THE PLEASANT VALLEY GIRLS LEARN TO CARE FOR THEIR CLOTHES AND TO HELP REPAIR THE HOUSEHOLD LINEN.
Have you ever noticed that some houses where you visit are always neat and look well cared for, and that the towels and table linen are carefully darned or patched? Have you seen what a difference there is in the appearance of the people who do not care for their houses and clothing, and those who do? The latter are apt to wear neat-looking shirt waists, to patch the worn places and darn the holes before they are too large, and to sew on the buttons before they are lost. The little word C-A-R-E is responsible for the difference. Have you learned to help at home to repair and care for the clothing and household linens? "A stitch in time saves nine." It often saves money and time, too. Do you know why? Learn how. The Pleasant Valley girls learned to darn and patch and occasionally Miss James had a "repair day," when all were permitted to bring their mending. Can you do this at your school?
Lesson 1
CARE OF CLOTHES
What are some of the things to learn in order to care for one's clothes?
Fig. 94.—Ethel Allen remembers about the lesson on neatness. She is removing a spot.
Marjorie Allen's Cousin Ann, who lives at Paterson, New Jersey, spends her summer vacation with Marjorie at Pleasant Valley. Marjorie knows that she earns ten dollars a week at the office and pays all her own expenses. She always looks very neat and well dressed. What is the secret? She has learned how to spend wisely and how to care for her clothing. She learned much of this at school, and experience has taught her how to manage. Suppose we learn, too, so as to be able to care for our clothes. Here are some of the things Marjorie's cousin learned:
1. That clothes, if well brushed, look better.
2. A well-pressed suit or skirt lasts longer and looks neater.
3. Stains or spots spoil one's neat appearance and look careless.
4. A patch or a darn is no disgrace. They make one feel more self-respecting than holes or tears. They help to increase the life of a garment, too, if taken in time.
5. That being careful each day saves much time; a little care is worth while.
Let us study to-day how to do some of these things. Perhaps we can clean our school coats or some wool garments brought from home.
Brushing clothes. Many people who live in large cities do not have gardens and yards where they can hang their clothes and brush them. Often brushing and cleaning must be done on the roofs of houses. How glad we should be for space and a chance to keep clean. The Pleasant Valley girls have studied about this. Do you know that it costs to keep clean? It takes time and energy and much thought. People who live in the country can keep clean more easily than city people. This is a good way to air and brush your cloth garments: Hang them on the line, and beat with a clothes beater. Turn the cuffs or collars and pockets inside out if possible. Brush with a whisk brush carefully all over. Shake free from dust and let them hang in the sunshine. They will smell sweet and clean.
Pressing suits and skirts. A suit or skirt which is kept well pressed has a neater appearance and keeps its shape for a longer time. Tailors do this work; but one can learn to do it at home, if no tailor is near, and can save the money, too, if one has the time. It is a good general rule to press on the wrong side unless one is using the steaming process. Then, one presses on the right side, over dampened cloth. Wring the cloth, place over a portion of the garment, and press with hot irons until nearly dry. After steaming the garment all over on the right side, turn to the wrong side and press dry. Woolen goods will mark or shine if pressed on the right side without a cloth. This pressing will add to the life of a suit. Good press boards, tailors' cushions, and sleeve boards help very much if one has them.
It is always wise to examine clothes before pressing and to remove any spots which have accumulated. Grease, milk, oil, sugar are common spots which girls are apt to get on their woolen clothing. The Pleasant Valley girls studied how to remove these.
Removing stains and spots. Woolen goods which are soiled and badly spotted can be cleaned by washing in warm water with soap solution or soap bark. Here are some recipes for making soap solution or soap bark:
Soap Solution. Simmer (do not boil) one cake of white soap in two or three quarts of water.
Soap Bark. 1 cup of soap bark or powder in three or four quarts of water. Let it stand two hours. Strain and pour into the lukewarm water in which the material is to be washed. Why is lukewarm water used? Wash and rinse carefully. Always use water of same temperature for rinsing. What would the shock of cold water do? Bath temperature is about right.
All woolen garments should be washed and rinsed carefully in lukewarm water only. Some day we shall try at school. Good pure white soap is best for woolens. Why do woolens shrink in hot water? Why are they difficult to cleanse?
Let us examine the school coats to see if we can find grease. As a rule grease spots can be removed by washing with soap solution and lukewarm water. Wagon grease can be removed with lard; then wash in warm water. Grease may also be removed by dry cleaning, or chemical cleaning as it is called. The cleaning liquid may be benzine or ether. This is a warning: D-A-N-G-E-R. These must not be used near fire or an explosion will occur. A bad accident occurred at Pleasant Valley in just this way when Mrs. Leroy was cleaning her white gloves. Rub the spot on the wool garment with a cloth or sponge wet with benzine. The grease or fat spreads when dissolved; a piece of blotting paper under will help to absorb some of the grease. Care must be taken to use fresh benzine as each rub removes some of the fat, which will spread if rubbed in again. It is usually wise to use as a sponge a piece of the same material. Rub towards the center so as to avoid a ring. The spot cleaned will usually be lighter than the rest of the garment, which is apt to be soiled. Sometimes by rubbing the surface near the spot all over, the ring will not be noticeable. Another way to remove grease is to try a warm iron and a blotting paper. Place paper on right side, iron on the wrong side of the cloth. This will remove some grease spots, as the blotter absorbs it.
Marjorie Allen discovered that sugar spots can be removed with warm water. Dip cloth in water and wash thoroughly and rinse before pressing. What does the warm water do to the sugar?
Milk spots can be removed from some materials with cold water and pure white soap. Why cold?
