The bolts, set-screws, pulleys, bearings, shafting and clutches of a plant, although among the foremost factors in its efficiency, are very often neglected until they reach the stage where their condition absolutely compels attention.

Very often this lack of proper attention is due to surrounding difficulties of an almost insurmountable and most discouraging nature. At other times it is due to a lack of proper appreciation of the damage resultant from seemingly insignificant neglects. How to overcome some of these difficulties is the object of this chapter.

Fig. 23 shows a case of a turning bolt. The head is inaccessible and the bolt's turning with the nut, owing to burrs or rust, prevents either the tightening or the loosening of the nut. One to three fair-sized nails driven through the timber as at C, hard up against, or, better still, forced into a tangent with the bolt, will often suffice to hold it while the nut is being turned. In iron girders, beams, etc., the nail method being impossible, a slot E can easily be cut with a hack-saw through the lower end of both the nut and bolt, so that the bolt may be held by a screwdriver while the nut is turned with a wrench.

Where an extra strong screwdriver must be used, the use of two blades at the same time in the hack-saw frame will give a slot of the requisite width. Where the bolt's end projects beyond the nut and it is desired to tighten the nut, a Stillson wrench is often, though inadvisedly, called into service. This tends to spoil the lower threads of the bolt and thus prevents any future loosening, except by the cutting off of the projecting end.

As the alinement and level of shafting depend on the power of their hold, bolts, lag-bolts and set-screws should, when they are tightened, be so in fact and not in fancy.

The proper way to use a wrench, especially a screw wrench, so as to avail yourself of every ounce of power, not of your biceps only but of your whole body, is as follows: Place your shoulders on a level with the object to be tightened, secure the wrench jaws well upon it, grasp the jaws with the left hand and the wrench handle with the right, holding both arms straight and tense; swing the upper part of the body to the right from the hip, backing the force of your swing up with the full force of your legs, steadying yourself the while with your left-hand grip on the wrench jaws, which are the center of your swing. Several such half turns, at the wind-up, will cause an extremely hard jam with comparative ease.

In tightening up a split-pulley, the expedient of hammering the bolts tight, by means of an open-ended bolt-wrench and a small sledge, is often resorted to. If the head of the bolt be lightly tapped while the nut is being tightened, even a light hammering, except in the extremest cases, becomes unnecessary.

Split-pulleys are invariably better held in place by a good clamping fit than by set-screws. It must also be borne in mind that, for good holding, set-screws must be spotted into the shaft, and this defaces and often materially weakens the shaft. Split-pulleys, like solid ones, are sometimes subject to stoppage, owing to excessive strain. Set-screws, at such times, cut a shaft up pretty badly; whereas, if clamped, only a few slight scratches would result.

Where packing with paper, cardboard, emery cloth or tin becomes necessary to secure a good clamping fit, care should be taken to put an equal thickness of packing into both halves of the pulley; otherwise it will wabble and jump when running.

Emery cloth, on account of its grittiness, is preferable for packing where the duty done by the pulley is light. When the duty done is extra heavy, emery cloth, despite its grittiness, will not do; tin or sheet iron, owing to body, must be used.

The following is the most practical way of packing a split-pulley to a good clamping fit, assuming that emery cloth is to be used:

The thickness of the emery cloth to be used, and whether to use one or more folds, can readily be ascertained by calipering the shaft diameter and pulley bore, or by trial-clamping the pulley by hand. In both of these instances, however, due allowance must be made for the compressiveness of the packing used. If the packing be too thin, the pulley will not clamp strongly enough; if too thick, the chances of breaking the lugs when drawing the bolts up are to be apprehended.

Having determined the proper thickness of emery cloth to be used, place the pulley on the shaft, as shown in Fig. 24. Into the lower half C, in space A, which is out of contact with the shaft, place a sheet of emery with the emery side toward the hub and the smooth side toward the shaft. The width of the emery should be a little less than half of the shaft's circumference, and it should be long enough to project about one-half of an inch to an inch on each side of the hub.

Now turn the pulley on the shaft so that the position of the halves shall become reversed (Fig. 25), C on top, B on bottom. See that the emery cloth remains in its proper position in half-hub, the smooth side being toward the shaft; the projecting length beyond the pulley hub will help you to do this.

Into half-hub B (space D) insert a similar sized piece of emery cloth, smooth side toward the hub and the emery side toward the shaft. Draw up on your bolts to clamp the pulley into position. Be sure, however, that no emery cloth gets in between the half-hubs or lugs at points 1 and 2, Fig. 25, as this would prevent their coming properly together; the width of the emery being less than half of the shaft's circumference will be a help to this end.

It often happens, owing to downright neglect or unwitting neglect, through the oil hole or oiler being blocked up, that a loose pulley, running unlubricated, cuts, heats, and finally, through heat expansion, seizes. It then becomes necessary to take the countershaft down, force the loose pulley off and file and polish the shaft up before it can be put back into place.

