FRUIT AND ITS PRESERVATION The United States is fortunate in the native fruit supply, including as it does so many degrees of latitude and longitude with the differences in altitude, climate, and soil needed by different varieties. Now that we count Porto Rico among our possessions, a list of our fruits would include most of the varieties known in the temperate and semi-tropical zones. The United States Department of Agriculture experiments with new varieties from foreign lands that may make themselves at home in our soil, and work like that of Luther Burbank produces new species. Scientific methods of fruit growing are becoming more common, and the quality of fruit will doubtless improve in spite of fungous diseases and injurious insects. Our wild fruits are not yet entirely rooted out. The Maine blueberry, for example, is found on hundreds of acres and needs no cultivation beyond burning over every third year. Fruit is necessary in our diet, and is not an extravagance unless we buy fancy varieties brought from a distance, or native fruits out of season. Composition and nutritive value.—The chief foodstuffs in fruits are carbohydrates and mineral matter. Fresh fruit contains from 75 to 95 per cent of water, and its presence is apparent in such juicy fruits as the melon and the orange. Figure 25 shows that seemingly dry fruits like the banana and the apple also contain much water. Even fruits which have been artificially dried, like prunes and raisins, contain Fig. 25.—Composition of fruit. Fig. 26.—Composition of fruit. Fig. 27.—100-Calorie portions of fresh and dried fruit. A. Fowler, Photographer.
The digestibility of fruit is increased for some people by cooking. This is probably due to the softening of the fiber, to the destruction of any bacteria present, and in the case of the banana, to the cooking of the starch. Fruit juice can How to buy.—Since we should eat fruit daily, and not merely as a “treat,” it is important to practice economy in buying it. Fresh fruits in season, and dried fruits are the cheapest. Canned fruit is economical when it is a product of one’s own garden, or put up when some fruit has a low market price. Prices are so variable, even with one variety, that no definite sum can be given as a fixed price. Apples vary from fifty cents a bushel near the orchard and in season, to ten cents apiece for a fancy table variety in the winter. When you buy fresh fruit, inquire the prices of the many kinds offered, note which is cheapest, and then observe whether the cheaper kind is such because it is abundant, or because it is of inferior quality. If you chance to want apples for cooking, and the only cheap apples are spotted and bruised, then buy dried apples, or even canned. It is best to decide upon the fruit after you have studied market conditions rather than before. GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPESFresh Fruits Principles of preparation. Thorough cleansing in clear water. Cleanliness, in avoiding use of the fingers. Making convenient for eating, sometimes by paring or cutting or expressing the juices. Adjuncts.—Sugar. The juice of an acid fruit with an insipid fruit. Tools.—A sharp steel knife for paring and peeling. A silver-plated knife for cutting. A glass lemon squeezer. Methods. Berries.—Pick over. Wash in colander with a gentle stream of water, and shake carefully to avoid bruising and breaking. Chill in the refrigerator. Sprinkle with sugar when served. Oranges.—Scrub the peel with a brush. (1) Cut in two crosswise and serve. (2) Peel with a sharp knife and remove the pith. Cut crosswise, remove seeds, and break up the slices. Sprinkle with sugar. Chill in the refrigerator. Grapefruit.—The same method as with the orange, but in method (2) the pulp only should be served. Bananas.—Wash thoroughly. (1) Cut in two lengthwise, and serve, or Pour a teaspoonful of lemon juice on each half, and sprinkle with sugar. Chill in the refrigerator. (2) Pull off the skin, lengthwise. Cut in slices crosswise. Chill, and serve with sugar and cream, or Pour on lemon or orange juice, add sugar, and chill. Peaches.—Wash gently. Hold the peach on a fork at one end. Peel with a plated knife, and slice. Chill in the refrigerator for a short time only before serving, as peaches discolor quickly. Sprinkle with sugar when served. Pears and apples.—When very mellow, these are delicious sliced and served with sugar and cream. Fruit juice.—Cut the fruit in two, and press on the glass squeezer over a cup. Cooked Fruits Principles of cooking. The fiber, and skin when retained, are softened. Flavors are developed at a low temperature long continued. A high temperature at the end of process, browns, and adds flavor. Flavors retained by prevention of evaporation through covering tightly. Bacteria and molds are destroyed. Adjuncts.