  FISH, SHELLFISH, AND OTHER MEAT SUBSTITUTES Fish and shellfish are valuable assets as food, so much so that the government has a Bureau of Fisheries, and has established stations at intervals on the coast and on inland lakes for the study and production of those foods that come from salt and fresh water. We have used these products of the waters as if the supply were limitless, forgetting that fish and shellfish are living creatures with habits that we cannot ignore without working havoc to the species. Young salmon and shad are hatched in the upper reaches of the rivers, and if we insist on trapping the mature fish at the river mouth on their northern migrations, the number of young decreases, and salmon and shad become high-priced foods. To ignore fishery and game laws is an ignorant and dishonest proceeding, with far-reaching economic results. Varieties of fish.—In Bulletin No. 28 of the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, forty-four different fish are listed, all used as food. A visit to the fish stall in the market of a seaboard city will acquaint you with many interesting species. Fresh and salt water fish differ in flavor, and there is a difference to be detected between fish from running, or from lake water, brook trout, for instance, having a superior flavor. The food supply also influences the flavor, and both fresh and salt water fish have a better flavor when taken from sandy and rocky bottoms rather than muddy. The habit of the fish also has Fig. 65.—Composition of fish. Composition and nutritive value.—Figure 65 shows the composition of several kinds. Compare their composition with that of meat. The nutritive content is high, yet fish seems a lighter and less satisfying food than meat, although on the seaboard of some countries it is the chief animal food. The digestibility of fish and meat are about equal, but some varieties of fish are less digestible than others, this being true of the oily and strong-flavored fish,—herring, mackerel, salmon, and shad. There are popular prejudices for and against fish that are not warranted. The idea that fish is a “brain food” because it contains phosphorus was exploded long since, for fish contains no more phosphorus than some other foods, and phosphorus is no more valuable to the brain than to the other tissues. Fish, however, is valuable in the dietary for supplying protein and giving variety, and in season, it is one of the cheaper foods. Quality of fish.—Fish deteriorates and decomposes much more rapidly than meat, and is at its best when cleaned and When fish are transported over long distances they should be packed in ice in refrigerator cars, and you will notice that the fishman in the shop keeps the fish on ice until he sells them. In selecting fish, see that the flesh feels firm and that the eyes are still bright. If you have a keen sense of smell, this will also guide you, although to the novice the odor of fish may be disagreeable even if untainted. Fish in season and caught plentifully near by, are of good quality and should be cheap. Shad and salmon have their season in the spring, bluefish come north in the summer, sometimes as late as August, porgies are a summer and autumn fish, and smelt are abundant in the winter. Deep-sea fish like cod and halibut have a long season, and may be bought at any time. GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPESThe scaling and cleaning of fish are important first steps. In the city this may be done for you at the market, but sometimes on fishing expeditions when you are not a successful fisher you may make yourself useful by cleaning the fish. Clean the fish on a large piece of paper. Use a sharp strong knife, and rub off the scales from the tail to the head. To skin a fish well, you should first watch an expert. Cut through the skin of the back and The connective tissue of fish softens and dissolves more readily than does that of meat. Fish varies in the dryness of the flesh, but there is no such thing as tough fish, and the texture of the muscles is about the same in all parts of the fish, although there is a difference in flavor in the dark and white flesh when these both occur. On account of this characteristic of the connective tissue the fish “falls apart” and our aim must be to prevent this. Principles of cooking. 1. The protein is affected as in all other foods where it occurs. 2. The fat is melted. 3. Connective tissue quickly softened. To avoid the breaking of the fish it may be wrapped in cloth for boiling, and the water should simmer only. The coating of small fish or slices of large fish with beaten egg and crumbs tends to hold it together. In all cases avoid overcooking. Fish is done when a fork easily pierces it and separates the flakes of flesh from the bone. 1. Boiled fish. Use thick pieces of large fish for boiling, or if small fish are used they may be boiled whole. Add salt and vinegar to water in proportion of 1 tablespoonful of salt and two of vinegar to three quarts of water. Use enough water to cover the fish. Wrap the fish in cheesecloth to prevent breaking apart, and plunge into boiling water. Do not let the water boil after fish is in. The fish is done when the flesh leaves the bone or when the flesh flakes apart easily. The usual time for a thick piece is 30-40 minutes. Mock Hollandaise sauce.
