SYNONYMS.

(a) CULAMANES.
(b) MANOBO.

According to Governor Bolton this tribe numbers about thirty-five hundred individuals and occupies a considerable portion of the coast, and adjacent mountains, from the Padada river on the north to Sarangani Bay on the south. On the east side of Davao Gulf its members are found along the beach and in the mountains, from Sigaboy to Cape San Agustin, and also in a few scattered villages on the southeastern Pacific Coast.

By their neighbors they are known as Kulaman or Manobo. The former designation is translated as "bad man," but it is probable that they received the name from the town of Kulaman, where they formerly resided. They are equally well known as Manobo—a word meaning "man." Earlier writers, misled by these two names, have generally treated this people as forming two distinct groups, but this is quite incorrect, both names being applied to a part or to the whole of the tribe. It has also been customary to describe them as a part of the great Manobo tribe which inhabits a large portion of Central and Northeastern Mindanao. The writer is of the opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to justify such a classification and that for the present we must consider them as distinct from the Manobo of the northern district as are the other tribes of Davao Gulf.

According to their own tales, the Kulaman once held all the coast from the Padada River to Sarangani Bay, but did not extend far back from the sea, since in the mountains lived the Tagakaolo and Bila-an with whom they were constantly at war. When the Moro appeared on their coasts and offered help against the hill tribes in return for land, they were gladly received and were given several village sites near to the mouths of various rivers. Aside from a few minor quarrels, the Kulaman have always lived on friendly terms with these later comers, and not a few of the tribe have been converted to Mohammedism.

Influenced by their new allies they organized under several petty rulers who were subservient to the datu at Kulaman, and with this superior organization they were able to carry on such successful warfare against the hill tribes that the Tagakaolo were, for a time, partially under their rule.

When the Spaniards arrived and undertook to subdue the Moro, the Kulaman cast their lot with their Mohammedan allies, and even after the power of the Moro was broken, they remained irreconcilable and frequently raided the settlements under the care of the Spanish priests.

The recent history of the tribe, as told by Datu Bongkalasan of Padada, as is follows: "About a hundred years ago when Gogo became datu, he left Kulaman and settled at Piapi, not far from Padada, and planted the cocoanut trees which can still be seen there. He was a man with a very small head, but his arms were as large as a man's legs. He lived until very old, and during his lifetime never did any work but was always a great warrior. Under him the tribe became strong and all the other datu feared him. When he died his son Kolatau my uncle, succeeded him. Like his father, he was a great warrior and all the neighboring tribes paid him slaves and other tribute. His two sons died during his lifetime; so upon his death the leadership fell to me, Bongkalasan."

By the time Bongkalasan became ruler, the influence of the Spaniards was strong enough to break the power of any coast datu, and after a hostile demonstration by the new ruler his town was destroyed and his following scattered. A part of the people took to the hills while others migrated to the east side of the Gulf and settled near Sigaboy. It is not believed that any members of this tribe were in that vicinity prior to this time. A further migration took place shortly after the arrival of the Americans, when a brother of Bongkalasan took a number of the Kulaman over to Sigaboy. A certain amount of communication is kept up between the people on both sides of the Gulf and the dialects are still so similar that it is certain the separation has not been for any great period of time.

Upon the establishment of American rule a number of hemp planters settled along the coast and soon their inducements to laborers began to scatter the people, until today members of this tribe can be found as far north as Santa Cruz. The power and influence of the datu has waned until he now has a following of less than two hundred people. Only that portion of the tribe which retired to the hills still maintains any semblance of their old prowess and even those groups are growing smaller year by year.

At the height of their power the men of the tribe were noted as boat-builders[73] and fishermen. Fighting also took up a considerable portion of their time, for added to their desire for loot and slaves was a demand for victims imposed by the warrior deity. The women cultivated little patches of corn, camotes, and some cocoanuts, and at certain seasons all the members of the tribe went to the forest to gather sago, but aside from this the sea furnished most of their food supply. According to their own stories they did not cultivate rice until recent years, and Datu Bongkalasan insists that none of the people planted rice when he was a boy. It is his belief that all the ceremonies connected with the rice culture were learned from the Tagakaolo and Bila-an.

[73] This art is now practically lost and their boats are secured from the Moro.