—Sugar. Sometimes a bit of butter. Acid fruit juices, or An acid jelly. Seeded raisins, with acid fruit, as sour apples. Nutmeg or cinnamon with some fruits. Cooking processes.—Stewing and baking. Utensils.—Knife and corer. Stew pan, enamel ware, close cover. Round or square baking pans, enamel ware, covered. Earthenware pot, covered. Methods.—If you can cook one fruit, you can cook all. Two common fruits are selected for your experiments, the apple and the prune; both are delicious, and both contain iron, the prune more than the apple. The apple.—A tart variety is best for cooking. The Greening and the Baldwin are excellent. Apples are cooked whole, or as a sauce. Whole, cooked with or without the skin, either stewed or baked. For cooking whole, select those of uniform size. For cooking whole, with the skin, select those with fair skins. For cooking whole without skin, select firm texture, not mellow. An apple sauce may consist of slices, or may be mashed or strained, and may be either stewed or baked. Less perfect apples may be used than for baking. First step for all.—Wash, and examine carefully for blemishes, bruises, and insects in the interior. 1. Whole apple baked, with skin. (1) Remove core. (2) Place in pan, with enough water to barely cover the bottom of the pan. (3) Pour sugar into the holes. (4) A bit of butter may be put on the top of the sugar. (5) Nutmeg or cinnamon may be mixed with the sugar if the apples are flat in taste. (6) Cover the pan, and bake in a moderate oven, until the apples are tender. The length of time depends upon the quality of the apple. (See class experiment.) Half apples.—This is a modification of (1). Cut the apples in two crosswise, and proceed as with the whole apple. 2. Whole apples baked, without skin.—A good method when skins are tough. (1) Remove core and pare. (2) Place in earthen baking dish. The remainder of the process is the same. (3) Serve in the dish in which they are baked. (4) Currant jelly, or seeded raisins may be placed in the core holes instead of sugar. Class experiment.—Bake side by side two apples of uniform size, one with, one without, the skin. Note carefully the length of time for baking each. What difference? Why is this? It may be necessary in the school kitchen to bake in a quick oven, on account of the shortness of the class period. It does not spoil the apple to do this; but the longer process that you can use at home gives a richer color and flavor. For this experiment, one pupil may bake the apple without the skin, and the next pupil one with the skin in case there is but one apple apiece; or it may be made a class experiment with two apples. 3. Whole, stewed. (Compote.)—This is a more difficult method than method 2, and really no better. (1) Core and pare five or six apples. (2) Dissolve 1/2 cup sugar in 1/2 pint water in a saucepan. (3) Place apples in the sirup. They should be barely covered. (4) Cover closely and keep just below the boiling point, until the apples are tender. (5) Cool slightly, remove the apples with care and place in the serving dish. Put a spoonful of jelly in each apple. (6) Boil down the sirup and pour it over the apples. (7) Chill, before serving with plain or whipped cream. 4. Apple sauces.—In the cooking of the whole apple you have all the principles and processes of apple cooking. You can now make apple sauce of your own invention, and need If you want the slices of apple to remain whole, will the method be like 1, 2, or 3? If you wish a smooth sauce, what utensil will you need? How will you determine the amount of sugar required? If you are very fond of sugar, your taste may not be the safest guide. Practical home work.—If you can secure a very slow oven, say a coal oven at night, or a gas oven with a low flame, make an apple sauce in an earthenware pot, as heavy as a bean pot, closely covered, leaving the pot in the oven from six to eight hours. This process is satisfactory in a fireless cooker where a hot stone or iron is used. Remember that water keeps down temperature, and also that it evaporates steadily even in a slow oven. How much water will you put over the apples when the process begins? If you have never cooked apples in this way you will be surprised at the color and flavor. Some other fruits.—Pears and quinces develop pleasing flavors when baked. Cook the quinces sliced, as suggested for the apples, in the bean pot, using a little molasses for sweetening and you will have the delicious old-time “molasses quince.” Prunes.