Three countries, France, Hungary and Germany, share the honors in having brought forth three of the greatest orchestral composers, Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner, who together founded the so-called "New Movement."

I.

Berlioz[51] (1803-1869). The contributions of Berlioz to the development of "program" music and to modern science of orchestration loom up in gigantic proportions. He was practically the first representative of the New Movement, but contrary to the natural course of evolution, he was not only its founder but at once its most radical exponent as well. Liszt in his younger days heard some of Berlioz's compositions in Paris, and it was thus that the new seed was transplanted into Germany where it was cultivated in concert music by Liszt himself, who thereby in turn influenced Wagner's music dramas. The difference in objective between the principles laid down by Schumann and Berlioz was that the former aimed to portray a single independent thought or image, whereas Berlioz's music was connected with a series of events or ideas. His objective was to make the music symbolic of images and conceptions that should be capable of being expressed in words, and his pseudo-symphonies were accompanied by an elaborate word exposition as a running commentary on the music. As the result of his activity, the dawn of a new era in concert music appeared in France. As the chief representative of her romantic musical art, he combined dramatic and symphonic effects. As an opera composer he was not successful, but he seized upon the orchestral experiments of the contemporary operatic composers, and endeavored to express theatrical ideas by means of the orchestra alone. Henceforth the power of description was to be entrusted to music itself and not to the accessories of the stage.

Berlioz represents the ultra-realistic school of instrumental music. His works are the reflection of his own temperament and individuality. His somewhat eccentric genius displayed itself in grandiose, weird and picturesque effects, in exaggeration, morbidness, vivid portrayal, and in extravagant orchestral demands. The primary object was tone-color in its own right, an object that was foreign to the more Æsthetic ideals of the classicists. He was the most daring orchestral writer that has ever lived, but his originality was confined to the scoring rather than to the musical substance of his works. When transcribed for pianoforte they lose their fascination. He was a veritable poet in sound, and he sought in every possible way to intensify characteristic expression.

To enlarge upon the details of Berlioz's instrumentation would be futile, for his standard treatise is a familiar book of reference to all music lovers. It is therefore permissible to make mention of only the most important of his innovations. Moreover, in order to realize the magnitude of Berlioz's achievements, one should keep clearly in mind the exact extent to which orchestral evolution had advanced before his day; for many effects that were then strikingly new are now the property of all and excite no comment. The distinctive features of his orchestration are power of musical description; new combinations, new effects, new treatment; insight into the characteristics of the instruments whereby their possibilities both individual and collective are demonstrated; excessive polyphony and complicated rhythm. He removed many prejudices even though many of his experiments are impracticable.

The "Symphonie fantastique—An Episode in the Life of an Artist" offers the best illustrations for studying his programmatic methods. The dimensions of the orchestra are kept within bounds, being augmented by but a few additional instruments such as two opheicleides and two pair of kettle-drums.[52] No more poetic duet or instrumental dialogue can be found than that between the oboe and English horn in the third movement—"In the Fields"[53]—where they represent two lovers in the guise of a shepherd and shepherdess. The March to Execution,[54] and the Witches' Revel are fine examples of dramatic intensity and accentuated volume of sound. "LÉlio," a symphonic poem with vocal music, which was intended as a sequel to the "Symphonie fantastique," contains parts for four clarinets. This was consistent with Berlioz's tendency to employ homogeneous tone-color in full four-part harmony. The pianoforte is also introduced into the Finale of the same work. The huge dimensions of the Requiem or "Messe des Morts" are exceptional and should not be cited as being typical of Berlioz's usual methods of scoring. Tremendous combinations are brought into use for the Sanctus, the Tuba mirum, and the Agnus Dei. They include twelve horns, sixteen trombones, and eight pair of kettle-drums. Of uttermost impressiveness is the Tuba mirum with its four separate orchestras of brass instruments stationed at the four corners of the stage or of the auditorium itself. The various types of instruments of percussion received the most careful consideration even to minuteness of detail. The Requiem presents one of the earliest examples of employing three flutes. Berlioz selected the viola as the central figure for his symphony "Harold en Italie."[55] Its functions are to impersonate Childe Harold himself, to portray his impressions and emotions, to supply the rÔle, so to speak, of a vocal interpreter. The ravishing effects elicited from the harmonics of divided violins combined with those of the harp will be recalled in the Queen Mab scherzo of "RomÉo et Juliette." The score of the Biblical trilogy "L'Enfance du Christ" contains some curious passages of interwoven viola and 'cello parts. The charming ballet is performed by three flutes and a harp. Berlioz's greatest work is unquestionably the dramatic legend "La Damnation de Faust." Nothing can be daintier than the Dance of the Sylphs; nothing sadder than the portrayal of Marguerite's remorse by an English horn; nothing more brutal than the Chorus of Students, accompanied by viola, double-bass, bassoon, horn and tuba—all in unison.

In conclusion, Berlioz must be accredited with having anticipated many effects that were subsequently elaborated upon by Wagner. Unfortunately the potency of Berlioz's music depends almost entirely upon orchestral tone-color; on the other hand, the unadorned substance of Wagner's music will withstand the closest scrutiny. Berlioz frequently assigned to the orchestra and specially to the strings a large number of independent parts which were further enhanced by simultaneously contrasted rhythm. This contrast was, moreover, applied to instruments of the same group, such as first and second violins. The violins are divided at times into as many as six and eight parts, the 'cellos into four, whereas in "Cinq mai" he wrote five actual parts for the double-basses. He appreciated the true value of the viola, and was the first to introduce the harp into the symphonic orchestra. The wind-instruments are often split up into what might be called separate little orchestras. Families of affiliated tone-color are represented by three and frequently four members. It was Berlioz that discovered the richness of pianissimo brass effects, and the substitution of the tuba for the opheicleide is due largely to him. He made divers experiments with many varieties of instruments of percussion apart from those with kettle-drums. In the Te Deum for three choirs, orchestra and organ, no less than five pair of cymbals are required. His occasional demands for an enormous apparatus were certainly extravagant; nevertheless he rarely used the full force of their combined strength excepting in isolated cases.

II.

Liszt (1811-1886). It is not proposed to analyze Liszt's rich and heavy orchestration, for the importance of his orchestral works consists rather of the bearing they have upon the unfettered form, the freedom of tonality and the novelty of treatment that characterize the New German School. The scoring of his symphonic poems is masterful, highly colored and ingenious. But although it bears the unmistakable stamp of his own personality, the orchestration embodies nothing conspicuously new. Beethoven and the early romanticists, Berlioz, and above all Wagner were his models in instrumentation. Favored by the opportunities afforded him in consequence of his precocious genius when but a mere child, Liszt's impressionable temperament seized upon the progressive tendencies of the times, thereby strengthening the already half-formed conviction that music should be descriptive, representative, reproductive, realistic. After hearing Berlioz's "Episode de la vie d'un artiste" he proceeded to develop his own talent along similar though individual lines, and thus became the champion of German "program" music. As has been previously stated, these doctrines of Berlioz and of Liszt were destined to be reflected in Wagner's works, for though the latter at first condemned such doctrines in no uncertain terms, his opinions subsequently underwent a radical change. In his monograph on Liszt's symphonic poems he says:—"Program-music does not aim to override speech or the plastic arts and represent things accessible to them only, but rather forms a special kind of union of two independent factors: poetry and music."

Now although Beethoven's "Pastoral" symphony, Mendelssohn's "Fingal's Cave" and Raff's "Lenore" were all in the direct evolutionary line of descriptive music, Liszt soon perceived that classic forms were indeed the ideal vehicle for abstract and purely Æsthetic music, but could not be successfully applied to portray a series of emotions, events or ideas. This discovery led him to modify the cyclic form of the symphony which became transformed into the symphonic poem with its continuity of music, monothematic principle and absence of conventional formulas. He retained all the symphonic expedients of thematic development, but form was now subjective to the program. His methods were simpler and can be more readily grasped than those of Berlioz. The range of subject was cosmopolitan, and the introduction of national traits, such as the Hungarian element, resulted in what Dickinson calls "shaping and coloring the work through imagined correspondences." Liszt's symphonic poem "Les PrÉludes" affords the best illustration of his aims and ideals. "Eine Faust Symphonie" embodies the suggestion of personal qualities by means of music. The oratorios "Christus" and "Die Legende der heiligen Elizabeth" display novel treatment as well as a departure from traditional forms.

III.

Wagner[56] (1813-1883). The recorder of the history of music and of orchestration can find no more inexhaustive topic than when he approaches that of Richard Wagner's epoch-making innovations. What is more, the literature in connection therewith is so voluminous, that opportunity for even the slightest original deduction is denied him. No alternative is left him other than to restate in condensed form what the cardinal features of Wagner's ideals and reforms were. Such a review is indeed indispensable if these pages are to be complete.