From the Spanish writers[74] we hear little but evil of this people. They are spoken of as warlike, superstitious, treacherous, and vengeful as head-hunters "who expose the heads of their enemies on poles," and as slavers. From Father GISBERT[75] we learn that in 1886, about twelve hundred members of the tribe were converted to Christianity; but during the period following the departure of the Spaniards most of them deserted the faith and returned to the old life. Since American occupation they have been among the most troublesome people of Southern Mindanao, and only as late as 1911 were responsible for the death of a number of planters and the destruction of the plantations in the neighborhood of Nuin. They are rapidly breaking up as a tribe, and are intermarrying with the coast natives and hill tribes, from both of whom they are adopting artifacts and ideas. Already they have so altered their dwellings that we cannot refer to a typical Kulaman home; their house-hold utensils[76] are those of their neighbors, and this is true also of most of the clothing, although one special type will be mentioned later on.

[74] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. LV, p. 556.

[75] BLAIR and ROBERTSON, Vol. XLIII, p. 242.

[76] Long narrow hemp cloth pillows (fig. 43) and round waterproof boxes with infitting, tray-like tops (fig. 44) are found in nearly every house. The use of these two articles is not confined to this people, but is typical of them. The same type of box is found among the Manobo of the Agusan river valley. FIG. 43. PART OF A HEMP CLOTH PILLOW COVER. FIG. 44. WATERPROOF BASKET WITH INFITTING TOP.

As a result of their slave raids, and the adoption of captive women and their offspring into the family, we find great variation in the members of the tribe (Plates LXI-LXII).

Measurements on twenty-seven men gave the following results:
Height:—Maximum 169.0 cm.; minimum 146.0 cm.; average 158.3 cm.
Cephalic Index:—Maximum 86.4; minimum 71.7; average 78.1.
Length-Height. Index:—Maximum 76.5; minimum 61.9; average 68.4.

If these figures are compared with those of the Bagobo it will be seen that there is little difference in the averages; however, this similarity is less real than the figures indicate, for with the Kulaman there are more individuals at both extremes. For example: the cephalic indices of eight out of the twenty-seven were 80 or above, while six were less than 75; again, in the length-height indices six were above 70 and an equal number less than 65. In other respects there is such variation that it is hard to generalize. It is noticeable that there is a greater tendency toward prognathism than we have heretofore met with; the forehead, while high, is moderately retreating and the supra-orbital ridges prominent in most individuals; the hair is brown-black and is inclined to curl in locks. The wide variation of type within the tribe is to be expected when we know that its members have been constantly recruited from the neighboring tribes. It is even possible that a considerable number of slave women from distant islands may have been added to the group by purchase from the Moro.[77]

[77] According to early writers, the Moro of the Gulf carried on a lucrative slave trade with this and other tribes. As the Moro raids were made by water and often reached as far as the Northeastern coast of this island and south to the Celebes it is quite possible that these remote districts have helped in the upbuilding of the tribe under discussion.

The religious beliefs have many points in common with those of the neighboring tribes, but there are some which require special notice.

Two powerful beings, TimanEm and his wife Diwata[78] are above all other spirits.

[78] The Padada people say the term diwata is a name which may be applied to the timanEm, of whom there are two, a male and a female.

Mandalangan, also called Siling or Manobo Siring, is much like the Bagobo divinity of similar name. He is fond of war and bloodshed and when there has been a great slaughter he feasts on the flesh and drinks of the blood of the slain. Only warriors can address him and make the offerings of red food which he demands. Once a year, usually after the rice harvest and when the moon is full, a raid must be made and victims slain so that this spirit can feast.[79] If the Warriors fail to render him this service Mandalangan will cause their bodies to swell up and many will die, while sickness will visit all other members of the tribe.[80]

[79] Data Bongkalasan says it was formerly the custom to make a foray at each full moon.

[80] This was the reason given for the raid on the coast plantations in 1911.

The many spirits who inhabit rocks and large trees are generally favorable to man and are collectively known as magintalonan.

TamÀ owns the deer and wild pigs, and no one hunts or traps in the forest until he has made an offering of betel nut to this spirit. When game is secured its tail and ears are strung on rattan and are hung in a tree, in exchange for the live animal.

The maniokan, generally evil spirits, resemble snakes, and like them live in the ground. People are frequently made lame by simply stepping over their homes.