—We are dealing now with a dried fruit. If you compare the raisins with the grapes in Fig. 26, you will see how much water is lost in the drying process. The same difference would be evident if you had pictures of a fresh plum and a prune, side by side. This water must be supplied in the process of preparation. The best way to accomplish this is by soaking the prunes many hours, say over night. Prunes have a most undeserved reputation, because they are not well cooked, and at some tables are served too often. With this one new step introduced you may plan the cooking of the prunes, from what you know of apple sauce. The slower and longer the process, the better. The cheaper kinds of prunes will be very satisfactory, with the soaking and slow cooking. What is the sensible thing to do in regard to sugar? If on some occasion you would like prunes to be unusually nice, remove the stones carefully, and in their places slip in seeded raisins which have also been soaked and gently stewed. Other dried fruits may be treated in the same way. Apricots and peaches yield delightful flavors when carefully prepared; and dried apples are also excellent. The preservation of fruit and other foods has been a household industry for generations, and it is now an important commercial industry. The old-time farm had its smokehouse where hams and beef were “cured,” the barrel of brine stood in the cellar for pork and corned beef, apples and corn were dried for winter use, and rows of preserve jars stood upon the shelves. Food was preserved by simple processes long before the reason for the decay and spoiling of food was fully understood, but with larger knowledge and better appliances, we now preserve food more effectively and in quantities larger than were possible in former days. Fruit is the food material now most commonly preserved in the home kitchen. Vegetables need to be subjected to heat for a much longer time than fruit, and many people prefer to buy canned vegetables rather than to go to the trouble and expense of canning them at home. Where there is an oversupply of vegetables in the home garden, it is sometimes economy to can them, and this may be done if care is exercised. The cost of fuel and labor must be counted in, when studying the question of home preserving versus buying the canned product. Whatever the food material, and the process, the principles of preservation are the same for all. Why does food spoil?—The decay and moldiness of fresh fruit are matters of common observation; and the housekeeper knows that mold is liable to cover the top of a jelly glass, and that a can of fruit will ferment at times, even to the point of bursting the can. We recognize another kind of deterioration in meat and fish that have become tainted, even when no mold is visible, and there is no opportunity for ordinary fermentation. The microscope has given us eyes to see, and as a result of the patient work of the scientist with this instrument we now know that the difficulties in keeping food are caused by the presence of minute vegetable organisms known as molds, yeasts, and bacteria. It is impossible in some cases to draw a sharp line between these different forms of lower life, yet we are able to distinguish them sufficiently for practical purposes. Fig. 28.—Three species of mold. Buchanan’s Household Bacteriology. Masses of mold that can be seen with the naked eye are distinguished by a feathery appearance and bright color. Figure 28 shows three species of the green mold that affects jam and jellies. Other species are found in Roquefort and Camembert cheese, and give the flavors characteristic in these cheeses. The presence of yeast can be detected by its action, but it cannot itself be seen without the microscope. When canned fruit or homemade fruit juice “works,” yeasts cells are Fig. 29.—One form of yeast. Buchanan’s Household Bacteriology Fig. 30.—A yeast cell. a, cell wall. b, vacuole. c, granules. d, nucleus. e and e, buds. Buchanan’s Household Bacteriology. Fig. 31.—The four types of bacterial cells. A, cocci. B, bacilli. C, spirilÍa. D, branched filamentous organism. Buchanan’s Household Bacteriology. The bacteria are also one-celled microÖrganisms, smaller than the yeast. Figure 31 shows the four types of bacterial cells. Their size is measured by the unit used in the microscope, called the micron, which is about 1/25000 of one inch. Bacteria may measure from one to three or four of these microns in length. Some bacteria are reproduced by means of spores which form within the cell. Bacteria, as they develop in some material, produce substances from the material that may or may not be injurious to us. One important truth about the bacteria is this: that many of them are harmless, and may even be made useful, as in the manufacture of fruit vinegar. The pleasant acid of buttermilk and of sour milk is due also to bacteria which are not harmful to us. However, there may be disease producing bacteria present in milk that is not clean, and their presence must not be tolerated. Other bacteria, developing It is evident, therefore, that the problem before us is the control of these lower organisms, that we may increase or destroy them as we will. The control of microÖrganisms.