concrete thing made from, or having the quality of, the root (aj-o, a thing), (par. 271):

  mola, soft, mol-aj-o, a soft thing, or substance.

  frukt-o, fruit, frukt-aj-o, jam.

• -AN- Denotes a member, inhabitant, or partisan (an-o, a member, etc.), (par. 272):

  vilag-o, a village, vilag-an-o, a villager.

  London-o, London, London-an-o, a Londoner.

• -AR- Denotes a collection of the idea implied in the root (ar-o, a collection, flock), (par. 273):

  arb-o, a tree, arb-ar-o, a wood.

  hom-o, a man, hom-ar-o, mankind.

• -CJ- These letters, substituted for one or more of the letters of a masculine name, make it an affectionate diminutive (par. 274):

  Petr-o, Peter, Pe-cj-o, Pete.

  Vilhelm-o, William, Vilhel-cj-o, Willie, Vilhe-cj-o, Will, Vil-cj-o, Billy, Vi-cj-o, Bill.

  For feminine names insert nj instead of cj (par. 274):

  Mari-o, Mary, Ma-nj-o, Polly.

  Helen-o, Helen, Hele-nj-o, Nelly, He-nj-o, Nell.

• -EBL- Denotes possibility, similar to the English terminations -able, -ible (ebl-a, possible, ebl-e, perhaps), (par. 275):

  leg-i, to read, leg-ebl-a, legible.

  tra-vid-i, to see through, tra-vid-ebl-a, transparent.

• -EC- Denotes an abstract quality of the idea conveyed in the root, like the English terminations -ness, -tude, -ity (ec-o, a distinctive mark, or quality), (par. 271):

  bon-a, good, bon-ec-o, goodness.

  ric-a, rich, ric-ec-o, wealth.

• -EDZ- Denotes a married person (edz-o, a husband), (par. 276):

  doktor-o, a doctor, doktor-edz-in-o, a doctor’s wife, lav-ist-in-o, a washerwoman, lav-ist-in-edz-o, a washerwoman’s husband.

• -EG- Denotes augmentation, intensity of degree (eg-a, intense, eg-ec-o, intensity), (par. 277):

  grand-a, great, grand-eg-a, enormous.

  pord-o, a door, pord-eg-o, a portal, outer-door.

• -EJ- Denotes the place specially used for, or allotted to, the idea implied in the root (ej-o, place, location), (par. 278):

  preg-i, to pray, preg-ej-o, a church.

  tomb-o, a grave, tomb, tomb-ej-o, a graveyard, cemetery.

• -EM- Denotes propensity, inclination, disposition (em-o, a disposition, bias, tendency), (par. 275):

  babil-i, to chatter, babil-em-a, chattering.

  pac-o, peace, pac-em-a, inclined to peace, peaceful.

• -ER- Denotes one of many objects of the same kind, a small fragment (er-o, an item), (par. 273):

  sabl-o, sand, sabl-er-o, a grain of sand.

  mon-o, money, mon-er-o, a coin.

• -ESTR- Denotes a chief, leader, ruler, or head of (estr-o, a chief), (par. 272):

  sip-o, a ship, sip-estr-o, a captain of a ship.

  imperi-o, an empire, imperi-estr-o, an emperor.

• -ET- Denotes diminution of degree (et-a, little, small), (par. 277):

  mont-o, a mountain, mont-et-o, a hill.

  rid-i, to laugh, rid-et-i, to smile.

• -ID- Denotes the young of, offspring, descendant (id-o, offspring), (par. 279):

  saf-o, a sheep, saf-id-o, a lamb.

  Izrael-o, Israel, Izrael-id-o, an Israelite.

• -IG- Denotes the causing, making, or rendering anything to be in the state implied by the root (ig-i, to cause, to make), (par. 280):

  mort-i, to die, mort-ig-i, to kill.

  pur-a, clean, pur-ig-i, to clean, purify.

• -IG- Denotes the action of becoming, turning to, and has sometimes a reflexive force (ig-i, to become, to be made), (par. 280):

  rug-a, red, rug-ig-i, to become red, to blush.

  ric-a, rich, ric-ig-i, to become, or grow rich, or to get rich.

• -IL- Denotes the tool or instrument or means by which something is done (il-o, a tool, means), (par. 281):

  tranc-i, to cut, tranc-il-o, a knife.

  pres-i, to print, pres-il-o, a printing press.

• -IN- Denotes the feminine gender (in-o, a female), (par. 282):

  frat-o, a brother, frat-in-o, a sister.

  leon-o, a lion, leon-in-o, a lioness.

• -IND- Denotes worthiness, deserving of something, worthy of (ind-o, worth, merit), (par. 275):

  laud-i, to praise, laud-ind-a, praiseworthy.

  estim-o, esteem, estim-ind-a, estimable, worthy of esteem.

• -ING- Denotes a thing used for holding only one object (ing-o, a socket, or sheath), (par. 278):

  plum-o, a pen, plum-ing-o, a penholder.

  kandel-o, a candle, kandel-ing-o, a candlestick.

• -ISM- Denotes a theory, system, doctrine, school of thought (ism-o, an "ism"), (par. 293):

  real-a, real, real-ism-o, realism.

  protestant-o, a protestant, protestant-ism-o, protestantism.

• -IST- Denotes a person occupied with the idea contained in the root (par. 272):

  drog-o, a drug, drog-ist-o, a druggist.

  stel-i, to steal, stel-ist-o, a thief.

• -NJ- See CJ, page 29, and par. 274.