At the time that Wagner entered upon his career, German dramatic art was largely under the subjection of Meyerbeer, for Weber had not yet won universal popularity. The singer still reigned supreme; dramatic orchestration was primarily realistic and bombastic. Wagner himself betrayed in his earlier works how tempting and insidious the influence of Meyerbeer's dazzling mannerisms and idiosyncrasies could be. Moreover, in order to realize the full significance of Wagner's artistic growth, one should not lose sight of his youthful enthusiasm for Italian melody, even though his subsequent creations proved him to be a Teuton through and through, both in sentiment and in art.

The highest ideals of German opera culminated in the music dramas of Wagner. As musician, poet, dramatist, and master of scenic effects and theatrical requirements, he grew to be the champion of national art, a self-appointed reformer not alone of opera as an end to itself, but as a means whereby the conditions of social life might be inspired and uplifted. And the remarkable concentration of his musical thought, his rare gifts as a poet, and his noble histrionic conceptions proved him worthy of the task. The philosophical aspect of this attainment embodies intimate connection between drama and music; merging of voice and orchestra; intensification and completion of the singer's thought by means of the orchestra; finally, dramatic illusion whereby conditions of mind rather than dramatic situations are portrayed. By developing the so-called Leit-motiv, Wagner discovered a most potent factor for recalling past events, for emphasizing those present, and for anticipating those of the future. The Leit-motiv was, moreover, particularly well adapted to reveal the true conceptions of the composer himself. Vividness of portrayal was enhanced by means of intricate combinations of melodies and figures, free chromatic harmony, unfettered modulation, and elaborately conceived dramatic as well as thematic development toward some supreme climax. The application of the Leit-motiv theorem was conducive to greater license in the treatment of vocal interpretation. A fusion of parlante and the arioso was the result, and in later works the comparatively unintelligible enunciation of combined vocal forces was obviated by discarding the chorus almost altogether.

Retrospection shows us that there were originally three distinct divisions in opera: the recitativo, the aria, and the ritornello. At first the ritornello was but the repetition of the cadence, but developed subsequently into a transitory period intended to complete an unfinished vocal phrase or to describe the action on the stage. Later, a union of these three distinct divisions resulted in the arioso, or fragmentary cantilena joined to recitativo. The parlante or musical declamation over a melodic phrase in the orchestra originated in opera-buffa as developed by Piccini and Paesiello; subsequently Spontini transplanted it into serious opera. It is equivalent in spoken drama to melodramatic recitation. Wagner's style is therefore nothing more than an additional link in the chain of natural evolution.

The pith of Wagner's ideals may be summed up by saying that he aimed to substitute a noble form of art in the place of mere pleasure-giving and sensational fabrications. Music, poetic ideas, action and stage setting were all to be worthy of the subject intended for presentation. His choice of subject for dramatization was restricted to such as could embody characters capable of being treated morally and intellectually as well as Æsthetically. Wagner above all others defined the true mission of German national art and guided her to a tangible realization of that mission.

IV.

Wagner's operas and music dramas may be divided into either of two general classifications. The first treats of the musical contents and structural form of his dramas, and of the evolution of his philosophical ideas. The second relates solely to differentiated style of orchestration and numerical distribution of instruments.

The first classification embodies three distinct groups. The first of these groups contains all of Wagner's earlier attempts including "Rienzi," which is modelled according to the French and Italian "historic" school. With the exception of "Eine Faust OuvertÜre" which belongs also to this category, only occasional indications of marked genius are to be found in these works. The second group includes "Der Fliegende HollÄnder," "TannhÄuser" and "Lohengrin." These display a radical change in style, form and treatment, pronounced originality, continuity of music and a fusion of recitative and aria. The topics chosen for dramatization treat of German myths, mediÆval legends, and chivalrous ideals. Indications of the Leit-motiv principle, though used in an unobtrusive manner, are in evidence. The musical forms are not yet influenced by the profundity of thought and reflection that characterizes the works belonging to the third group. The third and last group includes "Tristan und Isolde," "Die Meistersinger von NÜrnberg," "Der Ring des Nibelungen," and "Parsifal." The complete fulfilment of Wagner's philosophical theories are here exposed. Wealth of harmony, characteristic rhythm and intensity of expression are combined with poetic reasoning, depth of thought and vivid dramatization. The centre of gravity, so to speak, is transferred to the orchestra. Sprech-singen is emphasized, whereas the Leit-motiv principle reaches its full development.

V.

The second classification, relating to differentiated style of orchestration, is popularly divided into three groups, but a division into four groups would seem more appropriate to the present writer. Wagner's earliest orchestral attempts need not be taken into consideration, and so the first group may include only "Rienzi," "Der Fliegende HollÄnder" and "TannhÄuser." The scores of these works do not display radical departure from contemporary methods excepting in polyphonic treatment and individualistic coloring. The instruments of wood are as yet represented only in pairs, although already a cor anglais and a bass-clarinet are regularly employed. The addition of a second piccolo flute, a second English horn and a third bassoon is but exceptional. The numerical distribution of strings and the constituency of the brass are normal. Entirely new tendencies are discovered in "Lohengrin" and "Tristan und Isolde" which comprise the second group, since each wood-wind family is now represented by three instruments. The number of strings are augmented so as to balance the wood-wind, as well as in consequence of their own frequent subdivision; but the brass is the same as in Group I. The magnitude of the Nibelungen Tetralogy gave rise to the adaptation of the exceptional third group. The augmentation affects both the wood and the brass. The wood-winds are divided into families of four each, and the same principle is applied to the brass. Strings, harps and battery are augmented in proportion. The reason for regarding "Die Meistersinger" and "Parsifal" as representatives of a separate fourth group is that in the former, Wagner reverted to the orchestra of Groups I and II, whereas the number of instruments used in "Parsifal" correspond to those in "Tristan." Notwithstanding, the orchestration and the treatment of instruments for both "Die Meistersinger" and "Parsifal" embody a composite style that frequently suggests certain traits peculiar to the Tetralogy. They may, therefore, be rightfully regarded as belonging to a distinct group by themselves.

We need not here concern ourselves again with the first mentioned philosophical and Æsthetic classification. On the other hand, the purpose of these pages certainly demands some further analysis of the second orchestral classification.

GROUP I. RIENZI; DER FLIEGENDE HOLLÄNDER; TANNHÄUSER.

"Rienzi" was first given at Dresden in 1842. Of its orchestration little need be said. Being influenced by Meyerbeer and the French dramatic traditions, the scoring embodies much that is extravagant and bombastic, though many instrumental passages of surprising beauty are by no means absent. What might be called the composite of rich, velvet tone-color peculiar to Wagner's orchestral palette is already noticeable—a coloring that was not attained even by Spontini, Meyerbeer or HalÉvy. "Der Fliegende HollÄnder" (Dresden, 1843) revolutionized at one stroke the dramatic functions of orchestration as well as the treatment of instruments, even if the combinations themselves are not radically different from contemporary procedure. In this transition work Wagner revealed the future path he was destined to pursue. The innovation of continuity and alliance of music, poetry, scenes and action proved that his latent powers had already begun to unfold themselves. "Der Fliegende HollÄnder" is the direct successor to Weber's romantic operas, and in detail and color it resembles Marschner's "Hans Heiling." For the first time he made use of the German myth. He drew freely upon a naturalistic use of chromatics and of astounding brass effects for portraying the tempest, called into requisition the most characteristic accents of the wood-wind to depict the gloomy atmosphere of the Northern seas, and elaborated upon Weber's use of the horns for romantic episodes. His subsequent predilection for divided strings is already to be found in a modified form. In a word, the entire work is imbued with virile force and truthful expression. Its successor, "TannhÄuser" (Dresden, 1845—Paris, 1861), follows along similar lines but displays greater advance both in the handling of the mediÆval legend itself and in style of orchestration. Of decidedly modern effect is the condensed declamatory style of TannhÄuser in the last act, as well as the powerful sweep of the violins in the Overture, the passage for 4-part violas in the March, and the important rÔle assigned to the harp throughout the opera. An admirable illustration of writing for unsupported wood-wind accompanies the exit of Elizabeth in the third act. Her grief and resignation could have found no more faithful interpreter than that solo for bass-clarinet beneath syncopated chords of gentle and tender-voiced flutes. The 12 horns on the stage in the first act, and the 12 trumpets for the March in the second act are treated in a novel and interesting manner that bears but slight resemblance to the previous experiments of the "historic" school.