—With warmth, water, and food all living things flourish and grow; most organisms require air, but some of the microÖrganisms do not. Where these conditions are best met, the organism is most active and multiplies most rapidly. To retard growth or to destroy life, the conditions must be the reverse of favorable. While warmth, say a temperature from 70° to 90° F., promotes the life of most microÖrganisms, intense heat destroys it. The boiling temperature, 212° F., will kill these lower organisms, although this heat has to be continued for some length of time, particularly in the case of spores. The spores of certain bacteria are quite resistant. A temperature of 32° F. and lower retards growth, but it requires extreme cold to destroy bacteria. Since moisture is necessary to all the lower organisms, they do not develop in a dry material or dry place. We cannot destroy these lower forms of life by removing food from them, since they are ever present, but we can make the food unavailable to them through the introduction in the material of certain substances called preservatives which prevent their growth. The preservatives long familiar are salt, sugar, wood-smoke, spices, vinegar, and alcohol. While a small amount of sugar is necessary in the fermentation process, a large amount acts as a preservative, as in candied fruit. It is an interesting fact that alcohol and vinegar, products of fermentation processes, tend (when To the reader who desires a fuller account of the bacteria, yeast, and molds, especially as related to household affairs, Buchanan’s “Household Bacteriology” is recommended as the most recent and satisfactory book in this field. A word about buying canned goods.—When canned goods are put up in large quantities at the factory, abuses are likely to exist. Poor, even decayed, fruit may be used, the whole process may be unclean from beginning to end, and undesirable preservatives or an excess of sugar or spice may be introduced to cover the use of poor materials or methods. The condition of the worker in the cannery is one of the important industrial problems at the present time. Unhappily, poor conditions do often exist in canneries that turn out a cheap product. On the other hand, there are firms that may well take pride in their system from beginning to end. Serving canned food.—All canned food should be exposed to the air for a short time before serving, and stirred that the material may be aerated. This partially removes a certain flatness of taste. Canned fruit is improved by reheating, even. When possible, vegetables bought in a tin can should be washed in the colander before they are heated. This greatly improves the flavor. Principles of preservation. Sterilization of food and all apparatus by the boiling temperature, 212° F. The removal of moisture by some drying process. The addition of a preservative. Sealing, to prevent the entrance of air. Practical methods. Canning.—Fruit or vegetables sterilized at 212° F. and tightly sealed in jars or cans. Preserving.—Whole fruit, sterilized, large amount of sugar added, and sealed or covered in jars. Jam making.—Fruit broken up, sterilized, sugar added, and covered. Jelly making.—Fruit juices, sterilized, sugar added, covered. Pickling.—Fruit and vegetables sterilized, vinegar, spices, and sugar the preservatives used. Drying.—Fruits and vegetables protected from dust and insects, and slowly dried by the sun’s heat or artificial heat. Fig. 32.—Preserving kettles in a large factory. Courtesy of H. J. Heinz Co. Apparatus.—Scales. Quart measure. A preserving kettle of good enamel ware. Plated knives. Large spoon of enamel or wood. Tablespoon and table fork. Pint and quart cans with glass tops fastened by springs. New rubber rings. Jelly glasses with GENERAL METHODS AND RECIPES General directions.—Thoroughly wash all the utensils, just before using. Sterilize the cans and glasses by placing them in a large kettle or boiler on the stove, covering them with cold water, and allowing the water to reach the boiling point and to boil for half an hour. Covers and rubber rings should be treated in the same way. Fig. 33.