• -OBL- Denotes a numeral multiple (par. 284):

  du, two, du-obl-a, double.

  tri, three, tri-obl-a, triple.

• -ON- Denotes a numeral fraction (par. 284):

  kvar, four, kvar-on-o, a fourth.

  kvin, five, kvin-on-o, a fifth.

• -OP- Denotes a numeral collective (op-a, collective), (par. 284):

  du, two, du-op-e, by twos.

  dek, ten, dek-op-e, by tens, ten together.

• -UJ- Denotes that which contains, produces, encloses, or bears, a quantity or more than one article (uj-o, a receptacle), (par. 278):

  ink-o, ink, ink-uj-o, an inkpot.

  plum-o, a pen, plum-uj-o, a pen box (not a penholder).

  turk-o, a Turk, Turk-uj-o, Turkey.

• -UL- Denotes a person or being characterized by the idea implied in the root (par. 272):

  ric-a, rich, ric-ul-o, a rich man.

  avar-a, avaricious, avar-ul-o, a miser.

• -UM- Has no defined meaning. The meaning of a word with um is suggested by the context and the signification of the root to which it is joined. It is rarely used (par. 285):

  kol-o, a neck, kol-um-o, a collar.

  plen-a, full, plen-um-i, to fulfil.

  man-o, a hand, man-um-o, a cuff.

55. LIST OF PREFIXES (Prefiksoj).

• BO- Denotes any relationship resulting from marriage (par. 286):

  patro, a father, bo-patro, a father-in-law.

  filino, a daughter, bo-filino, a daughter-in-law.

• DIS- Denotes division, dissemination, separation, etc., (dis-e, separately), (par. 287):

  jeti, to throw, dis-jeti, to throw about, to scatter.

  siri, to tear, dis-siri, to tear in pieces.

• EK- Denotes the beginning of an action, or its short duration (par. 288):

  kanti, to sing, ek-kanti, to begin to sing.

  brili, to shine, ek-brili, to flash.

• EKS- Denotes late, formerly, like the English ex-.

  kolonelo, colonel, eks-kolonelo, ex-colonel.

  edzigo, a wedding, eks-edzigo, a divorce.

• GE- Denotes persons of both sexes taken together (par. 286):

  patro, a father, ge-patroj, parents, or father and mother.

  mastro, a master, ge-mastroj, master and mistress.

• MAL- Denotes the direct opposite of any idea (mal-e, on the contrary), (par. 289):

  forta, strong, mal-forta, weak.

  estimi, to esteem, mal-estimi, to despise.

• MIS- Denotes mis-, amiss, wrongly, erroneously.

• RE- Denotes, as in English, repetition, again, back (re-e, again), (par. 290):

  iri, to go, re-iri, to go again.

  diri, to say, re-diri, to repeat.

55 (a). PREPOSITIONS AND OTHER ROOTS USED AS PREFIXES.

On reference to par. 254, it will be seen that prepositions are frequently used as prefixes. A good many other particles also are used in the same way, e.g.:—

• CEF par. 272 (g)
• DUON par. 286
• FI par. 270
• FOR par. 287
• FUS par. 270
• MEM par. 291
• SIN par. 291
• PRA par. 286
• VIC par. 292

56. Elision is not common in Esperanto, except in poetry, where it is used, when required, for the purpose of rhythm. Some prose writers use it, but it is better to avoid its use.

57. The letter A in the article la may be elided when the article is preceded by a preposition ending in a vowel, for then the L of the article can be sounded with the preposition and the full pronunciation given to the first letter of the following word, e.g., de l’ kreo de l’ mondo (for de la) = since the creation of the world. (Pronounce de l’ as del).

In poetry the letter A of the article is occasionally elided before a word beginning with a vowel.

The final O of the substantive may also be elided, e.g., kant’ (for kanto) = a song. The tonic accent (par. 17) remains on the same syllable on which it would fall if no elision had taken place.

Note that kant’ may not be used as an abbreviation of anything else but kanto. Thus, it cannot represent kanton, kantoj, kante, kantas, etc.

The dropped letter is in all cases noted by an apostrophe.

58. Questions are asked in two ways, viz.—either by the interrogative adverb cu = whether, or by one of the interrogative words kia = what kind of, kial = why, kiam = when, kie = where, kiel = how, kies = whose, kio = what, kiom = how much, or how many, kiu = who, which.

(a). Cu is used when none of the other words in a sentence are used in an interrogative sense. It is, in fact, the general word for interrogations answerable by "yes" or "no."

Examples.—Cu vi komprenas? = Do you understand? Cu li legas? = Does he read? Cu vi havas mian libron? = Have you my book? Cu vi havas tion, kion mi bezonas? = Have you what (that which) I want? Cu Johano iris lernejon? (or, al lernejo?) = Did John go (or, has John gone) to school? Cu vi pruntos al mi krajonon? = Will you lend me a pencil? Cu li estos foririnta, antau ol vi alvenos? = Will he have gone away before you (will) arrive? Cu vi estus tion farinta, se mi estus tie? = Would you have done that if I had been there?

When the verb following cu is in the Imperative mood, it shows the ellipsis of some other verb expressing "wish, desire, etc." (see pars. 200, 237 (m)).

Examples.—Cu mi iru kaj kunpremu la gorgon de tiu ci hundo...? (Zamenhof, "La Rabistoj") = Shall I go and squeeze the throat of this dog...? Here the full phrase would be, Cu vi volas, ke mi iru...? = Do you wish me to go...? Cu mi acetu por vi libron? = Shall I buy you a book? Cu ni luu fiakron? = Shall we take a cab?