In thus briefly analyzing the general characteristics of this first group, it is seen that in relation to practical instrumentation, only the brass was especially affected. The incorporation of regularly employed chromatic horns and trumpets afforded completeness and freedom. The use of three trumpets, which is also to be found in the scores of Mendelssohn and Schumann, balanced the trombones; and the substitution of the tuba for the opheicleide yielded greater sonority as well as a closer affinity in tone-color to that of the trombones themselves.

GROUP II. LOHENGRIN; TRISTAN UND ISOLDE.

"Lohengrin" was first performed at Weimar in 1850 under the direction of Liszt. It bears a striking relation to Weber's "Euryanthe," but exhibits, nevertheless, entirely new tendencies. It breathes the very atmosphere of chivalrous splendor, embodies ideal purity of sentiment and expression, and supplants traditional form by means of continuous and absolutely flexible melody. Conspicuous is the reconstruction of the orchestra in that the strings are much divided, and the wood-winds are represented by families of three instead of two instruments. Both Meyerbeer and Berlioz had made use of such triplets of uniform tone-color, but Wagner was the first to do so consistently. Not only were the resources for obtaining variety of individual and also of combined tonal effect thereby increased, but the ensemble of the full orchestra acquired greater firmness and sonority as well. Striking and entirely new effects confront us on every hand. The string writing is of surpassing beauty, whether illustrated by the division of violins in their ethereal range, or by passages assigned to divided violas and 'cellos combined with the harp. It is, however, primarily the wood-wind that is treated in a particularly novel manner. Familiar examples containing rare tonal tints and intense depth of sentiment are those associated with Elsa's first entry, or with the dramatic situation in the earlier part of the second act, where the English horn, clarinet, bass-clarinet, bassoons and 'cellos are most effectively combined. The cathedral scene in the second act presents another complete exposition of unsupported wood-wind. Not until 1859 was the score of "Tristan und Isolde" completed, for Wagner was simultaneously at work on the "Meistersinger" and the "Ring"; moreover, after the first performance of "Lohengrin," fifteen dreary years elapsed before "Tristan" was first presented, which finally took place in Munich in 1865. The exposition of this Keltic legend is marked by splendor of color and musical intricacy. Although it ushers in the beginning of Wagner's third creative period whereby the logical unfolding of his ideas of reform is carried out, the work is properly included in the second group of the "orchestral" classification, since the numerical distribution of instrumental parts is practically identical with that in "Lohengrin." However, the scoring is of a far higher degree of intensity. It abounds in every conceivable shade of composite tone-color, of striking contrasts, of inspiring outbursts. One of the most magnetic features is the impassioned yet melancholy tint that envelops the entire work as it were in its veiled embrace. The attainment of this objective colors much of the orchestration, as exemplified, for instance, by the predominance of violoncellos in four parts as well as by the combination of oboe, English horn, horn and bassoon soli in the Vorspiel. Again, a subdued yet intense impression is caused by the union of English horn, bassoon and trombones in the first act during the scene between Tristan and Isolde. Astounding skill is displayed in the development of thematic treatment leading to ever alternating climaxes, anticlimaxes, and monumental finales.

In the above second group, the orchestra is enlarged chiefly by the introduction of triplets of wood-wind instruments. The English horn and the bass-clarinet are employed as components of their respective families rather than as solo interpreters. They are replaced by a third oboe and a third clarinet in concerted forte numbers of extended length. No further purely practical innovations are to be noted other than a logical augmentation of the string band and progressive treatment of the brass.

(If the topics of this review were subject to despotic chronological sequence, it would be necessary, at this point, to touch upon the characteristics of "Die Meistersinger," for that work was first performed at Munich in 1868, three years after "Tristan" and one year before "Das Rheingold." As already suggested, however, the scoring of "Die Meistersinger" is such as to make it advisable to include it in a separate fourth group together with "Parsifal.")

GROUP III. DER RING DES NIBELUNGEN.

The Tetralogy presents not only the culmination of Wagner's poetic ideas and philosophical aspirations, but the final transformation in orchestral resources as well. The premiÈre of "Das Rheingold" took place in 1869 in Munich, followed in 1876 by the first performance of the entire "Ring" at Bayreuth. The music of the "Ring" is so inseparably welded to the drama that, apart from certain striking exceptions, much of it loses its significance when performed as "absolute music" away from the stage. At first sight the requisition made for so mighty an aggregation of instruments must have been indeed terrifying to a "Herrn Kapellmeister" of the old operatic school, but closer inspection of the orchestration reveals the fact that the glories of this noble tableau are obtained by masterful contrasts of detached little groups of uniform tone-color, rather than by cumulative tone quality and quantity. Space forbids more than a cursory glance at a very few of these novel characteristics in details of instrumentation. "Das Rheingold" shows, on the whole, great reserve in the simultaneous employment of large forces. For instance, the scene of the Rhine maidens is accompanied by the most transparent orchestration. Many variations in the use of unmixed tone-color could be cited, such as three oboes and English horn by themselves; English horn with three bassoons; horns alone, or with bassoons, or with bass-tuba. One of the most striking examples is to be found in the fourth scene where the chord of the diminished seventh is assigned to the lower notes of three clarinets and a bass-clarinet. The same consistent use of homogeneous quartets marks the deployment of the brass. The tubas appear entirely alone, as do also the four trumpets in combination with the four trombones. The final scene presents one of the exceptional instances of six independent parts for harps. The first act of "Die WalkÜre" is, in the opinion of the present writer, the most perfect specimen of dramatic writing in the literature of music.[57] Here again, the avoidance of massive scoring is particularly to be noted throughout almost the entire act. And what other instruments could have attained that maximum intensity of expression that characterizes the deployment of five solo violoncellos[58] as interpreters of tender longing and suppressed emotion? Some of the most impressive effects are obtained by means of such comparatively simple combinations as one solo oboe supported by two flutes, a clarinet and a bassoon, further assisted by a second fragmentary melodic theme in the 'cellos. Instances of independent phrases for three clarinets and bass-clarinet are again to be found, and in the third act, the horns are employed in six real parts. A large majority of effects and combinations that are conspicuous in "Das Rheingold" and "Die WalkÜre" naturally reappear in "Siegfried" and "GÖtterdÄmmerung." Further distinctive traits in "Siegfried" are the manifold division of violins and violoncellos, the extensive arpeggio passages for violas, the employment of viola harmonics, the important rÔle assigned to the double-basses, the composite tonal tint resulting from a reunion of the clarinet quartet and four solo 'cellos, and the use of bass- and double-bass tubas for impersonating the dragon. Another prominent illustration of sonorous yet transparent scoring is seen in the scintillating Forest Music in the second act and again in "GÖtterdÄmmerung," to which a striking contrast is subsequently afforded by the solemn and massive harmonies of the tubas in Siegfried's Funeral March. Nor should the prominent function of kettle-drums throughout the entire Tetralogy be overlooked.

In comparing the distribution of parts in the first, second, and third groups, we have seen that in the first of these the orchestra is normal, though the balance of the brass is improved. The augmentation of the second group is effected by employing three instruments in each family of the wood-wind. The third group, however, embodies a readjustment of both wood and brass into families of four. This requires a strong body of strings; incidentally, more harps are employed, whereas both the number and variety of instruments of percussion are increased. In addition to four trumpets and four trombones there are as many as eight horns and five tubas. Not only are these massed instruments never used simultaneously, but their latent powers are further intended to be modified by Wagner's plan for a partially concealed orchestra as at Bayreuth. To the brass is primarily entrusted the important function of contrasting three fundamental conceptions in the Tetralogy. Horns are symbolic of the poetic, of distant visions, of reminiscences, of imagination, of conscience. Trumpets and trombones represent a world of light midst the gods and heroes. Tubas portray material force, human suffering, fate.

GROUP IV. DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NÜRNBERG; PARSIFAL.

To classify these two works under one heading might at first sight appear incongruous, for apart from the fact that some dozen years separate the respective periods of their creation, the difference between them in style and objective is as that of the antipodes. The comic features and satirical purpose of the one bear absolutely no relation to the mystical and devotional tone of the other. In two respects, however, they have some points of affinity. The orchestration of both is more like that of "Tristan" than of the "Ring," and the harmonies are, to a certain extent, the adventitious corollary of intricate polyphonic voice-leading. This is, of course, particularly pronounced in "Parsifal," but it is in evidence in "Die Meistersinger" as well. Both works prove that the exceptional orchestral forces required for "Der Ring des Nibelungen" are by no means necessary to obtain sonority, richness, exhaustless variety and supreme dramatic intensity. Again, none of Wagner's dramas can rival "Die Meistersinger" in musical power, whereas "Parsifal," as the exponent of Wagner's religious views and his attitude toward Christianity, is unsurpassed for nobility of subject and dignity of treatment. With the performance of "Parsifal" at Bayreuth in 1882, Wagner ended his stupendous lifework. His death followed barely seven months later, but he had lived long enough to witness the attainment of his ambitions and ideals.