Each man and woman has a spirit, kalaloa,[81] dwelling in his body during lifetime. At death this spirit goes into the sky, unless it deserves punishment, in which case it is hurried to Kilot, a region below. In either place these spirits keep close watch over the living and bring success or disaster according to their will. They have come to be looked upon as the guardians of the fields, and suitable offerings are made to them at planting and harvest time.

[81] The Kulaman of Santa Cruz insist that each person has two kalaloa, one on the right side and one on the left. At death the one on the right side goes to a good place in the sky, where there is no work and "thoughts come easy." The kalaloa of the left side goes into the ground to a poor place called Kilot. It is probable that the neighboring Bagobo have influenced the beliefs of this group.

A few old men, makating, are thought to be able to address the spirits with greater probability of success than the others; but they do not stand in the same relation to the spirit world as do the mabalian of the Bagobo. The nearest approach to that class is a group of women known as lokEs[82], who act as midwives and make use of roots and herbs in curing sickness.

[82] In Santa Cruz known as bagbabolan or mananagÁmeni.

The people are warned of disaster or impending danger by various signs. A snake crossing the trail is an imperative order for the traveler to turn back; the call of the limokon[83] is likewise a warning, while should one of the principals to any agreement sneeze during the negotiations the project would be delayed or abandoned.

[83] See p. 63 note.

There is only slight development of beliefs and ceremonies in connection with the cultivation of field crops, due probably to the recent adoption of agriculture by the members of this tribe. A field is seldom planted to rice for more than one season, after which the land is used for corn, camotes, and the like, until the invasion of cogon grass makes further cultivation impossible.

As a result new land must be broken for each planting. When the constellation layag "a sail" and balangay "a boat" appear in the month of December, the people go to the desired plot, cut down the trees, and when these are dry, fire them.

Before the planting can be begun the seed rice must be carried to the center of the field where a bamboo pole, talabinian, and a stalk of sugar-cane have previously been placed, as an offering to the kalaloa who guard the land. Again at harvest time an offering of food is taken to this spot and the spirits of the dead are besought as follows: "Do not take our rice, but let it last for a long time, for now we give a part to you." A meal and dance follow the offering and then all who desire may aid in cutting the new rice.

No offerings are associated with the planting or harvesting of other field crops, but the gathering of sago flour is attended by gifts to the spirits of the dead and prayers for the health of the workers. The method of obtaining and preparing the flour is the same as that already described. Offerings are made before and after a hunt, and a man never goes to fish without first placing a leg ring and some betel nut on the sand close to the water, meanwhile saying, "You TimanEm must give us some food; and you shall have your part." Upon his return he places a small fish beside the first offering and is then free to take his catch to the village.

In addition to the pursuits already outlined, we find that some of the men are expert workers in iron (Fig. 45), copper, and brass, while the women are weavers. Their weaving does not differ from that previously described, but a peculiar type of decoration has been developed by this tribe, and from them has spread somewhat to their neighbors. Waxed threads are used to work designs into cloth so that when the fabric is placed in dye the liquid will not reach the portions thus covered. Later, when the threads are removed, white patterns appear on the red background (See Plate LXIII). FIG. 45. MAN'S KNIFE AND SHEATH.

Slaves are kept, but their duties are so similar to those of the freeborn that it is impossible for the casual observer to pick out the members of this class.

Until recent years a large part of the man's time was taken up in preparation for or active participation in the inter-tribal fights. There are several incentives for these raids. First is the desire for loot and slaves; then comes the ambition of the young men to be recognized as successful warriors; and finally, and most compelling is the demand of the spirit Mandalangan for victims.

A man who has killed five or more persons is entitled to wear a red suit covered with peculiar white designs (See Plate LXIII), and is henceforth known as mabolot. When his score has reached twenty-five he receives the still more honorable title of maisEg and is then allowed to dress entirely in black and to deck his hair with red flowers.[84]

[84] The flowers used are Celosia cristata L., Graptophyllum hortense nees; Coleus atropurpeus Benth.

A raid is made only when the moon is full. A dish of red rice is decorated with red flowers and is placed in the center of the room. Around it the warriors stick their spears and then one of the oldest of the company takes up a handful of the food and offers it to the spirit, saying: "Mandalangan come and eat, for we are ready to fight; go with us and help us." As he finishes his prayer each warrior takes a portion of the rice and throws it out of doors, for "they are not yet worthy to eat what Mandalangan has left." Returning to the room they all eat of white rice and are ready for the raid. In addition to their spears they should carry shields and fighting knives, and in recent years quite a number have come into possession of firearms.