The verb is sometimes omitted when a question is preceded by an assertion.

Examples.—Hodiau estas merkredo, cu ne? (or, cu ne vere?) = To-day is Wednesday, isn’t it? Ili diris al vi la veron, cu ne? = They told you the truth, didn’t they? Ili ne diris al vi la veron, cu? = They didn’t tell you the truth, did they?

(b). The following examples show the use of the nine interrogatives kia, kial, kiam, etc.

Examples.—Kian leteron vi skribis? = What kind of letter did you write? Kial vi ne respondis? Why did you not answer? Kiam li alvenos? = When will he come? Kie estas la postoficejo? = Where is the post-office? Kiel vi faris tion? = How did you do that? Kies domo estas tiu? = Whose house is that? Kion vi konsilas al mi fari? = What do you advise me to do? Kiom da cevaloj estas tie? = How many horses are there? (at that place)? Kiom kostas tio? = How much does that cost? Kiu estas en la gardeno? = Who is in the garden? Kiun vi vidis en la pregejo? = Whom did you see in the church? Kiu estas tie? = Who is there?

(c). Of the above, those ending in a consonant are invariable. Those ending in a vowel can take the accusative N, but kia and kiu are the only words which take the plural J (par. 142).

Examples.—Kien vi iras? = Whither are you going? Kiajn trancilojn vi bezonas? = What kind of knives do you need? Kiujn librojn vi acetis? = Which books did you buy? Kiuj estas la tagoj de la semajno? = Which are the days of the week?

(d). From kiom the adjective kioma = how much, how many’th is formed, and this also may be used as an interrogative.

Example.—Je kioma horo vi venos? = At what o’clock (hour) will you come?

(See correlative words, pars. 147–157. For further examples see pars. 64, 170. For place of interrogative see par. 91.)

59. Double negatives are hardly ever used in Esperanto, for, if employed, they would, as in English, have an affirmative meaning.

(a). Ne = no, not, is the word in general use to imply negation. It immediately precedes the word or words it modifies.

Examples.—Cu vi ne vidis lin? = Did you not see him? Mi devas ne iri = I must not go.[11] Mi ne devas iri = I am not obliged to go.[11] Ne mi, sed li, havas katon = It is not I, but he, who has a cat. Mi ne havas katon = I have not (got) a cat.

(b). The nine correlative words, nenia, nenial, neniam, nenie, neniel, nenies, nenio, neniom, neniu, also imply negation.

Examples.—Li havas nenian sperton = He has no kind of experience. Li ne havas ian sperton = He has not any kind of experience. Nenial li subite foriris de Londono = For no reason he suddenly left London. Mi nenion trovis = I found nothing. Mi ne trovis ion (ion, not nenion, here) = I did not find anything. (See correlative words, pars. 147–157).

(c). Nek = nor and nek ... nek = neither ... nor have also a negative meaning.

Examples.—Nek mi nek li estis tie = Neither I nor he was there. Mi vidis nek Johanon nek Georgon = I saw neither John nor George.

Nek is generally used in the second clause of a sentence, although the first is negative.

Examples.—Mi ne scias la francan lingvon, nek la anglan, nek la turkan = I do not know the French language, or (nor) English, or (nor) Turkish. Nenio estas al mi pli kara, nek dolca, ol vi = Nothing is dearer to me or (nor) sweeter than you. Mi ne renkontis lin, nek lian fraton = I did not meet him or (nor) his brother.

(d). Compound words with ne, sen, mal, have also a negative signification, and such words are often employed with a negative to express an affirmative assertion. (See par. 289.)

Examples.—La okazo ne estis neatendita = The event was not unexpected. Lia riceco ne estis senlima = His fortune was not unlimited. Li ne estis malhonesta = He was not dishonest.

60. Double Negative.—Occasionally a double negative is used to give strong force to a negation. Dr. Zamenhof, in his translation of Hamlet, Act I., Scene 5, renders "Lay your hands again upon my sword: swear by my sword, never to speak of this that you have heard" by Metu viajn manojn denove sur la glavon, kaj ripetu, ke vi neniam al neniu diros pri la apero de la nokto, lit. = Lay your hands again upon the sword, and repeat, that you never, to no one, will speak of the apparition of the night.

Some Esperantists do not consider this a double negative, but it undoubtedly is, according to the literal English translation. Another explanation of the passage is to supply mentally an omitted kaj after the word neniam.

61. Of course, when two negatives refer to different verbs, expressed or unexpressed, this is not a double negative.

Examples.—Mi ne volis, ne skribi al vi = I did not wish, not to write to you. Ne nur ne malamiko, sed kunbatalanto li estis = (He was) not only not an enemy, but he was a comrade in arms (fellow combatant).

62. Two negatives may be used in such an expression as "could not help," etc.

Example.—Li ne povis ne kisi la malgrandulon = He could not help kissing the little one. Lit.:—He could not not kiss the little one.

63. Jes = yes is the word used to answer a question affirmatively.

Examples.—Cu vi vidis mian patron? Jes! = Did you see my father? Yes. Jes, with the conjunction ke, is also used for "it is so," as, mi vin certigas, ke jes = I assure you that it is so.

Ne = no, not, is used in a similar way to answer a question negatively.

Example.—Mi vin certigas, ke ne = I assure you that it is not so.

65. Accusative: when used.—The accusative is used in Esperanto:—

(1). To show the direct object of a verb.