Make as for white sauce, adding the beaten eggs just before taking from fire and stirring until well thickened. Add lemon juice just before serving. This sauce is suitable for boiled fish and vegetables. 2. Left over fish. Fish may be picked apart, mixed with cream sauce, and served as creamed fish or served as an escallop. Escalloped fish.
Butter a baking dish and line with crumbs. Add a layer of fish, using half, and cover with half the sauce. Cover with a layer of crumbs. Add another layer of fish, sauce, and crumbs, making this last layer of crumbs quite thick. Place in a hot oven and leave until crumbs are brown and fish is heated through. To butter crumbs. Melt a little butter in a saucepan and turn the crumbs in, stirring them over and over with a spoon until all the crumbs are coated. 3. Baked fish. Almost any medium sized fish is suitable for baking. The favorites are bluefish, shad, haddock, and halibut, sliced. Clean the fish, seeing that all scales are removed. Stuff and sew. Shape with skewers to form a letter S and place upright on a baking pan or lay fish on side. If the fish is not a fat kind, put strips of salt pork over it and in pan or cut gashes in fish and lay strips of pork in them. Dredge with flour. Bake one hour for a three-pound fish, in a hot oven, basting frequently with the tried-out fat. Serve with drawn butter or Hollandaise sauce. Fish stuffing.
Mix ingredients in order given. 4. Creamed codfish. Soak the fish in cold water, and pull it apart with knife and fork. Put it in a saucepan of cold water, allow the water to heat slowly, and stop the heating just before the water reaches the boiling point. Pour off the water, shake the saucepan over the fire, add a thin white sauce, No. 2, and reheat. Serve on toast if desired. 5. Codfish balls or cakes. Ingredients.
Method. Put the fish and potatoes in a stewpan, cover with cold water, bring the water to the boiling point, and cook until the potato is tender. The whole process will take about 20 minutes. Drain off the water very thoroughly and shake the stewpan over the fire to dry the contents. It is very necessary to have the mixture free from water. Mash and heat the mixture in the stewpan, and add the egg. Taste to see if more salt is needed, as is sometimes the case. Finish as follows: (a) Shape into round flat cakes about an inch thick, dredge with flour and sautÉ. (b) The same, browning the cakes on a greased pan in the oven, or under the gas flame, turning if necessary. (c) Shape in balls, place these in a wire frying basket, lower the basket into hot fat until the balls brown, lift the basket, drain, and drain the balls on paper. Keep hot until it is time to serve. Laboratory management.—For individual work or work in groups of two, small fish, as perch, may be procured and these may be stuffed and baked in the period. SHELLFISH The shellfish are of two classes; the mollusks including clams, mussels (seldom used in this country), oysters, and scallops, and the crustaceans,—lobsters and crabs. None of the mollusks have high nutritive value, but they are a protein food, and add to the variety of the diet. The composition of the oyster is shown in Fig. 65, and it will be noted that the fat percentage is small and the calorie value low. The oyster is raised in beds in the ocean, or bays often near the river mouth, and it is the neighborhood to the river that makes it possible for the oyster to carry germs of contagion, particularly of typhoid fever, when city sewage poured into the river passes over the oyster bed. Here, too, government protection is essential, and this is a matter that has created so much excitement that conditions are already improved. There is an association of oyster growers who make a point of advertising clean oyster beds, and cleanly methods of handling and transporting. Oysters vary in size and flavor, the flavor seeming to depend upon the locality. The smaller are sought for serving raw, and the medium and larger for cooking. They are sold by the measure or number when taken from the shell, the latter giving the surer quantity; and the price is usually one cent apiece. They are in season from September to May. The whole flesh of the oyster is soft and edible, even the muscle by which it opens and shuts its shell being tender. Clams are of two kinds, distinguished differently in different places. They are known as hard and soft, or round and The long clam lies buried in the soft mud of creeks and muddy shores left exposed at low tide, when they are dug by hoes from the mud. The round clam lies on the bottom of shallow warm waters, and is raked with an implement made for the