Machine oil spots can be removed by washing in cold water and pure white soap. This will remove most machine oil spots. Barbara Oakes got some oil on her nightdress while making it, and removed the oil easily in this way.
Courtesy of Miss Alice Blair.
Fig. 95.—Which way do you arrange clothes in your closet?
These simple rules will help every girl to be neat. Let us see how many garments you can clean at home after you have learned to brush, clean, and press one at school.
Protecting clothes. Marjorie's cousin takes good care of her clothing while it is in use. When she works about the house she always wears an apron. Do you? This saves a great deal. You know how to make some attractive ones.
Fig. 96.—A useful cover to protect your best dress.
When she removes her clothing it is not thrown in a heap, but is hung up on skirt or coat hangers. They are very cheap or one can make them. Barrel staves or even rolls of newspaper, rolled securely and covered may be used as coat hangers, a cord or ribbon may be tied at the center. Nails between two points in a closet will keep the bands of skirts extended, when loops are sewed to the bands. Marjorie's cousin always airs her clothes at night (Fig. 56), and when necessary washes her shields and hangs them up to dry. Many girls do not realize how necessary this is. The odor of perspiration is not neat and is offensive to others. If one washes one's self carefully with warm water in which borax has been dissolved this odor will not be noticeable. Marjorie noticed that her cousin has covers over her good clothes (Fig. 96). This saves a great deal. Also she is particular about sewing buttons on her shoes, and braid on her skirt when it is torn. She also washes the yokes of her dresses and sometimes her own shirt waists. She is going to teach Marjorie to do this. Some day we shall learn at school. Do you know that Marjorie discovered that the people at the summer boarding houses near have difficulty in having their dainty shirt waists carefully laundered. She is going to practice during the winter and next summer she will earn some money in that way. It is a good idea. Perhaps some day she may have a laundry of her own, if she is a good manager and can have help to work with her.
Fig. 97.—Cousin Ann thinks about these things.
Cousin Ann told Marjorie that each winter she is particular about buying a pair of rubbers. She finds they save her shoes because they prevent the dampness and wet from rotting the thread of the shoes. She is particular about having her heels straight. Cousin Ann believes that many girls lose good positions because they are not clean and neat about their personal appearance. Run over heels are not neat. Ann is careful about having her shoes resoled when necessary, and so lengthens their life. She wears an old pair of shoes on rainy days with her rubbers. Ann knows that wet feet are dangerous. One may not feel the results at once, but sometime the effect on health will be felt.
Next lesson let us learn how to keep our clothing darned. You may bring any garment or towel or other piece of household linen which has a tear, and we shall learn to darn it.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Carry some of your clothes to the back yard. Brush them, and hang them in the sunshine.
2. Try at home to press your wool skirt. Steam it; it is not difficult to do.
3. Do you know of any other way besides those Cousin Ann tried, of keeping your clothes clean so as to prevent them from getting spotted?
4. Do you not think that knowing how to launder shirt waists carefully would be a good way to earn money when the summer boarders come to your town?
Lesson 2
LEARNING TO DARN STRAIGHT TEARS
What threads of the cloth are torn, in a square tear? in a straight tear? How can we replace these threads and prevent the article from tearing further?
Fig. 98.—These tears run in different directions. Which kind of a tear will you have to darn in your dress?
There is always a collection of garments needing repairs in any home where there are boys and girls. What a help it will be to mother to have some one who can darn some of the tears. Mrs. Alden was very glad that Florence was learning to darn, for she has so many things to patch and darn for her family. How many different kinds of tears have been brought to-day? Yes, here is a straight tear on this napkin; yes, two straight tears. Who can tell which threads have been torn in this first tear? Find the selvedge; the tear runs across the selvedge. In the second straight tear, the tear runs up and down with the selvedge, or warp. Which threads have been torn? Here is a garment with a square corner tear. John Alden tore his overalls climbing over the barbed wire fence. In this tear which threads have been torn? So we see that in some tears, the warp is torn; in others, the filling threads; and in others, like the square tear, both warp and filling threads. Now darning means putting back the threads which have been worn or torn away. Miss James told her class it is very useful to keep some black and white wash net in the mending basket. A little piece basted under the worn or torn place to be darned is a great help; for it reËnforces the weak place and makes it last longer. It is put on the wrong side of the article to be darned. The picture (Fig. 98) shows two straight tears: a slanting one, and also a square corner tear. Everyone knows how to make the running stitch. Darning is fine running. Begin without a knot and a little beyond the tear for strength. Fill in the missing thread with rows of stitches close together. The stitches should extend far enough each side of the tear to take in the worn part also. In turning at the end of each row, leave a tiny loop. Why? Do not leave a very large one, but simply one large enough to allow for stretching and pulling in washing. In passing over the threads at the torn place, try to make the stitches hold down the threads. In finishing extend the rows beyond the tear as at the beginning. Either a warp or woof straight tear is mended in this way. A square tear is a combination of the two. At the corner there will then be both warp and filling threads and a double darn like a weave. Can you see from the picture how this will look? The thread should match as nearly as possible. Sometimes horsehair or human hair makes a good darning thread when one does not wish the darn to show, or split silk thread or No. 150 cotton. Ravelings of the same cloth are sometimes used. The size of the needle will depend on the fineness of the cloth to be darned. No. 8 is right for ordinary darning.
Where can you use this darn? Is it the same as stocking darn? Next lesson every one is to bring from home a stocking, white, brown, or black. Can you mend one at school to surprise mother or father or brother? The Pleasant Valley girls did. Mr. Allen said Marjorie darned his socks so well that he couldn't even feel the darn when he walked!