(2). To show motion towards something (Rule 13, par. 94).

(3). To show a preposition has been omitted (Rules 8 and 14, par. 94).

The following are examples of these three uses:—

66 (1). To show the direct object of a verb.

(a). After transitive verbs the accusative is used to show the direct object.

Examples.—Johano vidas la knabon = John sees the boy. Georgo acetis bonan cevalon = George bought a good horse. Now in either of these sentences the order of the words can be changed without altering the meaning. La knabon vidas Johano would still mean "John sees the boy," because Johano, being in the nominative, is clearly the subject, and knabon, being in the accusative, is clearly the object. But if we inverted the words in English, the sense would be entirely changed (see order of words, pars. 73–93).

(b). After participles.—The accusative is also used after active participles (adjectival or adverbial) to denote the object.

Examples.—Johano estis rigardanta la knabon, kiam mi lin vidis = John was looking at the boy, when I saw him. Johano, vidante la knabon, donas al li pomon = John, seeing the boy, gives him an apple. Georgo estis acetinta cevalon = George had bought a horse. Georgo, acetinte cevalon, donis gin al sia frato = George, having bought (or, after buying) a horse, gave it to his brother (par. 212 (d)).

(c). When a verb is omitted.—The accusative is also used in exclamations and in expressions in which some verb expressing "wish" or "desire" is understood (see par. 64 (a)).

Examples.—Peston al la trancilo: Mi trancis al mi la fingron! = Plague on the knife! I have cut my finger! Bonan tagon, Sinjoro = Good day, sir. Saluton al vi, sinjorino = (lit.) Salutation to you, madam. In reply to a question the accusative is used whenever the verb in the reply, which is omitted, governs the accusative, as:—Kiom kostas tiu ci krajono? (Gi kostas) du pencojn = How much does this pencil cost? (It costs) twopence. Kiom estas la kosto de tiu ci krajono? (Gi estas) du pencoj = What is the price of this pencil? (It is) twopence.

67 (2). To show motion towards something.

(a). Accusative of direction.—To show direction towards which movement (physical or otherwise) is made the accusative is used, and this is generally called "the accusative of direction." It will be observed, however, that we can also use a preposition to show the motion, and, if such preposition in itself shows movement, its complement must be in the nominative, since all prepositions govern that case; but if the preposition does not in itself denote movement, then its complement must be in the accusative.

Examples.—Mi iras Romon (au, al Romo) = I am going to Rome. Li kuris en la gardenon = He ran into the garden. The preposition en does not show movement, therefore gardenon is in the accusative, but Li kuris en la gardeno = He ran in the garden. This means he was already in the garden, and was running in it. Sur la danan tronon mi havas rajtojn = On the Danish throne I have rights.

(b). Adverbs also take the accusative of direction.

Examples.—Kien vi iras? Mi iras nenien hodiau = Where (whither) are you going? I am going nowhere to-day. Gi falis teren (or, sur la teron) = It fell to the ground (or, on to the ground; lit., earthwards). Li iris hejmen kaj restis hejme = He went home and remained at home.

68. (3). To show that a preposition has been omitted.

As stated in Rule 8, par. 94, every preposition in Esperanto governs the nominative case.

By Rule 14 we are told that every preposition has a defined and constant meaning, but that if we must use some preposition, and the direct sense does not show what special preposition we are to take, we can then either use the indefinite preposition je, or the accusative without a preposition. The following are examples under this head in which the accusative may be used:—

(a). After doubtful verbs.—From the foregoing remarks it follows that if we do not know whether a verb governs the accusative or not, we can always use the accusative, if no ambiguity is occasioned thereby. Otherwise some preposition should be employed instead.

For instance, we can say:—Obeu vian patron, or, Obeu je via patro, or, Obeu al via patro = Obey your father. Si helpis al sia frato, or, Si helpis sian fraton = She helped her brother. Li pardonis sian filon, or, Li pardonis al sia filo = He forgave his son. But in phrases where doubt as to meaning may arise we must always use a preposition, as:—Li pardonis al sia filo lian kulpon = He forgave his son his fault. Not Li pardonis sian filon lian kulpon, for the two accusatives here would create confusion. Li legis tion en la dua de Marto, or, Li legis pri tio la duan de Marto = He read that on the 2nd of March.

(b). Duration or any point of time.

Examples.—Mi restis tie kvar semajnojn (or, dum or tra, kvar semajnoj) = I remained there (during) four weeks. La proksiman lundon (or, en la proksima lundo) mi veturos Londonon (or, al Londono) = Next Monday I shall go to London. Printempon (or, en printempo) floroj aperas = In spring flowers appear. Li venos dimancon (or, en dimanco) = He will come on a Sunday. Similarly the accusative may be used for dates, as:—Washington (pronounced Uasington) estis naskita la dudek-duan (or, en la dudek-dua) de Februaro = Washington was born on the 22nd of February. La 23^an Marton, 1906^a, or Je la 23^a de Marto, 1906 = 23rd of March, 1906.

(c). Price, weight, measure.

Examples.—La libroj kostis dek silingojn (or, po dek silingoj) por dekduo = The books cost ten shillings (or, at the rate of ten shillings) a dozen. La cambro estas alta dek du futojn (or, je dek du futoj) = The room is twelve feet high. La kesto pezas tridek funtojn (or, je tridek funtoj) = The chest weighs thirty pounds.

69. General Remarks on the Accusative.

From the foregoing examples we see the important part the accusative N plays in the construction of Esperanto, the clearness it gives to the meaning of a sentence, and the advantage it affords in permitting words to be placed in almost any order, The following examples will further illustrate this.