VI.

It is needless to enlarge upon the hostile criticism evoked by Wagner's theories, for his titanic achievements have remained unscathed in the very face of even such violent attacks as were hurled forth by Nordau and Nietzsche. Nevertheless, the present writer cannot refrain from referring to the petty antagonism Wagner had to endure as a consequence of the narrow-mindedness and non-progressive spirit of many of his most distinguished contemporaries. Even Rheinberger was not exempt from this defect, and his attitude toward Wagner must be regarded as being the more unaccountable since the memory of the Munich master is to be revered not alone for the profound knowledge, the depth of feeling, and the refinement that revealed themselves in his teaching and composition, but for the nobility of his soul and the loftiness of his purpose as well. And the close of Lobe's otherwise unprejudiced treatise on instrumentation displays a glaring inconsistency in its strictures upon Wagner's so-called overloaded orchestration. In his anxiety to decry overzealous Wagner worship, Lobe made laborious efforts to select examples that should support his adverse criticisms. This he openly acknowledges, although he admits that not all of Wagner's "Kraftbilder" are scored in so unfelicitous a manner. One of the two such illustrations cited by him embodies the episodic climax in "Lohengrin" where Elsa's ecstasy is portrayed in

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Lobe claims that the initial tones of Elsa's outburst are overpowered and that further, her succeeding phrases are marred rather than supported by reduplication of oboe and clarinet! No author can convince his readers with such biased and absurd arguments. To deliberately confine one's-self to such trivial points in demonstration of Wagner's scoring is not in keeping with the dignity of what is still a standard treatise. Even though it was published as early as 1864, that was the very year in which Wagner was called to Munich by King Ludwig II. By that time his works had already received sufficient recognition to command the most careful consideration even from pedants. Lobe's entire paragraph will bear repeating in consequence of its very incongruity:—

"In diesem Beispiel sehen wir als Hauptzeichnung die Melodie Elsa's. Ihr EntzÜcken ist herrlich deklamirt, aber fÜr wen? Kann irgend ein ZuhÖrer von dem Eintritt dieser Singstimme, und sie ist die wesentliche oder sollte es doch sein, auch nur eine Ahnung bekommen? Drei FlÖten, drei Oboen, drei Klarinetten, vier HÖrner, drei Fagotte, drei Trompeten, drei Posaunen, Tuba, Pauke, das Streichquartett, der KÖnig und der ganze Frauen- und MÄnnerchor schreien fortissimo gegen die einzelne Stimme des zarten Wesens Elsa! Dieser Riesenaccent aller vereinten Orchester- und Chorstimmen verstummt nun zwar und die Folge der Singmelodie Elsa's wird etwas hÖrbar, aber von einem rein und deutlich hervorglÄnzenden Gesang kann nicht die Rede sein; den die Mitsprache der ersten Oboe und ersten Klarinette im Einklang—beilÄufig bemerkt eine der fatalsten Verbindungen dieser beiden Instrumente—sowie der andern Blasinstrumente verwischen und verzehren den Klang der Singstimme und lassen gleichsam nur einen Schatten derselben vernehmen."

VII.

In summing up the chief characteristics of Wagner's perfect orchestration it is seen that although he was at first susceptible to tone-color as an end to itself, he learned to subordinate it to the demands of the musical and poetic ideas of the immediate dramatic situation. Greatest of masters for the orchestra, Wagner brought that organization to its highest point of evolution. Even though the scores of "Lohengrin" and "Tristan" contain, with the exception of bass-clarinet and bass-tuba, no instruments that had not been employed by Haydn and Mozart, it was Wagner that emphasized solidity, that made the orchestra firm and supple, that increased its melodic as well as harmonic force, and used it for two definite purposes: to render emotion and to portray action and situations. He was fortunate in being aided by the rapid improvements that were taking place in his day in the mechanism of instruments, as well as in the advance in musical education and technical skill of orchestral performers. His orchestration does not deviate from well-established and approved traditions, but the grouping and treatment of instruments are entirely new. The use of deep, sonorous basses never interferes with harmonic clearness or with the outline of melodic and rhythmic movement. The modern extreme development of unsupported wood-wind[59] is entirely due to Wagner. When his predecessors had had occasion to employ an English horn or a bass-clarinet, one of the oboe or clarinet players usually undertook the part, thus depriving the orchestra of possible effects for two oboes and English horn, or two clarinets and bass-clarinet. This defect was remedied by both Berlioz and Wagner in augmenting the wood-wind for the purpose of obtaining harmonies of uniform tone-color. The addition of horns as regular constituents of the second orchestral group[60] lent smoothness and cohesion to the former somewhat thin and uneven quality of the combined wood-wind. Some of the most mournful accents in Wagner's orchestra are those obtained from the velvet harmonies of three flutes in their lowest range. He regarded the clarinet[61] as the most expressive solo wind instrument in the orchestra, and recognized the latent efficiency of the bassoons whether as solo interpreters or in independent harmonies, whether as bass to the wood-wind or together with the horns alone.[62] The most radical changes are those affecting the brass. Nevertheless, the principle of using three or four instruments of the same family is in reality based upon Gluck's and Mozart's euphonious distribution of three-part harmony for trombones. Of incalculable value was the permanent employment of valve-horns and valve-trumpets, the immense development in horn writing, and the discarding of opheicleides. A world of majestic light, as exposed by the homogeneity of trumpets and trombones, is made to stand out in strong relief against the tubas' luxuriant wealth of harmony, or the veiled yet picturesque tonal tints of horns. The introduction of a complete group of tubas was certainly an entirely new idea. Much of Wagner's warm and rich orchestration is due to a substratum of soft brass harmonies that are apparently not audible at all. No composer knew better than he how to obtain the best effects from instruments of percussion without overstepping the bounds of artistic refinement. His use of kettle-drums was more practical than that of Berlioz; but it should not be forgotten that when Meyerbeer or Berlioz needed a numerical variety of tones or rapid changes in pitch, it was necessary to employ a number of drums and several performers, whereas Wagner was able in later years to attain the same object with fewer drums, in consequence of the perfecting of the "machine-drum" which allows of almost instantaneous change of pitch. The art of conducting received also a powerful impetus from Wagner, and his untiring efforts to raise the standard of the dramatic and concert stage were ably seconded by Liszt and subsequently by von BÜlow. When exercising the functions of a conductor, one of Wagner's strong principles of interpretation consisted in modifying a tempo in accordance with the momentary character of the dominating melodic themes.

The bitterness of conflict over Wagner's works has expended itself; hostile criticism is now exceptional. To-day Wagner stands forth as the accepted champion of dramatic reforms, as the most eminent composer of the nineteenth century, and as the greatest master of orchestration in the annals of the world.

VIII.

In these days the "New Movement" is no longer new, for the trend of modern music is ever progressive. For convenience, however, this classification may include Cornelius, Bruckner, Lassen, A. Ritter, Draeseke, Weingartner, NicodÉ, finally Richard Strauss.

Cornelius (1824) would appear to be thus far the only writer for the German stage since Wagner who has had something decidedly original and lasting to say.[63] Being a protÉgÉ of Liszt, he became an ardent partisan for Wagnerism. The cool reception of his "Barbier von Bagdad" when first performed at Weimar in 1858 was the immediate reason for causing Liszt to withdraw from that city in disgust. This lack of appreciation is the more unaccountable in that but eight years had elapsed since the residents of Weimar had welcomed Wagner's "Lohengrin" with enthusiasm. "Der Barbier" was a worthy successor to "Lohengrin"; not that the styles of these two operas have even the remotest affinity to each other, but rather the very originality of the "Barbier" should have commanded unquestionable approval. However, the succeeding generation of theatre-goers has been pleased to commend the work after a fashion, though it is to be regretted that this appreciation has not become whole-souled and universal. Not only is the music itself charming and vivacious, and the plot highly ingenious, but the orchestration is brimming over with mirth and good humor, portrays in the most subtle manner the amorous as well as the sentimental situations, and brings into requisition some very ludicrous traits of instrumentation. Moreover the Finale, "Salamaleikum," is a most magnificent piece of ensemble writing. Cornelius followed Wagner in writing all of his texts himself. "Der Cid" is less spontaneous than its predecessor, but the orchestration is that of a master, being imbued with genuine local coloring together with profound melancholy, suppressed emotion and heroic outbursts. It is interesting to conjecture what the outcome of Cornelius' setting of "GunlÖd" would have been, for he left behind him an unfinished text based upon the elder Scandinavian Edda.