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Show mother how you can mend a straight tear by mending one for her at home. Perhaps there is a straight tear in her dress, or in a towel or napkin.
2. Why is it worth while to mend it?
Lesson 3
DARNING STOCKINGS
We all have stockings to darn each week as they come from the laundry. Do you mend the small holes at once, or let them grow larger?
It is always a saving of time and energy to take care of the small holes; small ones grow to be larger ones if one is not careful. It pays to mend at once. We will learn how to mend stockings.
Courtesy of H. Brinton Co.
Fig. 99.—The knitting machine. Caps, stockings, and underwear are made on similar machines.
Stocking darning differs from darning the straight or the square tear, because, as a rule, there is a hole in the stocking. The stocking material is worn away, and it is necessary to replace it with a small piece of weaving over and under of warp and filling. A patch or extra piece of material might be placed under the hole, but that would be uncomfortable; so a woven piece is put in. The stocking is made of knitted material called stockinet, not of woven cloth. How do they differ? Can you think of other articles of clothing made of knitted material? Yes, mittens, sweaters, caps, underwear. Have you ever seen a knitting machine? Here is a picture (Fig. 99) of one showing how the stocking is knitted in the factory to-day on the knitting machines. In weaving there are two threads. What are they? In knitting there is only one thread; just like grandmother's knitting of the stocking round and round as the tiny loops are formed. Have you ever torn your stocking in a loop and had it run right down the whole leg of the stocking? Barbara Oakes had this experience. That shows how the tiny loops are made. If one catches the loop, the raveling is prevented.
This is how we shall darn our stockings. Use single or double darning thread, according to the fineness of the stocking, and a darning needle. Can you thread the big eye by doubling the end of the thread?
Begin on the wrong side without a knot, about ¼ of an inch to the right of the hole. The stitches are the same fine running as for other darning, and the rows made close together. Look at the picture (Fig. 100). The darn is about diamond shape when finished. Why? This prevents the strain from coming on any one row of loops. A tiny loop is left at each row in turning, as stockinet is a stretchy material. This darning should run the same way as the loops, up and down the material. Care must be taken at the hole. If possible, pass the needle through the loop at the edge of the hole and extend the thread across the hole to the loop opposite, and continue with the darning stitch. When the warp is all in, there will be rows of threads close together extending across the hole. In fine darning or when one is darning sweaters or gloves, all the loops at the edge of the hole should be carefully caught. For everyday stocking darning, one does not have time to stop for every loop at the edge of the hole.
Fig. 100.—A, the wrong side of the stocking darn putting in the first set of threads; B, weaving in the second thread.
As we said above, the hole is to be filled in with a piece of woven material which we are making. The warp (Fig. 100 A) has all been put in; then we must go over part of the darn and fill in the cross threads, which are woven over and under the warp threads which have been put in at the hole. The running stitch is used. The sketch (Fig. 100 B) shows the portion of the darn to be covered with the running stitches, and just where the weaving is to be done. You will notice that the first row of crosswise running stitches is placed a little below the hole, and the last row extends a little above. Why? At the hole one must go over and under the warp, alternately, as one does in weaving. This is all done with one thread which is carried in fine running stitches to the hole, then passes over and under the warp threads, and continues with running stitches at the other side of darn; turns with a tiny loop, continues with running, and again passes over and under the warp alternately. This is continued until the darn is completed.
Sometimes there are tiny rips in the seams of stockings. They can be overhanded carefully on the wrong side, taking up only the very edges of the seam so as not to make a ridge. If the long ladders which sometimes come in stockings are not too wide, they can be overhanded together on the wrong side; or, if one has time, they can be darned as a hole. As a rule this is a waste of time. A worn place near a hole should be included in a darn, or where several small holes are close together, darn in one large darn.
What kind of stockings do you buy? Marjorie's Cousin Ann says it does not pay her to buy very cheap stockings, at 15 cents a pair, or very thin ones either. She has discovered that if she pays 25 cents a pair or a dollar for three pairs of a good make, and cares for them, watching when the tiny holes appear, that she can make six pairs last a whole year. Ann says that the girls who buy the very thin transparent stockings are buying stockings all the time; and then, too, they are often ridiculed by others. One is not well dressed when one is conspicuous and when one's clothing is noticed and criticized in such a way.
Next lesson you may bring a stocking which has been darned at home. Credit will be given for this. Do you think you can darn one all alone? It is not difficult if one follows carefully the description above. You may also bring a linen towel or napkin or tablecloth which has a hole. We shall learn how to patch the holes. The Pleasant Valley pupils had a darning contest. Mrs. Allen was invited to be the judge. Who do you suppose made the best-looking stocking darn? Mollie Stark won.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Darn one of father's socks or baby sister's stocking or any other you can at home. Surprise mother by showing her how well you can darn, after your school practice.
Lesson 4
PATCHING SAVES CLOTHING AND OTHER ARTICLES
Some holes are too large to darn; they are, then, repaired with a patch. Would you like to learn how to patch?
Fig. 101.—The patch as it should look on the wrong side in process of hemming.