purpose. The round clam is used when very young and small in place of raw oysters; but both kinds when matured have a tough portion that is not softened in cooking, and that is more or less indigestible. The long “neck” which protrudes from the shell has to be discarded. Both kinds may be roasted in the shell, and are very palatable served hot with melted butter, salt, and pepper. They are most commonly used in soups and in chowder. They are purchased by the quantity or number, are cheaper than oysters, and are always in season. Scallops, as purchased, are only a part of the animal in the shell, consisting solely of the round white muscle which operates the shell. The escallop, or scallop, is migratory, moving by a shooting motion, the mature scallops reaching the creeks and shores in the autumn, and though found in so-called beds they are not fixtures like the oysters. The flavor is sweet, and they have a quality that makes them more or less indigestible, especially when fried. They are very palatable and more digestible served in a stew made like an oyster stew. They are sold by the measure and are cheap in season. The lobster is now a luxury, for methods of catching in the past have made them scarce in their old haunts. The lobster is a much more highly developed animal than the mollusk, having strong muscles inside its coat of mail, and the flesh has a protein content that compares very favorably with The crab is essentially like the lobster, being smaller, and having a sweeter flavor. The soft shell crab is caught just as the old shell is shed, and is highly esteemed as a delicacy. Both lobsters and crabs are cooked in the shell, and if allowed to die naturally before cooking they are uneatable. They may be purchased alive or cooked, and one is surer of their condition when they are bought alive. Twenty-five cents a pound is now an average price for lobsters in shell. Crabs are somewhat less expensive at times, but soft shells are always high-priced. The following table shows the food value of a few of this group in terms of the weight of the 100-Calorie portion. 100-calorie Portions of Fish and Shellfish
Preserved fish and shellfish.—Smoking and salting are two old-time methods that are still in use, and smoked salmon, herring, and finnan haddie furnish us well-flavored foods at a reasonable price. Small smoked herring are eaten uncooked, and the other two kinds are excellent broiled, or parboiled and finished in the oven. Salt cod should not be despised, for it is convenient and may be made palatable. Like the meats, the fish preserved by these methods are slightly less available for digestion. Preserving in oil is made familiar to us by the sardine of Italy in olive oil and the small herring of America in cottonseed oil, which also bears the name of sardine. The latter is less delicate in flavor than the European sardine, but is of course cheaper, and is palatable and of equal food value. Canned fish and shellfish are used in localities where fresh fish are not easily available, and should not be unwholesome if the process is properly inspected. Canned salmon is the most common, and makes an excellent luncheon dish when well prepared (see chapter on salads). Principles of cooking.—The protein in all of these is the chief consideration. The oyster is more delicate when cooked just below the boiling point of water for a brief period only. This is also true of the clam, except the tough membranes which must be chopped. The flesh of both lobster and clam is toughened by cooking, and the process should be short. GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPESGeneral directions.—All fish and shellfish should be thoroughly cleansed in cold water before using, and under running water when possible. Wash oysters, clams, and scallops in a colander or strainer under the faucet. If the oyster or clam liquor is used, put it through a fine strainer. 1. To serve oysters and small clams raw. Arrange on finely chopped ice on a plate, with a piece of lemon in the center. Cut a section of lemon, not a slice. Horse-radish is sometimes served with the raw oyster. Garnish with parsley if you wish. 2. Creamed oysters. Clean oysters of all pieces of shell. Cook them below the boiling point for a few minutes until plump and edges begin to curl. Drain and add to white sauce seasoned with celery salt. Serve on toast, in bread cases, or patty shells. 3. SautÉd oysters. Clean one pint of oysters, sprinkle on both sides with salt and pepper. Lift by the tough muscle with a fork and dip on both sides in cracker crumbs and sautÉ in butter until well browned on both sides. 4. Clam chowder. Proportions.