Anton Bruckner (1824) is commonly identified with the New Movement, but he might with equal propriety be rated as a classical-romanticist. Although he possesses many warm admirers, the permanent value of his writings is open to question. His formal structure, contrapuntal treatment, and thematic development bear the impress of a scholarly touch, but in spite of certain leanings toward Wagnerian principles, his heavy style and rather precise music have a chilling effect upon the majority of listeners. The melodies are not flowing, the rhythm is monotonous, and the orchestration, though clever, lacks buoyancy and warmth.

The next four composers of this somewhat arbitrary list can be summarily disposed of, since they have advanced the evolution of orchestration to no perceptible degree. This statement is by no means intended to belittle the sterling qualities of their musicianship. All of them have won renown in their respective fields of activity, and their creative efforts disclose broad culture, wide experience, and a facile pen. Their instrumentation is invariably effective. Eduard Lassen (1830) and Felix Draeseke (1835) took a prominent part in propagating the tenets of Liszt and Wagner. Draeseke frankly declared himself for Wagner, and assisted him by means of his literary skill. Lassen succeeded Liszt as Generalmusikdirector of the Weimar Opera. Similar to that of many another talented though at first obscure aspirant, the success of his operas was due to the enterprise of Liszt himself. During his later years Lassen devoted himself almost exclusively to song-writing. As recently as two years before his death, which occurred in 1903, he remarked to the present writer that after having studied and conducted Wagner's works as far back as forty odd years ago, he had come to the conclusion that he himself had no further message to give to the dramatic world; consequently he withdrew from the arduous contest. Alexander Ritter (1833) was an able and painstaking composer, and wrote for the opera as well as for the orchestra alone. His scoring was consistent with his scholarship, but the substance of his productions embodies little that is new. Weingartner (1853) is best known as a concert conductor. His directing exercises a peculiarly magnetic fascination, and that quite especially upon the ladies! His movements are wonderfully graceful, and suggest, at times, a subtle hypnotic power flavoring of Orientalism.

In turning to the magnum opus of NicodÉ (1853), we find ourselves face to face with one of the most interesting specimens of modern orchestration—which is saying a great deal in this age when the art of scoring has reached such stupendous virtuosity. "Das Meer," symphonic ode for solo voices, male chorus, orchestra, and organ, may not reveal striking originality of subject-matter, but it is a magnificent exposition of realism and discloses the author's keen appreciation for the imaginative, the descriptive, the picturesque. One could readily suppose that NicodÉ might have been more or less influenced by Rubinstein's "Ocean Symphony," but this is not at all the case. NicodÉ's primary aim was the acquisition of superb and startling effects by means of tone-color pure and simple. His technique is enormous. One of his strongest points is the ability to procure scintillating tints by means of multiple division of strings alone. By piling up a large number of independent and seemingly irreconcilable melodic themes one on top of the other, a marvellous effervescent polyphony is procured. The best example of pure tone effect is revealed in the movement entitled "Phosphorescent Lights." The modern symphonic orchestra is, of course, employed, being further augmented by an additional harp, and two tenor-tubas with the usual bass-tuba. The battery assumes gigantic proportions in that demand is made for two pair of kettle-drums, one pair of cymbals, a bass-drum, a triangle, a gong, and a set of bells. Even these additions do not satisfy the composer, for behind the stage is concealed a brass band of three trumpets, seven trombones and a bass-tuba.

IX.

Richard Strauss[64] (1864). It is universally conceded that the greatest master of orchestration after Richard Wagner is Richard Strauss. The latter's career thus far bears some affinity to that of Mendelssohn as regards early artistic surroundings, scholarly training in branches other than music, and exemption from monetary anxiety. But whereas Mendelssohn's affluent circumstances and prosperous career were undoubtedly detrimental to the development of profound pathos and tragic intensity, Strauss has made the demonstration that worldly cares and petty professional obstacles are not the essential stimuli for herculean artistic growth embodying the portrayal of experiences not personally experienced.

(Biography.) Strauss was reared in a schooling so orthodox that not even his severest critics can venture to deny his mastery of traditional usages,—indeed, in his earlier works Strauss has given tangible proof of his ability to compose in conservative forms. He is the son of a French-horn player of rare genius, whose memorable performance of his son's horn concerto first taught the present writer the latent possibilities of that instrument. Strauss is said to have produced a polka at the age of six, whereas already during his boyhood days he devoted his spare moments to writing orchestral overtures, choruses, sonatas, and the like. Although enrolled as a student at the Gymnasium and for one year at the University of Munich, he was simultaneously given opportunity to develop his musical talents along the prescribed lines of practical training. His public career as a composer may be said to have begun when two of his choruses were given at a school concert. In 1880 he succeeded in having three of his songs sung at a public concert. He was then only sixteen years old. These minor achievements, however, fall into insignificance in comparison with the recognition awarded him in the following year, when Benno Walther, concertmeister of the Munich Opera, produced the string quartet, op. 2, in the course of the annual series of chamber concerts. Walther's quartet was at that time highly authoritative in musical circles. In the same year Hermann Levi performed the symphony in D minor. Strauss next drew attention to himself with a serenade, op. 7, for thirteen instruments, and thereby interested no less a person than Hans von BÜlow. This was destined to influence Strauss' entire career, for in 1885 he was engaged as musical director at Meiningen in a subordinate though honorable position to von BÜlow himself. It was von BÜlow, therefore, that gave Strauss his initial training as an orchestral conductor, a branch of art in which he has now attained proficiency only secondary to his powers as a composer. At Meiningen he was enabled to assimilate not only von BÜlow's magnetic technique and authoritative interpretation, but was also led to grasp Wagner's ideals of conducting. In addition he also appeared occasionally as a concert pianist, and meanwhile completed his more or less conservative symphonic phantasy "Aus Italien." Here, too, he came in contact with the Wagnerian enthusiast, Alexander Ritter, an intimacy that had much to do with the subsequent moulding of his first distinctively original works, "Macbeth" and "Don Juan." Toward the close of 1885 he succeeded von BÜlow as conductor of the Meiningen Orchestra, retained the post for one season, and then accepted a subordinate position in his native city under Levi and Fischer at the Munich Royal Opera. Like most prophets in their own country, he had to overcome the prejudice of some of the older gentlemen of the orchestra who had been colleagues of his father and had seen the son grow up. For three years he was now occupied with the rather thankless task of conducting lesser operatic performances, but devoted himself none the less with untiring effort to the development of his creative talents, which bore fruit in "Macbeth," "Don Juan" and "Tod und VerklÄrung." In 1889 he was called to the Weimar Opera, first as subordinate to Lassen, eventually as full-empowered potentate. He there married one of the operatic singers, Pauline de Ahne, daughter of a Bavarian general. While at Weimar he wrote his first opera, "Guntram." In 1894 Strauss returned to the Munich Opera in a capacity more responsible than formerly. His services as a conductor of unusual ability were by this time much in demand for special concert performances in European musical centres. The atmosphere of his native city must have been particularly inspiring to his creative Muse, for from 1894 to 1899 no less than four mighty orchestral works emanated from his pen—"Till Eulenspiegel," "Also sprach Zarathustra," "Don Quixote," "Ein Heldenleben." In 1899 he was called to the Berlin Opera as an associate with Muck. It is here that he at present wields the baton with unflagging zeal, in spite of his restless activity as a composer. Thus far his most important contributions to the twentieth century have been the opera "Feuersnoth" and the "Symphonia Domestica."[65]

Such are the biographical outlines of an epoch-making composer, an eminent conductor, and a well-trained pianist who has but entered upon the fifth decade of his lifetime. Before proceeding to an examination of the aims and ideals that are at the root of Strauss' huge orchestral conceptions, some comparisons between him and his predecessors as suggested by Richard Aldrich will bear citation:—

"At forty Strauss is the most commanding figure in the musical world of to-day. It will be an interesting disclosure for future years to make as to how much of his lifework he has already accomplished, and whether the salient characteristics are already fixed and contained in what he has done, or whether this is but a preparation. We may be reminded that on their fortieth birthdays Mozart and Schubert had put the final seal upon their work, Mozart five years before, Schubert nine. Beethoven had given to the world his first six symphonies, his 'Fidelio,' and the 'Leonore' overtures, the 'Coriolanus' overture, the 'Egmont' music, the five piano concertos and the violin concerto, nine string quartets, including those dedicated to Count Rasoumoffsky; the 'Kreutzer' and the earlier violin sonatas, the 'Waldstein' and the earlier piano sonatas. Wagner had written 'Rienzi,' 'The Flying Dutchman,' 'TannhÄuser,' 'Lohengrin,' 'Eine Faust OuvertÜre,' and had conceived and partly executed 'The Ring of the Nibelung.' And yet these two had not given the finest fruitage of their genius. What Strauss has done in his younger manhood will not, perhaps, be counted of greater worth. Whether, like these two at his age, he will go on to further development may also be curiously questioned, and whether he will turn aside from the path in which he has already started. On that path he seems already to have reached the furthest confines of the territory he has traversed."