(a). Qualifying and Predicative Adjectives.—An adjective is termed "qualifying" when its noun or pronoun actually possesses the quality which the adjective denotes; and the adjective then agrees with the noun or pronoun both in case and number. But a "predicative" adjective, although it agrees in number, is always in the nominative (pars. 36, 108).

Examples.—Mi trovis la belajn rozojn (or, rozojn belajn) = I found the beautiful roses. Mi trovis la rozojn belaj = I found the roses beautiful. In the first example the assertion is that beautiful roses were found; but in the second you assert only that you found, or discovered, that they were beautiful; they might, in someone else’s opinion, have been the contrary.

(b). Qualifying Adverbs are invariable.

Examples.—Li skribis al mi tute malveran raporton pri la afero = He wrote me an entirely false statement of the matter. Mi pensis, ke si estas treege bela = I thought (that) she was (is) extremely beautiful.

(c). Nouns and Pronouns in apposition have like cases and numbers.

Examples.—Vi sercas la princon, Hamleton = You seek the Prince, Hamlet. La diablo lin prenu, la sentaugulon = The devil take him, the wretch!

N.B.—Note the difference in case of two nouns in the following sentences:—Kuracisto havis du infanojn, filon kaj filinon; li nomis sian filon Johano, kaj sian filinon Mario. Kiam li parolis pri ili kun mi, li ciam nomis sian filon Johanon kun voco de amo, sed sian filinon Marion antipatie = A doctor had two children, a son and a daughter; he named his son, John, and his daughter, Mary. When he spoke to me about them, he always named his son, John, in voice of affection, but his daughter, Mary, with antipathy.

N.B.—In this example, when the nouns (Johano and Mario) are in the nominative, they express what is predicated or said about the objects (filon and filinon). But when they agree in case with the objects (filon and filinon), this shows they are nouns in apposition (see pars. 108, 109).

(d). Proper names.—In the case of non-Esperanto names it is possible to indicate the accusative, where desired, by the addition of N after a vowel, or ON after a consonant. This is the plan adopted by Zamenhof in La Malnova Testamento. Or the name may be regarded as a foreign word and left unchanged for the accusative.

Examples.—David, Davidon. Noa, Noan. Sara, Saran. Robinson, Robinsonon. Smith, Smithon (or simply Smith). Of course, proper names which have been converted by use into Esperanto are treated like other nouns in O, as, Londono, Londonon; Berlino, Berlinon. Jones iris Berlinon, kaj renkontis Arturon Brown = Jones went to Berlin and met Arthur Brown.

71. Punctuation is only necessary to make clear the sense we wish to convey in writing. Happily it is not so important in Esperanto as in English, where a simple comma may make a great difference in the meaning of a sentence. Hence the verbosity of law documents in which stops are not used.

Every writer is free to use in Esperanto his own national or individual method of punctuation. Nevertheless, Zamenhof and the best writers follow a definite international usage, and the student is strongly advised to study and imitate their writings in this respect.

It is the custom, for instance, to separate every clause in a sentence by a punctuation mark. Accordingly, words like ke, por ke, cu, kiu, when they introduce a secondary sentence within the main sentence, are usually preceded by a comma. This aids the reader, and helps in the formation of a uniform international style.

When two verbs joined by kaj have the same subject, no comma is needed; but a comma is used if the subjects are different. Li staras kaj parolas (one subject). Li staras, kaj mi parolas al li (two subjects).

Use a comma after ho when it is part of an exclamation, but not in naming the person spoken to. Ho Dio! Ho, tute ne!

With abbreviations like S-ro, S-ino, D-ro, it is usual to insert a hyphen, but no following stop, thus: F-ino Jones.

72. The following is what Dr. Zamenhof has written on the subject in the "Esperantisto." We give it in Esperanto, so that the student can see the punctuation for himself:—

La reguloj pri la uzado de la interpunkcioj estas en nia lingvo pli-malpli tiaj samaj, kiel en ciuj aliaj lingvoj; sekve ciu povas uzadi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel, kiel li uzas ilin en sia nacia lingvo. Estas vere, ke en diversaj detaloj la uzado de la interpunkcioj estas malegala en diversaj lingvoj; sed car la objekto ne estas tre grava, tial ni pensas, ke ne venis ankorau la tempo por difini en nia lingvo severajn regulojn por tiuj ci detaloj. En tiuj ci dubaj detaloj ciu povas uzi en Esperanto la interpunkciojn tiel, kiel li uzas ilin en sia nacia lingvo, kaj nur la uzo iom post iom ellaboros por tiuj ci negravaj detaloj difinitajn regulojn.

Translation.—The rules regarding the use of stops are in our language more or less the same as in all other languages, therefore everyone can continue using in Esperanto stops in such a manner as he uses them in his national language. It is true that in several details the use of stops is different in various languages, but since the matter is not very important, we think the time has not yet come to lay down in our language strict rules for these details. In these doubtful details everyone can use in Esperanto the stops he uses in his national language, and only custom, little by little, will work out for these unimportant details definite rules.