How to make the hemmed patch. A patch is a piece of cloth cut larger than the worn hole and used to cover the hole. The hemmed patch is the simplest and most useful. It is sewed with the hemming stitch and so called the hemmed patch because all the rough edges of the patch are turned under and hemmed flat. This kind of patch is used on garments or household articles which are to be laundered. It is a good one for towels, napkins, or tablecloths, and for underwear. Perhaps you have some tablecloths, napkins, and towels which have been brought to patch to-day. Miss James brought some for her class. For patches some girls brought pieces as nearly like the towels and napkins which they brought as possible. It is better to patch with material which has been used, than with new material. Why? The hemmed patch is always put on the wrong side. Cut a square or oblong piece which will cover the hole, and extend beyond the worn part. Allow ¼ inch extra all around for turnings. Crease this patch diagonally. Find the center of the hole of the worn article. Crease it in diagonal lines for a square or oblong, according to shape of place to be patched. Pin patch on wrong side so that diagonal creases of patch fall on diagonal creases of the article. Turn to right side. Cut the hole, removing all frayed edges until it is a true square or oblong, measuring from the center where diagonal creases cross. After cutting, make a tiny slanting cut from 1/8 to ¼ inch at each corner on the diagonal creases of the article, and turn under these cut edges. Pin and baste carefully. Turn to wrong side. Hold to light to see if the patch is the same width on all sides of the hole. Trim if necessary. Remove pins, flatten, turn edges of the patch by opposites, and baste. The hemming stitch is then used on both the right and wrong sides of the patch to hold the edges. This patch is laundered flat and neat. For next lesson we shall study about the table linen and towels. We know that some of them are linen. Where does linen come from? Do you know whether it is a plant or an animal? There are several reference books on the shelf. See how much you can discover about this secret.
Fig. 102.—Hemming the patch in place, on the right side.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Practice making a hemmed patch at home. Mother will surely have a tablecloth or an undergarment or an apron which needs a patch. Try to keep the patch very flat.
2. See how much you can learn about linen before next lesson.
Lesson 5
THE STORY OF HOW LINEN IS GROWN
What is the story of our linen materials?
Where do they come from? Would you like to know?
Mollie's Stark's Uncle John has just come to Pleasant Valley. He is her father's brother and has been in the linen business in Ireland. He told the Girls' League the other evening about flax and about how it is made into cloth. This is the story he told. It has also been printed in the "Pleasant Valley News." Have you read it?
Where does flax grow? Ireland is a cool country, and flax is a plant which grows well in cool places. Cotton, we have learned, is grown in warm countries. Do you know that Russia produces about half of the world's supply of flax? Find your map of Europe, and see if you can locate all these countries. The Russian flax is rather inferior in quality. Ireland and Belgium produce the best quality of fiber. Flax is also grown in Holland and France, and in Egypt and Italy. The United States grows some flax; but it is a rather coarse fiber used for crash and for bagging. The United States grows very little flax and only for the coarser purposes. This is for the reason that labor is very expensive; and flax, like silk, needs much care if weeded and grown for fiber. The care of the worms makes silk expensive. Flax grown for seed or coarse purposes does not require so much care.
Fig 103.—The flax plant grows 20 to 40 inches in height.
What is the flax plant? Perhaps your teacher will buy some flax seed which you can plant in the school garden. The Pleasant Valley girls did, and it grew quite tall. Then you can really see how the growing plant looks. Your teacher will have some dry flax to show you. Do you know how a waving field of wheat or oats looks? Flax is planted thickly when it is grown for its fiber. It comes up straight like the wheat and does not branch. When it is planted for its seed, it is not planted so thickly because it must have more room to branch and bear seed. Flaxseed is used for many purposes. Flaxseed, or linseed, oil is used for paints and varnishes, and even for food, in some countries. Like cotton seed, the dry cake, or meal, left is a valuable food for cattle. Has mother ever used the oil or the meal for anything at home?
The flax plant as it grows is from 20 to 40 inches in height. It has lovely little blue flowers on the stems which branch at the top. Uncle John knew a little girl at Pleasant Valley who thought the flax came from the little brown seed pods on top, just as the cotton comes from the seed pod, or boll. It does not; for the flax fiber is the part of the long stem which grows just inside of the outside woody portion. So, you see flax fibers can be from 20 to 40 inches long, according to the height of the plant. The wonderful part of the story is how the fibers are removed from the long stems.
How is flax grown? Flax requires much hand labor in its care while growing. The women and children in Europe weed it and care for it, on their hands and knees. When it is full grown and the flowers have come and gone, the tiny seed pods grow where the flowers have fallen, just like the seed pods your peonies or poppies grow. Before the seeds are quite ripe, and while the stalks are brownish yellow, the flax is ready to be pulled. It is not cut like wheat with the reaper and gathered into bundles, but must be pulled up by the roots. This is done in clear weather, by hand. The pulled flax is laid on the ground with the roots together and the stalks parallel. The stalks are then bound something like the wheat, and stacked in stooks. You have often seen oats or wheat so stacked.
Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture.
Fig. 104.—The stooks of flax.
Courtesy of Speyer School, New York.
Fig. 105.—This little girl is rippling flax by hand at school. Can you see the seeds?
Courtesy of Woolman & McGowan, Textiles.
Fig. 106.—Flax retting at Courtrai, Belgium.
What is rippling and retting flax? The next process is to remove all the seeds without injuring the long fibers. The machine for this looks like a comb made of iron teeth set in a wooden frame. This frame is placed on a cloth so as to collect all the seed as it falls. This is called rippling, and is done in the fields. The seed pods are drawn across the teeth which remove the seeds. Then the flax is bound in bundles for the next process, which is retting. This is really the most important part of all, for it means rotting the outside woody portion of the stem so as to get the flax fiber. This woody portion is of no value. The flax is sometimes retted by dew; just left on the ground at night. You know how wet the grass can be early in the morning. So the dew, rain, air, and sunshine decompose the outside woody bark. This is a very slow process. More often flax is retted in water. The bundles are placed in crates or boxes, and left for about two weeks under water. If you grow some flax, you can ret it also and remove the fiber. Do you know what takes place when the woody part decomposes? It is called fermentation. What have you learned about fermentation? (See Food and Health.) After retting, the flax is spread to dry in the fields and is then ready for the next process, called breaking. Just think of how many things have been done to the fibers of our linen towels and napkins and dresses, which we use every day. Jane Smith said she never realized before how many hands prepare our clothing and other materials.
