Bach's orchestration was essentially polyphonic. He contrasted his differentiated groups of instruments en masse, and laid the foundation for effective orchestral solo writing.

HÄndel represents solidity and sonority, and obtained the best results when employing the orchestra for massed effects in conjunction with the chorus.

Bach's contemporaries in Italy were engaged in composing church music and in writing operas that should satisfy the existing demands for vocal virtuosity. With few exceptions, they did little to advance the standard of instrumentation, although Pergolesi's writing for string orchestra was progressive.

In Germany, regard for Italian opera was fostered by establishing a permanent home for it at Hamburg; but the evolution of orchestration was but little benefited thereby. Em. Bach did good service for the cause of independent instrumental music. Credit is due to Hasse for his efforts in behalf of the Dresden orchestra, and Graun added his mite to the development of symphonic form.

After Lulli, and before the advent of Gluck, Rameau stands as the exponent of French opera, from which French orchestration was then inseparable. Rameau's reputation rests upon his harmonic innovations, the enhanced effectiveness of his chorus, and his improved orchestration. Impelled by the enthusiasm of the philosopher, Rousseau, a number of composers paved the way for GrÉtry by departing from tradition and inaugurating a lighter style, since known as the opÉra comique.

Chapter VI.

Gluck, engrossed in resuscitating and furthering the principles promulgated by Peri and Lulli, used the orchestra primarily as a dramatic interpreter, and his scoring is conspicuous for the use of suitable instrumentation, and for the portrayal of genuine pathos.

At about the time that Gluck captured the Parisian stage, native French music received a powerful impulse from GrÉtry, who established opÉra comique upon a permanent basis. In spite of this achievement, his contributions to orchestration are not important. Meanwhile, Italy remained true to her traditions, both as to form and contents of opera, as well as instrumentation. An exception is to be found in the scores of Jomelli. An adaptation of the opÉra comique in the garb of the Singspiel soon sprang up in Germany.

The growth of independent orchestral music was aided by such composers and directors as Sammartini, Gossec, GrÉtry, Stamitz, and Cannabich, being, moreover, fostered by such organizations as the "Concerts des Amateurs," the "Concerts spirituels," the Electoral band at Mannheim, the Leipzig Gewandhaus, and the Dresden orchestra.

Chapter VII.

Haydn was the third great orchestral innovator in historic evolution, and from him date the beginnings of modern orchestration, just as Bach represents organ and Protestant Church music, HÄndel the oratorio, and Gluck the drama. Monteverde established the precedent of a nucleus of strings, Scarlatti adjusted their tonal balance, but Haydn readjusted the equilibrium of the suppletory segments of the orchestra as a concrete entity. His symphonies were the outcome of the earlier concerto grosso, and thus, having remained true to the traditions of his great predecessors, he became in turn the pioneer for Mozart and Beethoven. In his scoring, the wood-wind acquired freedom and individuality as solo instruments, and, together with the brass, were led also to sustain and knit together the harmonic progressions, rather than merely to support the resonance of the strings. He emphasized the consistent use of wind instruments in pairs. Again, by exploring further their caloric capabilities, he discovered effective means for descriptive music, and his oratorios bear the seed of programmatic writing.

Mozart explored the resources of the orchestra as opened up by Gluck and Haydn. He combined and interchanged polyphonic and monophonic style of writing to a most felicitous degree. He wrote for the strings in such a manner as to insure absolute independence and stability. The wood-wind gained in freedom of solo expression, and acquired that individuality of treatment which was its own by right. Especially the clarinet owes its absorption into the orchestra to Mozart, and from him dates the genuine origin of varied and contrasted tone-coloring.

The universal genius of Beethoven, prompted by the depth of his nature and the nobility of his purpose, led him to combine the legacy of his predecessors with a more sensitive regard for inner details, thematic unity, emotional expression, and greater freedom and subordination of form, leading to expansion and programmatic music. Greatest of classic orchestral masters, he brought the symphonic orchestra to its highest development, discovered the utmost capabilities of each and every instrument, increased the efficiency of both strings and wood-wind, and incidentally discerned the genuine worth of the violoncellos, bassoons, and kettle-drums. The functions of the horns likewise acquired wider significance, and the trombones were reserved for the portrayal of noble dignity and ornamentation.

Chapter VIII.

During the development of Beethoven's mighty conquests, Paris continued to attract aspirants to fame in operatic lines, whereas modern church music found a worthy representative in Cherubini; his orchestration is sonorous, flexible, varied and vivid. Two native composers of opera in serious vein, MÉhul and Lesueur, contributed essentially to the development of French instrumentation. That of MÉhul was still somewhat heavy, but embodied sonority, novel combinations, and at times a certain melancholy coloring. Lesueur was one of the pioneers in the use of grand and majestic combinations. The most prominent followers of GrÉtry in the lyric genre were Boieldieu, whose instrumentation is conspicuous for its daintiness, variety and contrast; Auber, master of clear yet effervescent scoring; HÉrold, whose orchestra is compact and well balanced; finally, HalÉvy, an exponent of both varied and massed effects. Italian instrumentation was advanced especially by Spontini and to a certain extent by Rossini; the former inaugurated the practice of doubling and redoubling the harmonies in massed combination. French opera was also greatly influenced by Meyerbeer, who imparted to the orchestra massed effects, novel and rich detail, characteristic individuality.

Credit for the development and perfection of symphonic form and orchestration is due to the great German classicists alone; but the evolution of the genuinely dramatic resources of the orchestra rests largely in the hands of the French composers preceding the ascendency of the Romantic Movement.