Although the warriors are bold in their attack and do not hesitate to assault strong villages, they have no scruples against seizing or killing members of small parties or the inhabitants of isolated dwellings.[85] It is necessary that the raiders secure at least one victim, otherwise another foray must be made at once. The body of the slain is opened, the liver is extracted and is eaten by the warriors who thus "become like Mandalangan."[86] The head, forearms, and lower part of the legs are carried back to the village where they are cut to pieces by the women and children. The men take no part in this mutilation of the body, but as soon as the fragments are buried they begin to dance, meanwhile holding their unsheathed knives high above their heads. After a time the head-man blows loudly on a decorated bamboo trumpet (Fig. 46), while all the men unite in shouting "to announce their victory." At last they have fulfilled all the commands of Mandalangan and without fear they enter the house and partake of the red food which has been offered to him.

[85] Should water fall by accident on a warrior who is on a raid, it is considered a bad omen and the plans may be changed or delayed. In one instance the owner of a place marked for attack fastened dishes of water so that the marauders unwittingly knocked them over on themselves, and, as a result, the place was left unharmed.

[86] At times the skull is opened and the brain eaten. FIG. 46. TAMBOLANG OR BAMBOO TRUMPET.

The events just preceding and following the birth of a child are very similar to those of the Bagobo, except that there are no restrictions of any kind placed on the father and mother, neither are there any ceremonies connected with the birth or naming of a child unless unusual events have convinced the people that the spirits are in some way displeased.[87]

[87] Triplets are killed, as with the Bagobo.

The afterbirth is placed in the care of an old woman who carries it directly to a sturdy molave[88] tree and there attaches it to the branches "so that the child may become strong like the tree." While on this mission the bearer looks neither to the right nor to the left, nor does she hesitate, for such actions on her part might influence the disposition of the child or cause it to have physical deformities.[89] No special attention is given to youths when they reach the age of puberty, although it is customary to file and blacken their teeth at about that period.

[88] Vitex littoralis Decne.

[89] Similar beliefs are held by the Tinguian of Northern Luzon.

Marriage is attended by gifts and ceremonies, such as we have previously described. We find the groom paying a price for his bride, but receiving a return gift from her parents; the couple feed one another with rice and are thereby legally married; and finally we learn that a child is kept with them until they have had intercourse. It is customary for the youth to serve his father-in-law-to-be for two or three years preceding the wedding, after which he is released from such service.

As is the case with the neighboring tribes, polygamy is practiced, the only bar to marriage being blood relationship. Upon the death of the head of the family one-half of his property goes to his wife and half to the children. If there are two or more wives, the first wife still retains half, while all the children share equally in the balance of the estate, thus leaving the second and succeeding wives without a portion.

Sickness may be caused by evil spirits, or it may be due to a desire on the part of the kalaloa to leave its present abode. In either case the man becomes ill and it behooves him to take immediate steps to placate the evil spirits or to convince his kalaloa to remain with him. This last can best be accomplished by bathing the sick person with water which has been heated in a good agong. A fine dish would do equally well, but should the hot water cause it to break the spirit would depart at once. In extreme cases the lokEs will gather certain roots and brew them into a drink which she gives to the sick person. At each tree or shrub visited in her search for medicines she leaves an offering of betel nuts and leg rings, and when the drink has been prepared she makes a further gift, meanwhile begging TimanEm to aid her in effecting a cure. If all efforts fail and the spirit leaves, the corpse is placed in the center of the house, where it is kept from two to nine days according to the wealth and prominence of the deceased. During this time no one should sleep in the dwelling, for the spirit might be resentful and turn the face of the sleeper black.

Usually, the body is buried in the ground at a distance from the house. The coffin is made out of a split log, in which weapons, jars, and the like are placed for the use of the spirit. If the dead man has been a warrior he is dressed in the clothing distinctive of his rank, and his grave is covered with red flowers. At times the coffins are shaped to resemble small boats and are then placed on high poles near to the beach.

For a month following a funeral the relatives refrain from all merrymaking. At the expiration of this period all go to a near-by river and with their knives, cut to pieces a braided cord, which has been made since the burial, and as they destroy it they shout "This is a man we are killing. This is a man we are killing." Finally, the pieces are thrown into the river and the period of taboo is past.