X.

(Classification of Compositions.) Similar to the works of most composers who have a genuinely original message to give to the world, those of Strauss may be divided into distinct groups of differentiated creative periods. He has progressed step by step through various stages of development. Conforming at first to the conservative romanticism founded upon traditional forms of Mendelssohn and Schumann, he soon came to admire and emulate the doctrines of Brahms—an influence that has never been effaced from his subsequent writings even though his associations with von BÜlow and Ritter caused him to lean more and more upon Wagner and Liszt for the dominating thought of his conceptions. With one stroke, however, "Macbeth" and "Don Juan" went far beyond the tenets of the Weimar coterie, though the succeeding productions "Tod und VerklÄrung" and "Guntram" suggest what has been called a reaction toward Liszt and Wagner. But with "Till Eulenspiegel" and "Also sprach Zarathustra" Strauss inaugurated a permanent and ever advancing method of procedure distinctively individualistic and unprecedented, that has so far culminated in the vast realistic tableaux of "Don Quixote" and "Ein Heldenleben."

(1st Period.) Reference has already been made to his youthful efforts. After the small choruses, the songs, the string quartet, op. 2, and the symphony in D minor, there appeared some interesting experiments in various fields of composition. The list includes a pianoforte sonata, op. 5; a sonata for violoncello and pianoforte, op. 6; the serenade, op. 7, for wind-instruments, patronized by von BÜlow; a violin concerto, op. 8; "Stimmungsbilder" for pianoforte, op. 9; the French-horn concerto, op. 11, already referred to; a symphony in F minor, op. 12; a pianoforte quartet, op. 13; and "Wanderers Sturmlied," for six-part mixed chorus and orchestra, op. 14. This choral work has been called "a broadly flowing stream of polyphonic vocal harmony against an elaborate and independent orchestral accompaniment that was something quite unprecedented." The above compositions comprise what might be termed the first of Strauss' creative periods, having all been written before he was twenty. They present a conventional though rapid development of and graduation from the dominating influences of Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, as suggested above, and gradually point more and more toward Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner.

(2d Period.) The symphony in F minor, written in 1883, may be looked upon not only as the culmination of these earliest attempts, but also as the first of Strauss' really significant orchestral compositions. Its maiden performance took place not in Germany but in this country, when, in 1884, Theodore Thomas produced it in New York with the Philharmonic Society.

Several years now elapsed before Strauss was ready to offer to the world the first of his great symphonic tone-poems: "Aus Italien"—sinfonische Phantasie, G-dur (op. 16, 1886). This was a marked advance upon the previous symphony, but though it reveals the subsequent path Strauss was to pursue, and embodies complex polyphony and increased command over the technics of orchestration, it is still dominated by Mendelssohn's and Schumann's subjective idea of program-music.

(3d Period.) Not until von BÜlow and Ritter had fathomed the true depth of their young associate's latent powers did he proceed to evolve his conceptions in a language that has startled the entire musical world.

"Macbeth"—Tondichtung nach Shakespeare's Drama (op. 23, 1887), is the first of these vast color-pictures. Although "Don Juan" is to be recorded as opus 20, Friedrich RÖsch, the authoritative reviewer of "Ein Heldenleben," places it after "Macbeth," although classifying it also as opus 20. He gives the date of its completion as 1888. Dr. Riemann's Dictionary of Music, which is the most accurate book of its kind in existence, seems for once to be at fault in stating the various dates at which Strauss penned his creations. "Macbeth," like its successors, at once displays a wealth of melodic utterance in all the principal orchestral voices, a prolific number of themes and sub-themes, and the most intimate acquaintance with the specific characteristics of the various instruments as well as with orchestral combinations and the resultant mixture of tonal tints thereby to be obtained. Like Berlioz, Strauss secures dramatic effects by means of vivid orchestration. The themes are arrayed in a kaleidoscopic sequence of instrumental color rather than being subjected to elaborate thematic treatment, and climaxes are reached by means of dynamic effects instead of by melodic evolution. An elaborately conceived program justifies the requisition for vast orchestral resources. There is further evidence of genuine inspiration, of a true gift for thematic development forming a marvellous filigree of contrapuntally interwoven leading motives, of intellectual power, philosophical reflection, poetic revery, and naÏve humor. The following themes from "Macbeth" demonstrate the wide range of thematic conception Strauss possesses:[66]

No. 1

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No. 2

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No. 3

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The first consists of a flowing cantilena evolved on broad and dignified lines. The second is a striking example of freely used chromatic intervals. The third follows Wagner's precedent in deploying instruments of brass in forceful and incisive utterance.

"Don Juan"—Tondichtung nach Lenau (op. 20, 1888), belongs to the same creative period as "Macbeth" and follows the same general outlines of philosophical, structural, and orchestral procedure. The following four representative themes are suggestive not only of "local" coloring but reveal the highest attribute of a genuine composer in that their very nature suggests the general type of instrument to be employed. Proof is thus to be had that Strauss simultaneously conceives his subject-matter and the orchestral garment in which it is to be attired.

No. 4

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No. 5

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No. 6

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No. 7

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(4th Period.) "Tod und VerklÄrung"—Tondichtung (op. 24, 1889), is classified with the opera "Guntram" for embodying a certain reactionary trend on the part of the author. There is no lack of intricate polyphony, daring harmonic combinations, complex rhythm, startling contrasts, monumental climaxes, and clever orchestral devices; but in these works Strauss has exercised more restraint than in the preceding "Macbeth" and "Don Juan," whereas the acme of his extreme realism was not reached until after he began his following and mightiest series of symphonic poems beginning with "Till Eulenspiegel." To quote the refined language of Herman Klein: "In 'Tod und VerklÄrung' is depicted the death struggle of a man before whose mental vision there passes the panorama of a wasted life followed by the man's transfiguration, as his redeemed soul passes out of earthly existence into a higher state." Of the three themes from "Tod und VerklÄrung" appended below, it is interesting to note that the first of these (No. 8) was subsequently interwoven into the introductory theme of "Ein Heldenleben," and appears as the third phrase of the Motiv representing "Der Held." (See page 113, example 22, bars 6 and 7.)

No. 8

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No. 9

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No. 10

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Strauss has not been so conspicuously successful with his operas as with his orchestral works,[67] but the following themes from "Guntram" disclose the general nature of his operatic conceptions.

No. 11

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No. 12

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No. 13

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No. 14

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(5th Period.) The most radical exposition of modern orchestration is discovered in the fifth period of symphonic creations beginning with "Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche"—nach alter Schelmenweise in Rondo-Form (op. 28, 1895)[68] and culminating thus far in "Ein Heldenleben." Of the following two themes from "Till Eulenspiegel," No. 16, representing the titular character, is a brilliant specimen of horn-writing, as embodied in the Rondo.

No. 15

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No. 16

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Flowing cantilena, perverted rhythmic effects and still another illustration of virile horn-writing are presented in the following examples from the musical exposition of Zarathustra's philosophy under the title of "Also sprach Zarathustra"—Tondichtung frei nach Nietzsche (op. 30, 1896).[69]

No. 17

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No. 18

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No. 19. Credo in unum Deum

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Among the most characteristic of Richard Strauss' pictorial themes are the following two from his portrayal of Cervantes' rueful hero: "Don Quixote"—phantastische Variationen Über ein Thema ritterlichen Characters (op. 35, 1897):

No. 20

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No. 21

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XI.

(Æsthetics.) Similar to the orchestral works of Wagner, those of Strauss are worthy of exhaustive critical analysis. To carefully examine them all, however, would require an entire volume by itself. It is therefore proposed to select as typical only a few of the most characteristic points from one of the most characteristic of Strauss' orchestral works: "Ein Heldenleben"—Tondichtung (op. 40, 1898).

In order to appreciate the magnitude of his undertakings, let us first see how he maps out and elaborates upon the programmatic theme chosen for musical setting. The nuclear thought of "Ein Heldenleben" is the simultaneous portrayal of a combined mortal and mental hero belonging to both a worldly and a spiritual realm, or as Friedrich RÖsch expresses it: "Eine harmonisch gesteigerte Zusammenfassung eines Volks- und Kriegshelden und eines von kÜnstlerischer Schaffensfreude beseelten Übermenschen aus dem Reiche der Phantasie."

The "program" of "Ein Heldenleben" contains six general divisions:

• I. DER HELD.
• II. DES HELDEN WIDERSACHER.
• III. DES HELDEN GEFÄHRTIN.
• IV. DES HELDEN WALSTATT.
• V. DES HELDEN FRIEDENSWERKE.
• VI. DES HELDEN WELTFLUCHT UND VOLLENDUNG.