Courtesy of Speyer School, New York.
Fig. 107.—Flax breaking done by hand.
What is meant by breaking flax? Breaking means removing the dry wood portion which has been decomposed by the retting. This is sometimes done by means of a hand break. In the picture (Fig. 107) you will see a little girl of Pleasant Valley breaking flax by hand. Sometimes the woody part is broken away by passing the flax between rollers of a machine which is run by power. These power mills are called scutching mills; scutching means cleaning and breaking. After this process the flax lies in long bundles of parallel fibers, something like a girl's hair as it is ready to be braided. The flax varies in color; sometimes it is gray or of a greenish tint, and sometimes pale yellow.
Fig. 108.—Flax fibers magnified.
If you have a microscope or a glass at school, examine the flax fiber. See how it looks, rough and woody. It also looks something like the silk fibers, straight. It has tiny markings or spots called nodes. Flax is principally cellulose. Do you know what cellulose means? Look it up in the dictionary.
So you see that the long fibers are freed from the stem of the flax plant and are ready for the manufacturer to spin into yarn to be woven into cloth, or to make it into cord, rope, twine, lace, or thread for many useful purposes. Isn't this an interesting story? Flax cultivation is one of the most ancient industries. Think how very useful it is, both for fiber and for seed. It has been grown for at least 5000 years in Egypt and in Assyria. Do you remember reading about the ancient mummies which have been found wrapped in linen in the tombs of Egypt? In the Bible, chapter xlii of the book of Genesis, we are told that Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen. Do you know of any other Bible references which tell of the use of linen in ancient times? Have you ever heard of the Swiss lake dwellers? Perhaps your teacher will tell you about them, or you can look it up in the encyclopedia. They too used linen long ago, for pieces have been found and are in the museums in Switzerland.
Fig. 109.—The mummies of Egypt are found wrapped in linen cloth made from flax long ago.
Next lesson we shall make a large chart for the schoolroom, which will tell the story of flax. You may bring anything which you think will help to illustrate that story. We shall also mount on the chart the most common linen materials which we use in our homes.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Examine a flax fiber with a microscope or a magnifying glass. What do you see?
2. Look up references which prove the age of flax culture.
3. Perhaps some one near your school has been in the linen business in Ireland. Perhaps he will come to the school and tell the boys and girls about it. Try to find some one.
Lesson 6
COMMON LINEN MATERIALS ARE IDENTIFIED
Can we learn to identify at least eight of the common linen materials?
To-day we shall study about the different linen materials, and then see what we have to mount on our school chart. If you prefer, you may make a book of linen materials like the cotton and silk.
Let us divide the pieces which have been brought to school into two piles: the thin, and the thicker ones. We have more of the thick ones. Yes, we all know the heavy coarse linen is called Russian crash. We used it for our porch cushions or covers. It comes from 18 to 36 inches in width and costs from 15 cents a yard up to 75 cents sometimes. We know it is used for dresses, and sometimes for toweling and upholstery uses. It is unbleached in color.
This wide sample is linen sheeting. Our great-grandmothers always had linen sheets of flax which they grew, spun, and wove, because long ago cotton was not grown. Some of the Pleasant Valley girls saw these sheets which Grandmother Allen made. Sheeting comes in several widths, and costs about $1 per yard up. Cotton sheeting is cheaper.
The one thin one is handkerchief linen. It costs from 60 cents to $2.00 per yard. What kind of a weave is it? What is it used for? The other thin piece is called batiste. It, too, is used for waists and dress linens, and it is fine and sheer. It can be used for handkerchiefs too. It costs about $1.00 per yard up, according to the fineness, and is 1 yard or more wide. Batiste is made of cotton, also, and is then cheaper.
The weave of this piece is different. You have a cotton sample of the same weave. Yes, it is called bird's-eye pattern. It is used for toweling and costs about 30 cents per yard, 24 inches wide.
Here is another piece used also for toweling. You all know its name. Huckaback is correct. We have also cotton huckaback, and some huckaback made of half linen and half cotton. It is woven in a pattern which absorbs easily. The filling thread shows more on the surface than the warp threads. It is woven 18 inches and wider, and costs 15 cents up.
Every one knows this one. Our tablecloths and napkins are of damask. It is a lovely material made in beautiful patterns. Sometimes it is all linen and sometimes a mixture. There is also cotton damask for table napkins and cloths. It is much cheaper. The cloths are woven 1 yard wide or wider, and for damask towels from 16 to 36 inches. One can spend a great deal for beautiful damask towels and napkins.
This plain coarse linen is called butchers' linen, because it wears very well and butchers sometimes have their aprons made of it. It is used, too, for dress skirts, and is very satisfactory. It is woven from 27 to 44 inches in width and costs from 40 cents to $1.50 per yard.
The heavy stiff piece is a linen canvas and is used by tailors for the interlining of cuffs and collars of coats. It costs 25 cents per yard and is 27 to 36 inches wide.
Suppose our chart is 24 × 20 inches. Perhaps a cardboard or cover of an old box will do if your teacher has nothing else. Put two holes near the top in the middle of the 20 inches side and run a cord through for hanging. At one edge down one side place the common linen materials with their names and uses, etc.