The following method avoids the taking down and putting back, provides an easy means for loosening up the pulley that has seized, and improvises, as it were, a lathe for filing and polishing the shaft.

In Fig. 26, A is the loose pulley that has seized. Throw off both the belt that leads from the main shaft to pulleys A, B and the belt that leads to the driven machine from the driving pulley C. Tie, or get somebody to hold, an iron bar in pulley A at side a, as shown in Fig. 27, over an arm of the pulley, under the shaft, and resting against the timber, ceiling, wall or floor, in such a way as to prevent the pulley from turning in one direction, as shown in Fig. 27. Now, with another bar, of a sufficient length to give you a good leverage, take the grip under a pulley arm and over the shaft in the tight pulley B at b, which will enable you to work against the resistance of the bar in the loose pulley A.

With enough leverage, this kind of persuasion will loosen the worst of cases. Take the bars out and move B sufficiently to the right to allow A to take B's former position. Secure B by means of its set-screws in its new position and, by means of a piece of cord, fasten an arm of A to one of B's. It is evident that by throwing the main-shaft belt on to A it will, through A's cord connection with B, which is screwed to the shaft, cause the shaft to revolve, thus enabling you to file up and polish that portion of it formerly occupied by A. To prevent the countershaft from side-slipping out of hanger-bearing D¹, get somebody to hold something against hanger-bearing D² at E; or fasten a piece of wire or cord on the countershaft at F and the hanger D¹, so as to prevent side-slipping while not interfering with revolution.

Filing, polishing, a cleaning out of the oil hole or oiler, and the taking of proper precaution against future failure of lubrication will put everything into first-class order. When the loose pulley is, as it is best for it to be, farthest away from the bearing, held in its place by the tight pulley and a collar, not only is the tight pulley better adapted for carrying its load, owing to additional support resultant from its proximity to the bearing, but such matters of small repair as come up are much simplified.

Fig. 28 in some degree, aside from the cutting up and heating of the bearings, illustrates the breaking strain, in addition to the usual torsional strain, which becomes enhanced in direct proportion with the increase of breaking strain, to which an out-of-line or out-of-level shaft is subject. The bends are exaggerated for illustration.

In this instance, the fact of one hanger-bearing being out of line or level subjects the shaft to a severe breaking strain. The shaft being both out of line and level does not, if both at the same point, aggravate matters, as might at first be supposed.

It is true that the full torsional strength of a shaft is only equal to the weakest portion of it, so that three weak spots more or less can, theoretically, make no difference one way or the other. But, practically, there is the undue strain and wear of the bearings at these points, and if a pulley transmitting any considerable amount of power is situated anywhere along the length A B it is sure to be unpleasantly in evidence at all times.

Only an eighth or a quarter out, but oh, what shaft-breaking stories that fraction could tell!

The following is a simple method for testing the alinement and level of a line of shafting that is already up.

As in Fig. 29, stretch a line C so that it is exactly opposite the shafting. Set it equidistant from the shaft end centers G and F and free from all contact along its entire length except at its retaining ends A and B. Now, it is self-evident, as line C is straight and set equidistant from the shaft end centers G and F, that if you set the entire center line of the shafting at the same distance from line C, as G and F, you are bound to get your shafting into perfect alinement.

In leveling a line of shafting that is already up, you can, by the use of a level and perseverance, get it right.

Placing the level at A, you are just as likely to raise the first hanger as to lower the middle one. Look before you jump, even if compelled to climb to the top of the fence to do so. When you find a length of shafting out of level, try the two adjacent lengths before acting, and your action will be the more intelligent for it.

On exceptionally long lines of shafting the following method, in which the level and a line constitute a check upon and a guide for each other, can be used to great advantage. Stretch a line so that it is exactly above, or, if more convenient, below the shafting to be leveled. With the level find a length of shafting that is level and adjust your line exactly parallel with this length. Your line now, free of contact except at its retaining ends, and level owing to its parallelism to the level shaft length, constitutes a safe hight level guide while the level itself can serve to verify the accuracy of the finished job.

In lining, whether for level or alinement, unless the shafting line consists of the same diameter of shafting throughout its entire length, though of necessity measuring from the shaft circumference to the line, always base your calculations on the shaft centers. The figures in Fig. 29 will make this point clear.

The manner of securing the ends of the line under different circumstances must be left to individual ingenuity. Only be sure that the line is so placed that the shafting adjustment shall not affect its original position with reference to the end shaft centers.

Coupling clutches, i.e., those joining two lengths of shafting into one at option, will fail, utterly or partially, if the respective shafts which bear them are out of line or level with each other. Such a condition should not be tolerated on account of the danger entailed by the inability to shut off the power in cases of emergency.

As a general rule, it is most advisable to set a clutch to take as hard a grip as it can without interfering with its releasing power. Where a clutch grips weakly, it is subject to undue wear owing to slippage, whereas a strongly regulated clutch absolutely prevents slippage wear.

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