73. Since Esperanto has eliminated the defects of other languages, and embraced only the good points of each, its flexibility as regards the order of words in a sentence is great. This is principally owing to the fact that the accusative N clearly distinguishes the object from the subject, to the agreement in case and number of the adjective with the noun it qualifies, and to the fact that prepositions and conjunctions do not interfere with the proper functions of other words. In English the accusative case is distinguished only in the pronouns he (him), she (her), etc. It is true that English has a possessive case, which in Esperanto is applied only to the correlative group of words ending in -ES, viz., ies, kies, etc. (see pars. 106 (b), 154); but even this doubtful advantage is lessened by the fact that the apostrophe S in English is useless in speech in the plural when the word ends in S. For instance, when one says, "That is my brothers’ house," does one mean it belongs to one brother or more? Certainly, as written, with the apostrophe after the S, the meaning is two or more, but, as spoken, one would naturally suppose it belonged to one brother only. So, to be clear, we should have to fall back on the Esperanto mode of expression, and say, That is the house of my brothers = Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj; even then Esperanto is clearer than English, for the pronoun (miaj) is a plural form, whereas in English my is the same for both numbers.

74. Owing to the above advantages, words may be arranged in almost any order in Esperanto, and yet be intelligible; but of course it is advisable that they should follow one another in the natural sequence of our thoughts. The first point is, that the meaning of a sentence should be absolutely clear, and the second, that the sounds should be as harmonious as they can be, combined with clearness of expression. The student is advised to read the "Fundamenta Krestomatio," by Dr. Zamenhof, which will familiarize him with the construction of the language, and he will then rapidly acquire a knowledge as to the best order for words.

75. Place of the subject and object.—The subject is usually placed before and the object after the verb.

Examples.—Mia fratino acetis libron = My sister bought a book. Rikardo mangas kukon = Richard is eating a cake. Kukon mangas Rikardo means exactly the same, and would he quite intelligible, but the mind would not grasp the meaning so rapidly, and it would be absurd, without a reason, to place words in such an unnatural order.

76. Position for emphasis.—Words are often placed out of the usual order, as they are in English, to give emphasis, or for the sake of contrast.

Examples.—Lin mi renkontis, ne sin = Him I met, not her. Belon mi trovis cie, bonon nenie = Beauty I found everywhere, good nowhere.

77. Place of the predicate.—The predicate, or what is said about the subject, is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.—Li estos kontenta (or Li kontentigos) se vi donos al li silingon = He will be satisfied if you (will) give him a shilling. Si farigus pli sana, se la vetero estus pli varma, or Si pli sanigus, se la vetero pli varmigus = She would get better if the weather became warmer. But after the word kiel it is preferable to put the predicate before the verb, as:—Kiel malsana li sajnas! = How ill he seems! Kiel li sajnas malsana would be quite possible and correct, but Esperanto inclines to follow the English order of words here, as also in many other cases where in other languages the construction is quite different.

78. Place of the direct complement.—We have stated that the object is placed usually after the verb, but it may equally correctly precede it.

Examples.—Mi lin malamas, or, Mi malamas lin = I detest him. If, however, the object be followed by an explanatory phrase, it is better to place it after the verb, as:—Mi vidis lin kusantan sur la lito = I saw him lying on the bed. Mi renkontis sin, guste kiam si estis eliranta = I met her just as she was going out (see par. 29).

79. Place of the indirect complement.—The complement is said to be indirect when it is governed by a preposition (see Syntax, par. 31). It is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.—Zorgu pri tio = Take care of (about) that. Alkonduku lin al mi = Bring him to me. La domo estas konstruata de mia patro = The house is being built by my father. Mi gin donis (or, donis gin) al li por lia nepino = I gave it to him for his granddaughter. Of course, we can place it before the verb if we wish, just as we can in English, and as we probably should in the following phrase:—El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke.... = From the said rule, it follows that....

80. Place of circumstantial complements (see Syntax, par. 32).—These complements, which mark the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, are usually placed first or last in a sentence.

Examples.—En printempo floroj aperas = In spring flowers appear. Nur kelke da knaboj ludadis sur la kampo = Only a few boys were playing in the field; or, Sur la kampo ludadis nur kelke da knaboj. In a sentence like the following the complement might be placed last, as:—Mi kriegis pro la dolorego = I howled with the intense pain. But in one like the following, where there are two or more circumstantial complements, they naturally should come first in the sentence, as:—Kun la haroj malordigitaj, kaj la okuloj eksaltantaj el la kapo de (or, pro) teruro, si kuregis lau la strato = With dishevelled hair, and eyes starting out of her (the) head with terror, she rushed down the street.

81. The complements of nouns, adjectives, or participial adjectives, usually follow them.

Examples.—La amo al (or, por) Dio = Love to (for) God. Mirigita de liaj vortoj, mi eliris el la domo = Astonished at his words, I left (went out of) the house.

82. Place of the infinitive.—The infinitive being really a noun, takes its place, according as it is the subject, predicate, or complement. When it is the subject, it generally precedes the verb, unless one wishes to place it otherwise for the sake of emphasis.

Examples.—Scii estas utile = Knowledge (to know) is useful. Honte estas mensogi = It is shameful to lie. If the predicate, it usually follows the verb, as:—Tion fari estas agi malsage = To do that is to act foolishly. If the complement, it follows the word of which it is the complement, as:—Mi tre deziras paroli kun vi = I want very much to speak with you. Ni trinkas por sensoifigi, kaj ni mangas por satigi nin (or, por satigi) = We drink to allay thirst (to become without thirst), and we eat to allay hunger (to be satiated). Mi devas iri hejmen = I must go home. La elekto tion fari restas ce vi = The option of doing that rests with you. Li estos tre felica vin vidi morgau = He will be very glad to see you to-morrow. La deziro kontraudiri = The desire of contradicting (to contradict).