No. I is comprised of two general groups of thematic material. The first group is in reality one single and broadly constructed main theme,—the synthesis of five distinctive motives. The second group is made up of four contrapuntally interwoven and super-imposed secondary themes. After these nine themes have been duly presented, they are subjected to recapitulation and development. A tenth figure, based upon previous material, is also introduced.

The first group of themes, given out by low stringed-instruments, horns, etc., begins as follows:[70]

No. 22

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The first theme of the second group is assigned to divided first violins, beneath which wind-instruments intone the second theme.

No. 23

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No. II contains five sharply contrasted and interwoven themes. (No. 24.) The piercing accents of the wood-wind in their shrillest and most blatant range are here drawn into requisition, and are legitimately suggestive of Wagner's "Beckmesser" orchestration. The section subsequently embodies five modified expositions from the first leading theme of No. I.

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No. III is ushered in by a tender theme for solo violin:

No. 25

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This is followed by an exposition of five themes of intentional similarity, which depict the varying moods of the hero's courtship. These themes are further enhanced by characteristic and contrasted orchestral tone-color.

No. 26

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The section further embodies some six motives that are either reminiscences from former or anticipations of subsequent thematic material. RÖsch calls attention to an interesting passage at the close of this section, a passage that cannot be justified by any rules of harmony. He suggests that in modern orchestration many seemingly irreconcilable harmonic combinations become perfectly logical if the auditor train himself to follow the harmonic corollary of complex counterpoint "horizontally" instead of "vertically." The passage in question consists of a protracted chord, G flat major, sustained by muted strings, while various instruments of wood super-impose a number of independent themes whose concentrated effect forms chords entirely foreign to the underlying key of G major. The present writer, however, is inclined to regard this hazy film of string-tone as nothing more than a tonic and dominant organ-point with the third of the triad unobtrusively added.

The "program" of No. IV is symbolic of martial strife, the depictment of which, subdivided into three parts together with an introduction, extends almost to the end of the movement, when a coda in two short divisions portrays victory and embodies a hymn of praise. From a musical standpoint, No. IV may be looked upon as that section of the entire symphonic poem in which the leading themes are subjected to systematic and elaborate musical development. In addition, one finds some ten new themes, such as a striking fanfare for trumpets behind the scenes (No. 27) and other warlike strains, of which Nos. 28 and 29 represent the missiles of the enemy.

This fanfare (No. 27) exhibits one of the most remarkable mixtures of three simultaneously combined keys that has ever emanated from the mind of man:

No. 27

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By examining the first trumpet part by itself:

No. 27a

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one discovers a perfectly harmless figure in the key of B flat major. The second trumpet, however, holds tenaciously to the key of G flat major:

No. 27b

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The third trumpet is unquestionably in the key of B flat minor, or, at a pinch, in its relative major—D flat:

No. 27c

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The resultant cross-relation caused by such an amalgamation of otherwise unoriginal figures excites a most remarkable impression.

The next two examples embody characteristic employment of wood-wind instruments:

No. 28

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No. 29

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No. V is primarily noteworthy for the poetic fancy that impelled Strauss to embody no less than twenty-four motives from his preceding symphonic poems, as well as from "Guntram" and from "Traum durch die DÄmmerung." These themes are, of course, not presented in a row, but are joined together or subtly interwoven or contrapuntally super-imposed one over the other, and one might again suggest that they must be listened to horizontally and not vertically. Incidentally it might be added that this Division V of "Ein Heldenleben" draws into requisition every single example given above from No. 1 to No. 21 inclusive, with the exception Nos. 16 and 19. Wagner pointed the way for such a procedure by introducing the opening bars from "Tristan und Isolde" into the "Meistersinger." Strauss, however, went much further, and in the course of Des Helden Friedenswerke he has drawn freely upon "Macbeth," "Don Juan," "Tod und VerklÄrung," "Till Eulenspiegel," "Zarathustra," and "Don Quixote." He further elaborates upon two practically new themes (Nos. 30 and 31), although an anticipation of the second of these themes is already to be found in Division III.

No. 30

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No. 31

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No. VI brings this noble creation to a fitting end. With the exception of an episodic anti-climax, the movement is dominated by calm and majestic peace, as exemplified by themes No. 32 (evolved from No. 31) and No. 33.

No. 32

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No. 33

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Such are the vast dimensions of Richard Strauss' orchestral tableaux! His other works are evolved on similarly broad lines. "Ein Heldenleben," with its six well-defined divisions, includes no less than seventy themes. The score makes demand for one hundred and five instrumentalists:—

XII.

Since composing what might be called the Tetralogy of mighty productions that have been classified together as belonging to the 5th Period, Strauss has written two further important works: the opera "Feuersnoth" and the "Symphonia Domestica." The latter is still in manuscript,[71] and but recently had a hearing in this country under the composer's personal direction. It is as yet too early to suggest a sixth period in Strauss' style of writing.[72] What is more, the two recent offerings have too little in common to justify classifying them together. "Feuersnoth" has shared the fate of its predecessor, "Guntram," in that it has been granted no more than a respectful hearing, and is not to be compared as a work of art with Strauss' symphonic undertakings. As to the "Symphonia Domestica," the very topic chosen for exposition gives rise to some misgivings as to whether it justifies the expenditure of so much vital creative energy. The subject and the elaborate means employed to depict it would appear somewhat incongruous. The sub-title of this paradoxical essay reads: "Ein Tag aus meinem Familienleben," and the orchestra is required to expound upon the charmingly naÏve topics of Papa, Mama, and BÉbÉ. Incidentally, one passage introduces the worthy aunts as exclaiming in chorus, "Just like his father"; the uncles, "Just like his mother." The "Symphonia Domestica" is further paradoxical in that the score includes no definite programmatic commentary, and Strauss himself has been quoted as saying emphatically, "This time I wish my music to be listened to purely as music." The work is therefore intended to be accepted not as a symphonic poem but as a symphony "In einem Satz" like Mendelssohn's "Scotch" or Schumann's D minor symphony. In the face of all this we find a program, and a positive one at that, at the root of the matter! In reality, its only claim to the title of "symphony" rests upon the general outlines of its formal structure, which is comprised of three main divisions preceded by an elaborate introduction. But it is assuredly not "absolute" music. On the other hand, its thematic continuity is far more closely knit together than that of the above-mentioned symphonies of Mendelssohn and Schumann.

In the "Symphonia Domestica" we recognize the personal element that asserted itself, though in an unobtrusive manner, in "Ein Heldenleben." Humorous inclinations, characteristic of "Don Quixote," are also in evidence.

The Introduction is an exposition of the three principal themes. The theme for the father is comprised of three contrasted sections (No. 34, a, b, c). The mother is characterized by a lively and perhaps slightly undignified theme (No. 35). For the child's theme (No. 36) Strauss makes use of an oboe d'amore. The tone of this practically obsolete member of the wood-wind is veiled and tender, and the instrument found favor with Bach who assigned to it an important rÔle in his mass in B minor,—in fact two oboi d'amore are employed for accompanying the bass solo "Et in Spiritum Sanctum."

No. 34, a

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No. 34, b

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No. 34, c

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No. 35

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No. 36

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The following sportive Scherzo or first main division proper presents a sprightly development of the three primary themes and especially of the child's theme. The movement is finally brought to a restful ending.

The succeeding Adagio enlarges upon the father's theme and pictures him alone as if in a revery. The music is reflective and dreamy, at times restless and impassioned as well.

The Finale embodies a lively double-fugue (No. 37, a and b), of which the principal theme consists of a diminution of the child's theme (No. 36). The close of the work is calm and peaceful.

No. 37, a

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No. 37, b

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By thus analyzing the programmatic foundation of two of Strauss' latest orchestral conceptions one can obtain at least a superficial idea of the somewhat eccentric though intensely original range of his imagination. The philosophical aspect of the "Symphonia Domestica" is, of course, far simpler than that of "Ein Heldenleben" and its companions, nor would it seem to possess the same scope or exert the same fascination that his nobler and more serious works do. The orchestration, however, leaves nothing to be desired. There is no retrogression in the deployment of the instruments whether as solo or in combination. Strauss is in command of an orchestral technique so deep-rooted that it can never fail him. One would have supposed that his works prior to the "Symphonia Domestica" had made requisition for practically every legitimately available instrument in existence, but the addition of an oboe d'amore together with four saxophones proves that Strauss has an insatiable craving for ever novel tonal tints, and whereas "Ein Heldenleben" requires 105 instrumentalists, the symphony demands 108.