Clean and pick over clams, separate the hard and soft part of clams and chop the former. Strain clam liquor through cheesecloth. Try out the pork and fry the onion in it until brown and turn into a large kettle. Boil potatoes until tender, drain, and pour potatoes into kettle. Add clams, milk, butter, and crackers broken into small pieces. Let cook three minutes. Just before serving add clam liquor previously heated. Serve in bowls. 5. To prepare lobster and crabs for serving. Make ready a large kettle of rapidly boiling water. Wrap a piece of paper around the lobster or crab, and plunge it head downward into the boiling water. Let the water boil gently for 20 minutes—longer if the lobsters are very large. To open, a strong pair of scissors is the best utensil and sometimes a hammer is necessary for the heavy claws. Pull out the flesh, keeping it as whole as possible. The stomach of the lobster and crab should be taken out and can be recognized near the head. The long intestine should also be removed and is easy to find in the hinderpart by splitting open this part and removing a long white string. The soft green portion is the liver and is eatable. To serve.—(a) Pick apart and serve on lettuce with a French dressing, or (b) Serve hot with melted butter. Meat Substitutes Among these, beans, peas, lentils, eggs, milk, and cheese have already been mentioned. Fish is classed also as a meat substitute. Nuts.—These are a valuable meat substitute, some of them having a good protein content, and a high fat content as well. (See Fig. 66.) They maybe served raw for dessert, with some fruit either fresh or dried, raisins and nuts being a pleasing combination. They should be thoroughly masticated. They are also palatable and possibly more digestible when cooked. The reason that many people consider nuts indigestible is because they eat them between meals, and do not give them a proper place in a meal, eating them when Fig. 66.—Composition of nuts. Almonds are always available in the markets and are so rich in protein and fat that a pound of shelled almonds is equivalent in food value to about three pounds of steak. At usual prices a good grade of almonds is more economical than the ordinary cuts of meat. Chestnuts are a staple food in parts of Italy, and have a delicious flavor in soups, stuffings, and sauces. Our own native chestnuts, boiled and served whole or roasted, make an excellent simple dessert. Hickory nuts, English walnuts, pecan nuts, and filberts are not only palatable in muffins, cake, and yeast bread, but add to the food value in a rational way. Peanuts are rich in oil and protein. They are nearly equal to almonds in food value and are even more economical. Peanuts are too concentrated a food for eating between meals or to be taken after a meal already sufficient, but they may take the place of meat in the meal and peanut butter may be used on bread and in sandwiches without butter. They, too, may be used with cake and cookies. Chopped nuts may be served with a variety of desserts. Remember always that they are to be considered food. 100-Calorie Portions of Shelled Nuts
Teacher’s Note.—When time permits and circumstances make desirable the development of the economic phase of the food work, students may be directed to look up the composition, or the food value per ounce or per pound, of a variety of the foods of whatever group is under study and work out the return in food value for a given expenditure of money. The tables in Rose’s “Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics” will be found especially useful in such work. EXERCISES1. What is the chief food value of fish? 2. Compare the composition of fish and meat. 3. What are the causes influencing the flavor and quality of fish? 4. What precautions may be taken to prevent the spoiling of fish? 5. How may the oyster beds be safeguarded? 6. In what way does the cookery of fish and shellfish resemble that of meat? 7. In what important way does the cookery of fish differ from that of meat? 8. Why is fish cheapest in season? 9. Estimate the cost of 100-Calorie portion of one or two given varieties. 10. What precaution is necessary in opening a lobster? 11. What must a food contain to make a meat substitute? 12. What are the important meat substitutes? 13. In what way should nuts be used in the diet? 14. What are some of the practical ways of using nuts? 15. Price several kinds of nuts and several cuts of meat in the market, then look up the composition of each, remembering that the whole kernel of the nut is eaten, but often only the lean part of the meat. With this in mind calculate the food value actually obtained for a given expenditure in each case. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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