Let us see what the girls have brought. Here is a bottle of linseed oil. Yes, and some flax seeds. Jane has brought a linen collar. Here is a small china doll wrapped as a mummy. Marjorie's grandmother has sent some flax which she grew and prepared herself, and a piece of an old hand-woven towel which she made when a girl. And here is some hand-spun flax! Notice how rough it looks. We have, also, some cord and twine and some linen thread. Do you know that Paterson, New Jersey, where Marjorie's Cousin Ann works in the silk mill, is also a great center for linen thread manufacture? Thread is made by twisting fine yarns together. The twisting makes them strong. They are then dyed or bleached white. Much of our linen thread is unbleached in color. Why?
Suppose we draw a picture of the flax stalk and flower on our chart and fasten some of the school-grown flax to it. All the other things can be arranged and fastened too, by punching holes in the cardboard and tying them on with cord.
What an interesting story it makes. Perhaps the children of the lower classes would like to hear the story told by one of the seventh grade girls some morning.
Next lesson you may bring any table linen or towels which are stained; and we shall learn how to remove the stains.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Draw a picture of the flax plant, and color the flowers with your crayons.
2. Prepare the chart telling the story of flax.
3. Look up the story of how linen thread is prepared.
4. See how many linen materials you can find at home.
Lesson 7
REMOVING COMMON STAINS FROM TABLE LINEN
Some of the common stains one finds on table linen are coffee, tea, fruit, rust, or grass stains. Do you know how to remove them?
When should stains be removed? A good housekeeper always looks over the clothing and household linens before putting them to soak. Mrs. Allen says she usually does this on Monday. Do you know why? She spends this day getting ready for wash day. She bakes and prepares certain foods for her family for two days; and so the work is easier on Tuesday and Wednesday, when she washes and irons. Fruit, coffee, or tea stains on linen should be removed as soon after the stain appears as possible. If this is not done, then certainly the stains must be removed before putting the linen into the tub. White clothes are boiled. What will this do to the stains if they are not removed?
How can stains be removed? Let us try to remove these spots one at a time. I think we have six or seven different kinds on the articles which have been brought to school to-day. Your teacher will show you how to follow the directions.
Coffee and tea stains are the most common on table linen. To remove, wash in lukewarm water, and then dip in a solution of washing soda, and rinse very carefully until all soda is removed. (Washing soda solution is made of one pound of washing soda to one gallon of water. This can be kept in glass jars and used when occasion demands.) Tea stains are easily removed by brushing the spot with glycerine and then washing carefully in warm water to remove the grease. Rubbing the spot with the bowl of a spoon is a good way to put on the glycerine.
Fruit stains are also common. An easy way to remove them is to stretch the fabric, if it is white, over a bowl and pour boiling water from a height, through the spot. On white wool or silk, lukewarm water is sometimes all that is necessary; or lukewarm water and a little borax. If the fruit stains are on colored garments, they are difficult to remove on account of removing the color also. If the article is of much value, consult a professional dyer if possible. It is wise to experiment on the material on another part of the garment, as the inside of a hem or facing. Make a similar spot and try to remove with different methods. Often one can discover a way, through experimenting.
Rust stains often appear on table linen or white clothing. To remove, wet the spot and apply a few drops of oxalic acid or salts of lemon or cream of tartar solution, and wash thoroughly. On colored or wool goods of good quality, one must decide whether one prefers the stain or the color removed. Water and lemon juice will generally remove the spot, but may take the color too. Care is necessary for colors.
Grass stains are also common. If the stains are fresh, cold water will usually remove them. When on white goods or material which cannot be washed, alcohol may be used. When color will stand it, dyed fabrics which are grass-stained can be washed with water and a little ammonia, followed by warm soap solution and careful rinsing.
Here is a garment which has both ink and blood stains on it. Marjorie must have cut her finger. Blood stains when fresh are easily removed with lukewarm, not hot water, and a little ammonia. When on colored silk, wash carefully with lukewarm water only. The ink stains are more difficult, because the composition of inks varies. Wash at once in cold water; this often removes some spots. Sour milk or several rinsings in sweet milk may cause the spot to disappear. Then wash in warm water and soap to remove the grease. If this does not remove it, try a paste made of starch, salt, and lemon juice except for colors. If this will not, try Javelle water. This can be obtained at a drug store. Wash the spot in the Javelle water, but rinse very quickly and carefully. Repeat until the spot disappears. These directions are for white materials only.
How many would like to try to remove some spots at home, before next lesson? You may report your successes or failures, and we shall try to learn the reasons for them. Next lesson we shall learn to wash and iron this table linen. It will be well to keep it at school until next lesson.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. How many spots have you been able to remove? Tell of your successes or failures.
2. See if mother or grandmother has any better recipes than you have learned for spots.
Lesson 8
LEARNING TO WASH AND IRON TABLE LINEN OR BED LINEN
We have studied many things about cleanliness, and we all know how much cleanliness of clothing and household linen adds to our comfort. We have learned that sometimes we can wear our underclothes without ironing and that towels can be washed and dried and will smell sweet and clean even if not ironed. Table linen, though, must be washed and boiled and ironed to look well. Our lesson to-day is about how to do this.
The linen, as well as the cotton, are, as you know, vegetable fibers. They are strong and able to resist heat and the friction from rubbing. They have resistance for chemicals also. So cotton and linen may be boiled, starched, and ironed with hot irons because the fibers are strong. They may also be treated with acids of a dilute nature when necessary to remove spots, as we have learned. For the usual grease spots on the family tablecloths, soak the cloth in soda water to remove grease (one cup of soda—the dissolved solution—to a pail of water, see page 186).