83. Place of the noun.—The noun is placed according as it is the subject, predicate, complement (direct, indirect, or circumstantial), (see pars. 76–80).

84. Place of the adjective.—The position of the adjective varies in national languages. In English it is nearly always placed before the word it qualifies, and we may say that this is generally its place in Esperanto. The following remarks and examples of the four classes of adjectives, "qualifying," "predicative," "possessive," and "demonstrative," will give an idea of its position, in accordance with the sense or emphasis wished to be conveyed.

(a). A qualifying adjective may either precede or follow the word it qualifies.

(In either position the meaning is precisely the same grammatically. It is considered by some that it throws a shade of emphasis on the adjective to place it after the noun it qualifies, especially when the adjective is the last word in the sentence.)

Examples.—La malfelica knabo (or, knabo malfelica) perdis sian monujon = The unfortunate boy lost his purse. Li renkontis maljunan virinon (or, maljunulinon), tre grasan, kiu portis grandan korbon, plenan de maturaj pomoj = He met an old woman, very fat, who was carrying a large basket, full of ripe apples.

(b). A predicative adjective is usually placed after the verb, and noun or pronoun, to which it relates.

Examples.—La papero estas blanka = The paper is white. Ili trovis la mangajojn bonaj = They found the eatables good. Mi pensis, ke mi vidas ilin mortigantaj la homon = I thought (that) I saw (see) them killing (that they are killing) the man.

N.B.—A predicative adjective does not agree in case, when its noun or pronoun is in the accusative (pars. 69 (a), and 108 (b)).

(c). A possessive adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates. If we wish to speak in an affectionate strain, we can place it after the noun.

Examples.—Mia patrino kaj miaj gefratoj donis al mi donacon en mia naskotago = My mother and my brothers and sisters gave me a present on my birthday. Ne ploru, patrino mia! = Do not weep, mother dear! (or, mother mine!). Johano mia, ne faru tion! = John dear, do not do that.

(d). A demonstrative adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates.

Examples.—Tiu sinjorino estas mia fratino = That lady is my sister. Du silingoj ne suficos por aceti tiun libron = Two shillings will not buy that book.

(e). To show emphasis, adjectives can, as in English, be placed first in phrases.

Examples.—Bona, malavara kaj gentila, li estas estimata de ciuj = Kind, generous and courteous, he was esteemed by all. Felica estas la homo, kiu ne havas malamikojn = Happy is the man who has no enemies.

85. Place of the pronoun.—As in English, a personal pronoun may follow or precede the verb.

Examples.—"Jes," diris li (or, li diris), "vi estas prava" = "Yes," said he, "you are right." "Kial," ekkriis la homo, "vi faris tion?" = "Why," cried the man, "did you do that?"

86. Place of the verb.—The verb is, as a rule, placed after the subject, but this does not mean that it must follow it immediately, for it can be separated by predicates, complements, and adverbs.

Examples.—La lingvo Esperanto, kreita de doktoro Zamenhof, estas jam uzata en la tuta mondo civilizita = The language Esperanto, created by Dr. Zamenhof, is already used in the whole civilized world. In sentences like the following it is, as in English, often placed before the subject. "Kien ni iros," diris mi al li, "kiam via amiko alvenos?" = "Where shall we go," said I to him, "when your friend arrives (shall arrive)?" Nun alvenas la horo de la sukceso por la lingvo internacia = Now comes the hour of (the) success for the international language. Aperis sur la monteto la figuro de rajdanto = There appeared on the hill the figure of a horseman. (For the place of the Infinitive, see par. 82.)

87. Place of the participle varies as follows:—

(a). When forming the compound tenses of verbs, the participle usually follows the auxiliary verb esti, though not necessarily immediately after it (see (d)).

Examples.—Mi estos fininta mian leteron, antau ol li alvenos = I shall have finished my letter before he arrives (will arrive). Si estas tre amata de ciuj = She is very much loved by all.

(b). In a qualifying or predicative sense participles generally follow their noun or pronoun.

Examples.—Mi vidis lin riproceganta kaj batanta la knabon = I saw him (that he is) rebuking and beating the boy. Cu tio estas mia hundo casanta safon? = Is that my dog chasing a sheep? La fraulino leganta la jurnalon estas tre bela = The young lady reading the newspaper is very beautiful. La konstruata domo (or, domo konstruata) = The house under construction (being constructed). Mi imagis, ke mi vidas la homon kisanta la virinon = I fancied (that) I saw the man kissing (that he is kissing) the woman.

(c). An adverbial participle generally precedes its noun or pronoun.

Examples.—Vidante sian amikon, li haltis = (On) seeing his friend, he stopped. Leginte la libron, si ekdormis = After reading (or, having read) the book, she fell asleep (par. 212 (d)).

(d). For emphasis the participle may be put first in a sentence.

Examples.—Tedita de vojagado, mi decidis reveni hejmen = Tired of travelling, I decided to return home. Amataj kaj estimataj de ciuj, la fratoj havis multajn amikojn = Loved and esteemed by all, the brothers had many friends.