—Picking over strawberries. Courtesy of H. J. Heinz Co. Prepare the fruit by careful washing, picking over, paring and cutting. The skins may be loosened on peaches and tomatoes by pouring hot water over them. Weigh both fruit and sugar, or measure if no scales are available. See that the cooking apparatus is in good order, that the proper heat may be continued. Avoid rapid boiling of the fruit. Place the cans when they are to be filled with hot fruit upon a towel wet in very hot water, or in a pan holding an inch or so of hot water. Never hold the can or glass in the hand. Use a dipper for putting cooked fruit into the can. A funnel is useful placed in the mouth of the jar. Put whole fruit and halves compactly in the jar, using tablespoon and fork, or two tablespoons. It requires practice to do this well. See that all air bubbles are removed, and fill the cans to overflowing, before putting on the glass tops and fastening on the spring. Wipe off the jars, carefully, and stand them on their tops for a day in order to test the tightness of the rubbers and the fastening. After filling jelly glasses, set them at one side, and cover them all with a piece of cheesecloth, until the jelly becomes firm. Then pour melted paraffin upon the jelly in each glass, and when the paraffin is cooled, put the covers on firmly. Label the jars with the name of the fruit and the date of the preserving before putting them away. Canning. Method 1.—Material cooked before it is put into the can. This is a good method for berries, and for fruit that will be served as a sauce. Proceed in the preparation and finishing according to the general directions. Cook the fruit gently for half an hour. Use as little water as possible. No sugar is required in the canning process, but the flavor is better if a small amount is used in the beginning, a half cup of sugar to a pound of fruit. Method 2.—Material cooked in the can. This is the better method for whole fruit and halves. Select firm, well-shaped fruit for this method, rejecting the mellow and soft fruit. Pack the cans tightly with the fruit, and pour in hot water with sugar dissolved in it, a half cup to the quart can. More sugar can be used, if so desired. Set the jars in a boiler on a rack, and surround them with warm water, to a height that will not allow the water to boil into the cans. Set the cover on each jar, but do not fasten them. Cover the boiler closely, bring the water to a boil, and allow it to boil for an hour. At the end of this time, test the fruit for tenderness with a fork, pour in more sirup if it is necessary. Remove the jars when the water has cooled sufficiently, and adjust the covers. Cold This is a good method also for the canning of whole vegetables like peas and asparagus. The cooking of vegetables should continue for at least two hours, and three hours are better for peas and string beans. Apparatus is constructed for this method of canning, but the ordinary boiler answers the purpose. Preserving. A good method for peaches, apricots, and quinces. Select firm and handsome fruit and prepare it carefully. Allow a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit. (What is the measure of a pound of sugar?) Place enough water in the kettle to cover the fruit, dissolve the sugar in the water, put the fruit into the kettle, and cook very gently until the fruit becomes a clear color. Rapid boiling spoils the shape of the fruit. Do not stir at all, but skim off any scum that rises to the top. When the fruit is done, put it with great care into the jars. If the sirup is thin, boil it down for a short time, and then fill the jar. Close the jar as in canning. This is a difficult process for beginners. Jam making, and fruit butter. This is the most economical of the preserving processes and the easiest for the novice. It is nothing more than a fruit sauce, with a larger amount of sugar than usual to assist in its preservation. Soft and somewhat imperfect fruit may be used. If in the basket of fruit bought for canning or preserving there are some fully ripe or poorly shaped specimens, these may be used for jam. For jam proper allow a pint of sugar to a pound of fruit. Cook the fruit with enough water to prevent its sticking to the kettle, using as little as possible. Mash the fruit by stirring it occasionally as it cooks. When the fruit is soft, add the sugar, stir thoroughly, and cook gently for about five minutes. Test by cooling a spoonful on a saucer. The jam should thicken slightly. When ready, pour it into jelly glasses, or somewhat larger earthen jars—“jam pots.” Seal, as directed for jelly. The fruit butter is even more like fruit sauce than is the jam, for it is softer than jam, and contains less sugar. A cup or only a half Apple butter may be flavored with spices, with ginger root and lemon juice, and with other fruits. One