Fig. 110.—Mrs. Stark washing out of doors on a warm day. This is the old way. She has just bought a washing machine.
The processes for washing and ironing. If the stains have been removed from the table linen, it can then be soaked. Soaking helps to loosen the dirt when soap is added before the soaking. It is then unnecessary to rub them as much, and so materials are saved from wear. These are the processes for washing and ironing: soaking, washing, rinsing, boiling, rinsing, bluing, starching, hanging, drying, sprinkling, pulling, folding, ironing.
1. Soaking. Soak the table or bed linens about 1½ hours in cold or lukewarm water. Soap is really not necessary as the linen is not very dirty. All stains should have been previously removed.
2. Washing. Wash with soap on both sides, rubbing on clothes board or in washing machine. Use hot water.
3. Rinsing. Rinse and soap again to be placed in the boiler. The dirt is carried away by this rinsing.
4. Boiling. Put the soaped articles in clear cold water. Boil briskly for five minutes. Add enough soap to keep a suds while boiling; save small pieces for this purpose. Stir clothes and press with a stick. Remove from boiler, after boiling actively for five minutes. Put in clean hot water, then in cold. Rinse once or twice again thoroughly before bluing.
5. Bluing. Make the blue water from some good blue. Do not make it too deep. Test on a small doily. Stir the blue before each article is dipped, so it may not appear streaked on the clothes. If articles are very yellow it may be necessary to let them stand in the blue for a little while. If not yellow, dip two or three times.
The next process is starching; but it is not as a rule necessary to starch napkins, tablecloths, or bed linens.
6. Hanging. Hang very straight after stretching. Do not pin at corners. Hang ? of the napkin or tablecloth over the line.
7. Sprinkling. Table linen must be sprinkled evenly. Sometimes it can be taken from the line when half dry, and the process of sprinkling omitted.
8. Ironing. Linen should be ironed damp and until dry. This makes the pattern stand out and gives a shine and gloss to the linen. This takes the place of starch.
9. Folding. Iron napkins partly dry on wrong side; then turn to right side, and iron dry. Fold edges evenly. In the lengthwise fold do not fold quite to end, as in the final fold the napkin, handkerchief, tablecloth, or sheets will appear uneven at the edges. Fold the tablecloth, or napkins with selvedges together. Tablecloths may be folded with three, or four, long creases.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Try to wash and iron the napkins for mother.
2. Try to wash and iron some towels or pillowcases. Is the process different?
3. Why is it unnecessary to iron some clothes if one is very busy. Can you give a good reason why it is hygienic not to iron them.
Lesson 9
THE STORY OF THE MANUFACTURE OF LINEN YARN INTO CLOTH
To-day we are going to study again about our linen tablecloths and napkins, and learn how the flax fiber is made into cloth after it has been cleaned at the scutching mill.
Fig. 111.—The flax wheel.
Combing and spinning flax. Uncle John divided his story in two parts, and told the Pleasant Valley Girls' League about the manufacture of flax as well as about its growth. The scutched flax is delivered to the manufacturer. He must first spin the flax into yarn before it can be woven into cloth. The flax fibers measure from 20 to 35 inches in length. How are they to be made into one continuous piece for spinning? The pictures (Figs. 112 and 113) will give a very good idea. Long ago grandmother or great-grandmother spun the yarn for the linen sheets on the flax wheel. Marjorie's grandmother sent her old flax wheel to school for the girls to see. The flax is here on the distaff. If you haven't a wheel at your school, look at the picture (Fig. 111). The woman is holding the flax fibers which come from the distaff; and, as her foot turns the wheel and the flax in her fingers is fed to the spindle, it is twisted. Spinning of flax is a very old invention. It was once done with just a spindle like the woman has in the picture on page 71 (Fig. 44). This is the secret of how flax spinning is done to-day. The flax is opened at the mill and graded according to color and quality. It is then combed. This process is called hackling (Fig. 112). It is sometimes done by hand, and the worker draws the flax over the iron teeth of a comb. The straightened fibers are left and are called line; and the combed-out fibers are called tow. This first combing process is sometimes called roughing instead of hackling. The line is then combed again in a big machine which removes any loose tow. Tow is often put in a carding machine and made into yarn for coarser purposes; but the long straight line is used for the better materials. The line, after it is hackled, is placed on a spread board; and the process is called spreading. You can see in the picture (Fig. 113) that the bundles of flax yarn are spread and overlapped as they enter the machine. Now you know how the yarn begins to be made of continuous length. The flax comes from this machine in a rope and is something like the cotton rope or roving as it leaves the carding machine; but flax is brown and stiff, not so soft as cotton. Can you find in the picture (Fig. 113) the cans ready to receive the flax rovings as they come from the spreading machine? They are at the back of the machine. The rovings are then ready to be wound on spools and to be twisted to make them strong. This is done in the same way as the cotton. The spools are put in at the top of the machine; they hold the rovings. The rovings pass over rollers which draw out and twist and wind the yarn on the spools below. This is called spinning. (Fig. 46 shows the cotton spinning machines.) Flax spinning is somewhat like this. Perhaps some day you may be able to visit a flax mill and see the spinning frames, as the machines are called, at work. Uncle John says that yarns are made of coarse or of very fine grade, according to the fineness of cloth desired. Linen thread is made by twisting together two or three of the linen yarns. Look at the linen thread and see if you can discover two or three.
Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.
Fig. 112.—Flax hackling done by machine.
Courtesy of York St. Mills, Belfast.
Fig. 113.—Spreading flax to make it a continuous line.