Note.—If qualifying and predicative participles are not placed in their natural position, viz., after their nouns or pronouns, the sense may be entirely changed. For instance, in the following two sentences the words are the same, but the sense varies with their positions:—Si, kuranta en la cambron, vidis mian hundon = She, (who is) running into the room, saw my dog (here kuranta is the qualifying participle of si). Si vidis mian hundon kuranta en la cambron = She saw my dog (that he is) running into the room (here kuranta is the predicative participle of hundon, and, being predicative, does not take the accusative (see pars. 69 (a) and 108 (b)). The above two sentences might be altered as follows, showing different meanings, by using in the first an adverbial participle, and in the second a qualifying participle, as:—Kurante en la cambron, si vidis mian hundon = (While) running into the room, she saw my dog. Si vidis mian hundon kurantan = She saw my running dog. A phrase is often clearer if the conjunction ke be used instead of a predicative participle. For instance, instead of Si vidis mian hundon kuranta en la cambron, we can say Si vidis, ke mia hundo kuras en la cambron = She saw that my dog was (is) running into the room; or, Si vidis mian hundon kuri en la cambron = She saw my dog run into the room.

88. Place of the adverb.—The adverb, as a rule, immediately precedes or follows the word to which it refers, or which it qualifies.

Examples.—Li rapide kuras, or, Li kuras rapide = He runs rapidly. La virino zorge legis (or, legis zorge) la leteron = The woman read the letter carefully. Li gentile demetis la capelon = He politely took off his hat.

N.B.—In this last example it is more elegant to place the adverb, as in English, before the verb.

(a). To avoid ambiguity, care, however, must be taken not to place the adverb in a position where it might be taken to refer either to the word which precedes or the word which follows it. For instance, if an adverb be placed between two verbs, it sometimes happens that we cannot tell to which it refers, and the sense is thus materially altered.

Example.—Li ekstreme deziris sagigi = He desired extremely to become wise. Li deziris sagigi ekstreme = He desired to become extremely wise. In this example, if we place the adverb between the two verbs, and say Li deziris ekstreme sagigi, the sentence might be translated in either of the above two ways. See also remarks on the use of ne (par. 59 (a)). The word nur, also, similarly modifies the word it precedes.

(b). Adverbs of comparison, such as: iom, multe, kiel, plej, pli, sufice, tiel, tiom, tre, tro, are usually placed before the words to which they refer.

Examples.—Li iom lacigis kaj multe senkuragigis = He became somewhat fatigued and much discouraged. Kiel malavare li agis, donante al sia frato tiom da mono, kiom li bezonis! = How generously he acted in giving his brother as much money as he needed! Li venos pli au malpli frue = He will come sooner or later (lit., more or less early). Vi agis plej sage, farante tion = You acted most wisely in doing that. Kio ajn okazos, li estis sufice saga por tion fari = At all events he was wise enough to do that. Si tre amis sian fraton = She loved her brother very much. Li tro mangadas = He eats too much.

(c). To give emphasis, adverbs and adverbial participles may commence a sentence.

Examples.—Carme, bele kaj kortuse estis vidi la birdon zorgi pri sia ido = Charming, beautiful and touching it was to see the bird take care of its offspring. Starante kun la brakoj etenditaj, li paroladis al la popolamaso = Standing with arms outstretched, he harangued the populace (see par. 245 (a)).

89. Place of the preposition.—The preposition always immediately precedes its complement.

Examples.—Skribu al mi = Write to me. Li venis al mia domo kune kun la du hundoj je la tria (horo) = He came to my house (to me) along with the two dogs at 3 o’clock.

90. Place of the conjunction.—The conjunction always precedes the verb to which it refers, but separated from it by the words which logically intervene.

Example.—Se iu hodiau matene deziros min vidi, diru al gi, ke mi estas tre okupita = If anyone (someone), this morning, should desire to see me, tell him (or her) I am very busy.

N.B.—Note that iu does not give the sex, therefore gi is rightly used; but, as in English, the sense would be clear without the words al gi.

91. Place of the interrogative.—In direct questions the subject usually precedes the verb.

Examples.—Cu vi havas mian libron? = Have you my book? In English, in many cases, we place the subject first; for instance, in the present tense we often commence a question with "Do"; in the past, with "Have" or "Did"; in the future, with "Shall" or "Will." If we substitute Cu for any of these words, we have the Esperanto construction, as:—Cu vi bezonas tiun plumon? = Do you want that pen? Cu vi faris tion? = Did you do that? Cu li venos tien ci? = Will he come here?

92. Place of the negative.—The negative ne = not, when it relates directly to a verb, is placed immediately before such verb, but otherwise in its natural position in the clause; i.e., it negatives the word or words it precedes. The negative correlatives nenia, nenial, etc., may be placed in almost any position, according to the emphasis we wish to give to the word.

Examples.—Mi lin ne vidis, or, Mi ne vidis lin = I did not see him. Cu vi ne vidis lin? or, Cu vi lin ne vidis? = Did you not see him? Mi neniam renkontis sin, or, Neniam mi renkontis sin, or, Mi sin renkontis neniam = I never met her. Mi volas renkonti ne nur Johanon, sed ankau Georgon = I want to meet not only John, but also George.

93. Order very similar to English.—The foregoing remarks show that the order of words in Esperanto is very similar to the English construction of sentences, and we can hardly do wrong if we follow it nearly word for word. A slightly different order in Esperanto sometimes makes an expression more elegant but this is generally owing to harmony of sound rather than grammatical construction.

[In writing original work in Esperanto it is well to cultivate a style as international as possible, and use the normal, simple, and logical order of words. In translation work, when it is desired to reproduce as far as possible the national or individual atmosphere of the original, it is legitimate intentionally to reproduce in the translation—so long as intelligibility is ensured, and as far as the structure of the language permits—the characteristic order of words in the original text. The wonderful flexibility of Esperanto is one of the reasons why Esperanto is such an admirable language for translation purposes.]