or two quinces or a slice of pineapple cooked with the apples gives a pleasing variety. Exercise the inventive faculty here. Jelly making. There is another principle involved in jelly making in addition to the principle of preservation. Fruit contains a substance known as pectose, one of the carbohydrates, that partially solidifies the fruit juice when the water in the juice is partially evaporated. The addition of sugar helps in this process, but no amount of sugar will set the jelly if the pectose is not present. Some fruits have more than others, and also more when not over-ripe. Currants and firm apples are good jelly makers, and serve as a basis for other fruits that do not jelly well. Mellow summer apples do not set well. Crab apples are excellent for this purpose. There is another step in this process, the straining out of the juice from the pulp. For this, prepare a jelly bag from firm cotton cloth which has been boiled and washed. This bag must be hung in such a way that the juice drops from the point of the bag into a bowl below. It may be hung upon a stick between two chairs, or upon the rod of a strong towel rack over a table. 1. Apple jelly. Select tart, red-skinned apples, cut them in small pieces with the skins on, retain the cores, and put them in a kettle with cold water to barely cover. When thoroughly cooked and mashed, put this pulp into the jelly bag, and allow the juice to drip as long as it will. Do not squeeze the bag, nor stir the pulp if you wish clear jelly. This dripping process is a matter of hours, and in the home kitchen may continue all night. Allow a pint of sugar to a pint of juice. Return the juice to the kettle, and allow it to simmer for twenty-five minutes or half an hour, skimming when necessary. In the meantime, heat the sugar, being careful not to melt or burn it. Stir the sugar gently into the juice, and boil five minutes. Test a little upon a saucer. It should show signs of jellying as it cools. Boil longer, if necessary. Finish as directed. Jelly often does not set until twenty-four hours have elapsed. 2. Currant jelly. The method is the same as with apple jelly. It is not necessary to remove the currants from the stem. Heat just long enough before the straining to make the juices flow well. Very agreeable flavors are secured by the combining of two or more fruits in a jelly; quince and pineapple with apple;—a leaf of rose geranium or lemon verbena in a glass of apple jelly; raspberry with currant. White apple jelly may be flavored with mint leaves, and used in place of mint sauce with meat. Pickling. Pickles are not desirable in the diet. If acid is craved, it is much wiser to secure it by fresh fruits, and by the use of lemon juice. Drying. This process should not be discarded if there is a supply of fruit in the orchard or garden. Place thinly sliced apples and peaches upon plates or trays, protect by clean cheesecloth, and dry in the sun. The color may be dark, but the flavor is excellent. Laboratory management.—The fruit selected for use in the school kitchen depends upon the time of year. The autumn is the season for preserving, but some fruit is available at any time of year: in the winter, apple and peach butter from the dried fruit; in the spring rhubarb jam or jelly; in the late spring or early summer, strawberry jam. If the school program and the equipment permit the serving of meals by the class, fruit may be preserved in the fall for these occasions. EXERCISES1. Explain the value of fruit in the diet. 2. Why is cooked fruit sometimes better than raw? 3. Inquire the price of fresh fruit in the market, and compute the cost of a 100-Calorie portion of two of the most common and cheapest. 4. The same with one or two of the dried fruits. 5. What are the important points in the preparation of fresh fruit for the table? 6. What changes are effected in baking an apple? 7. What are the principles of the preservation of food? 8. What is meant by a preservative? 9. What is meant by sterilization? 10. What is mold? Decay? Fermentation? 11. What are the important points in canning? 12. What is the difference between canned fruit and “preserves”? 13. How does jelly making differ from the other processes? 14. What is one of the most important points in cooking dried fruits? 15. Find the cost of a can of peaches at the grocery. Weigh the contents and count the peaches. Compare with the cost of an equal amount of home-canned peaches. What points in the problem must be taken into account? 16. The same problem with jelly bought at the grocery and made at home. 17. Work out the problem of estimating the comparative cost of canned peaches and dried peaches, when calculated to the same food value. |