Weaving linen. After the threads of flax have been spun, they are wound on spools; and the spools are put in the big spool holder or skarn in order to prepare the roll of warp threads for the loom. Do you remember how the cotton warp was prepared and how the weaving was done? Uncle John says that in Scotland to-day much of the very fine linen is woven by hand; but we know that linen weaving by machinery has been perfected there and that very beautiful materials are produced on the modern looms with the Jacquard harness as it is called, to produce the wonderful designs. Fine table damask is as beautiful as fine silk. The French, perhaps, make the most beautiful designs for table linen, and the Scotch and Irish come next. (See page 124 for Jacquard loom.)
Bleaching linen cloth. Uncle John says there are many things to be done to the linen cloth after it is woven. If we were to go to Ireland, we might ride for miles and see the woven linen cloth spread on the grass in great lengths. This is called crofting or grass bleaching. Do you remember how we said grandmother used to bleach her linen? Did she use a chemical? What did the sour milk which she used do to her linen? What did the oxygen do? Chemicals are sometimes used to-day in the early stages before the linen is spread on the grass. Uncle John says that from 20-25 per cent, or about ¼, of the weight of the linen is lost in bleaching. Linen is sometimes bleached in the thread, but more often after it is woven.
Finishing linen cloth for shipping. After linen cloth has been bleached, Uncle John says it is ready to be finished for shipping to the merchants. It is washed by passing the cloth through a machine called a rub-board. Then it is dried and passed through a beetling machine. This makes the fibers stand out. Then it is pressed between rollers to give it a smooth surface. Cotton is sometimes finished by means of these processes to look like linen and be sold for linen. When this cotton material is washed, the finishing wears off and it does not look like linen. Is such material cheaper or more expensive? Is it honest to sell cotton for linen, and to cheat the buyer? It is all right if the goods are labeled. Next lesson we shall talk about the buying of household linens. One must know many things in order to purchase wisely. Do you see how a knowledge of how things are made will help you, too?
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Write a story of two hundred words telling how flax is made into cloth.
2. Have an exhibit of articles brought from home, showing different patterns of linen cloth.
3. Perhaps there may be a cord factory near for you to visit. Tow is sometimes used in making twine. Study how cord is made.
Lesson 10
A TALK ABOUT BUYING LINENS
Have you ever gone shopping with mother? There are some important things to remember when buying table linen or other household materials. What are they?
Marjorie goes with her mother once a year to buy household linens. This is usually in January, when the big shop in town has a sale. Last January, when Marjorie's mother was ill, they had to order by mail. The catalogue from the shop described fully, and Mrs. Allen knew exactly what to ask for; so they managed without going to town. This can be done if one knows how and if the store is a reliable one. These are some of the things Mrs. Allen is teaching Marjorie. Some day she will wish to buy for her own home; or, if her mother is ill again, she can go alone. It is always more satisfactory to see what one is buying.
Here are some of the points to be noticed in buying:
1. The first important thing to remember is to buy only what one needs. Know the shops one patronizes, if possible, and go or send to only reliable firms. The reliable places are the cheapest in the end. One learns, too, that some things are better at one shop and some at another. Reliable stores often have sales, but as a rule bargains are not cheap. Remember nothing is ever given away.
2. It is wise and cheaper to purchase some new household linen once each year than to wait and have it all wear out at once.
3. Cost is a good guide. Linen is expensive. If too cheap, beware.
4. Linen is sometimes cheapened or adulterated with cotton. If the store keeper sells it for union, it is honest; if he calls it linen, and you pay linen price, it is dishonest. Ravel and untwist the ends of the warp and filling thread. Cotton will be fuzzy, linen should be long and lustrous. Round threads of linen are best. The linen threads appear pointed at the ends when separated. The all linens made from the tow (you have learned what that is) are cheaper than those made from the line. Why? They will not last quite so well.
Wet the linen. Water spreads more rapidly on linen than on cotton. An old-fashioned test was to moisten with the finger. If you have a sample of linen at home for testing, use a drop of olive oil. The oil makes the linen fibers more translucent than the cotton. Why?
5. Another way to know. Linen feels colder than cotton; also it feels heavier when crushed in the hand.
6. Notice the finish. Is it full of starch which can be picked off? If so, after the washing you will have a loosely woven material without starch. It is better to buy a softer linen than one filled stiff with starch which will crack.
7. Damask by the yard is slightly cheaper than by the cloth. One dollar a yard is a fair price. Table cloths from 2½ to 3 yards are a good size for a family of six. A cloth wears about as long as 1½ or 2 dozen napkins. The price of one dozen napkins about equals the cost of a cloth. Napkins come in three sizes: 5/8, 17-22 inches; ¾, 23-27 inches; 7/8, 29-31 inches.
8. Scotch, French, and Irish linens are the best for quality, beauty, and variety of patterns. German damask is good; but German patterns are perhaps the least attractive. Unbleached linen will wear much longer, is less expensive, and is bought by many housewives and bleached as used.
9. For family towels huckaback is the most serviceable, although damask is used a great deal. Linen towels vary in price from $3.00 a dozen up, according to size and quality. Dish towels of linen crash are very serviceable.
10. The microscope is the only sure test for distinguishing cotton and linen fibers.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
1. Ask mother if she knows any other methods of judging good linen.
2. When you go to town, price some tablecloths and napkins. How much will a good cloth and napkins cost?
REVIEW PROBLEMS
I. Plan a systematic way of looking over your clothing and keeping it in repair.
II. How do you store your winter clothing for protection during summer? Your summer clothes during winter?
III. How does your knowledge of buying linens help you in going shopping with mother?