Before proceeding to sum up the cardinal features of Strauss' orchestration, it is desired to call attention to his highly commendable foresight in evolving his songs with pianoforte accompaniment on comparatively simple lines, thereby greatly enhancing their effectiveness for vocal utterance as well as their adaptability for extensive rendition. It is a rare attribute of genius to possess the faculty of colossal orchestral language and at the same time of simple and pathetic song-speech.

XIII.

(Instrumentation.) The marvellous subtleties of Strauss' instrumentation and the irresistible sweep and large contour of his orchestration have already been so thoroughly aired by prominent critics the world over, that there is little further to say beyond epitomizing in a few brief sentences the general consensus of opinion. Founding his art of scoring upon that of Berlioz and Wagner, Strauss evidently has also made a careful study of the means and methods of his eminent contemporary, Saint-SaËns, for the performances of "Samson et Dalila" at the Berlin Royal Opera, when controlled by Strauss' magnetic force, are a source of artistic delectation. The fundamental reason that makes his scoring so effective is his intimate acquaintance with the characteristics of each individual instrument even to the minutest detail of mechanical limitation or latent potentiality. Therefore his instrumentation pure and simple as distinct from orchestration en masse is unhesitating and authoritative. In thus appreciating the imperative necessity for an exhaustive study of the instruments themselves, Strauss has done no more than to follow the precepts of his illustrious model, Wagner. Strauss would be entitled to but little credit had he not advanced beyond his master, for proportionately, Wagner established a far greater number of unalterable precedents than Strauss has since been able to add to. The criticism has been advanced that Strauss' demands upon the technique of the performers are excessive, and that he is given to force the instruments, and especially those of brass, into unnatural registers. Such points, however, would appear to be for the gentlemen of the orchestra to decide, and the enthusiasm and grim determination with which they overcome seemingly insurmountable difficulties at rehearsal, and the suavity and verve with which the performances of his works by first-class orchestras are carried through, may be looked upon as tangible proof that Strauss knows what he is about. The performers may complain of the demands made upon them, but they realize that the page before them bears the impress of a master of instrumentation whose music is written with special regard for the very instrument they are playing,—can and must therefore be played. And they accordingly respect the author of their arduous though fascinating task. Finally, if the now childlike simplicity of Schubert's orchestration proved a stumbling block to the Viennese orchestra only fifty odd years ago (as stated on page 75), and furthermore Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde" shared the same fate at a still more recent date, it will not be difficult to realize that Strauss fifteen years ago taxed the virtuosity of the performers with passages that are already no longer dreaded. As to the details of instrumentation, he has strengthened and elaborated upon the methods of his predecessors, assimilated the procedures of his contemporaries, besides resuscitating various obsolete instruments and initiating numerous novelties of his own.

The flexibility of execution that formerly was expected only of a first violinist is now imposed upon all five sections of the string band, and each member finds before him the pages of what looks like a concerto.[73] To the wood-wind are assigned passages that Wagner would have hesitated to write.[74] What Strauss demands from them, Beethoven might have demanded from the strings. Most prominent of all is the attention bestowed upon the deployment of the brass as initiated by Wagner.[75] The trumpets are treated with unprecedented freedom, and are expected to perform passages either of flowing melody or of rhythmic intricacy in the fastest of tempos. The horns are taught to display the agility of violoncellos. In four-part writing, the fourth horn is much used as a deep bass-instrument absolutely apart from the three upper horns. The trombones are employed as much for unallied melodic utterance as for combined harmonic effects, and the intricacy of their parts constantly necessitates the use of three staves in the partitur. Incidental mention might also be made of such devices for acquiring weird tonal tints as obtained from muted trombones. Similar to Wagner's procedure in the "Meistersinger" Vorspiel, the tubas—and particularly the tenor tuba—are constantly detached from their conventional association with the trombones, for the purpose of giving expression to flowing cantilena. Novelty in the use of instruments of percussion is restricted to rhythmic peculiarities and original combinations with other instruments of more variable pitch; for Wagner's general methods of handling the battery cannot be improved upon.

In a word, the three choirs of the orchestra have respectively advanced one step higher. The string band are graduated to the plane of so many virtuoso soloists. The wood-wind replace the strings and are themselves replaced by the brass. The battery acquire prominence such as the classicists formerly allowed to the trumpets and trombones.

(Orchestration.) The numerical distribution of Strauss' orchestra is, of course, consistent with the modern custom of employing quartets of uniform tone-color. But he advances yet further by making permanent Wagner's occasional incorporation into the orchestra of a second harp, an E flat clarinet, a double quartet of horns, five instead of four trumpets, and a tenor-tuba in addition to the bass-tuba. The occasional addition of unusual instruments such as an oboe d'amore and saxophones has already been referred to.

The sum total of Strauss' orchestration as a whole consists of what has been termed its "exposed" quality, resulting in a "vast piece of chamber music."[76] The extensive range of his imagination reveals itself in constantly novel combinations and kaleidoscopic variety of effects that are unprecedented. His command of dynamics is superb. His synthesis of thematic counterpoint in all the voices of the different choirs is at times so reckless that the euphony of its harmonic corollary is endangered and the resultant effect presents a chaos of cacophony unless the auditor accustom himself to follow the Melos not vertically but horizontally. The orchestration is the most vivid in existence. Realism is accentuated. The tonal tints are scintillating and glowing. Every single instrument in the orchestra has an indispensable rÔle assigned to it. The scores abound in clever orchestral devices, in startling contrasts, powerful crescendos and exciting climaxes, and disclose the mind of a master possessed of poetic fancy, natural humor, artistic culture, strong individuality, philosophical insight and intellectual power.

The titanic achievements of Richard Strauss have caused him to appear as the most conspicuous living musician, and in the arrangement of a modern program, his works are at present the accepted companions to those of his models in rich and massive orchestration, Wagner and Liszt; to those of Brahms, conservator of classic models and loftiest ideals; to Saint-SaËns' scintillating and unrivalled tableaux; to Tschaikowsky's sombre tone-pictures, to DvorÁk's brilliant and vivacious portrayals, to Grieg's poetic and popular conceptions.

XIV.

It is high time to bring this fascinating subject of modern German progressiveness to a close; otherwise there is no knowing whither this history might lead us. In these days even a secondary composer is supposed to be thoroughly conversant with every subtlety in the art of orchestration. Germany still leads the van; the number of her eminent masters of modern instrumentation is legion. The ambition of the ultra-modern school is to out-Wagner Wagner. It will suffice to make mention of Max Schillings' "Ingwelde" or of Cyrill Kistler's "Kunihild und der Brautritt auf Kynast" with its poem in alliterative verse in strictly Wagnerian lines by Graf Sporck. The same exaggerated sense of morbidness and pessimism has found its way as well into other fields of German composition as discovered in certain ones of Hugo Wolf's intensely modern and magnificent songs, or in Max Reger's organ works of questionable worth with their atrocious harmonic mixture, their intricacy of contrapuntal treatment, and their extreme difficulty of execution.[77] These restless signs of evolution are perfectly logical and eminently proper. In many instances the results have been highly successful, but again they have not. On the other hand, a number of living German composers could still be cited who are possessed of sufficient poise to accept the spirit of modern progression without allowing their convictions to carry them to extremes. One of the most successful of these is Humperdinck, whose "HÄnsel und Gretel" acquires its effectiveness primarily by means of the orchestra. The exceedingly simple vocal parts are founded entirely on Volksmelodien; Leit-motiven add coherence to the opera as a whole, whereas the scoring is amazingly complicated and elaborate though ever lucid and euphonious.[78] Ludwig Thuille[79] has earned deserved success with his charming "Lobetanz," and Kienzl has captivated the masses with "Der Evangelimann," a work that is both dignified and uplifting in spite of its eclectic appropriations from Meyerbeer, Wagner, Gounod, and even Mascagni. Georg Schumann, also, is to be commended for the "healthy" tendencies of his orchestral works, of which both the symphonic chorale variations and the "LiebesfrÜhling" overture have been heard in America.[80]

XV.

The reader will pardon the appendage of a few final remarks relating to the progress of lighter German music during the nineteenth century, for otherwise these records would not be complete. By retracing a few of our steps we find that the more important successors of Kreutzer (who was mentioned on page 73 of Chapter IX, and lived from 1780 until 1849) were Lortzing, Nicolai, Flotow, SuppÉ, and Johann Strauss junior. For charming originality and for naturalness of expression Lortzing (1801) stands head and shoulders above the remaining composers of this list. His works show the unmistakable influence of Weber, and just this romantic tendency accounts for the universal popularity of his "Czar und Zimmermann," this tendency being, moreover, still more marked in his best work: "Die beiden SchÜtzen." Nicolai (1810) wrote in the conventional Italian style. "The Merry Wives of Windsor" is still one of the popular comic operas of the day. Flotow (1812) earned notoriety through "Stradella" and "Martha." His aims are not high, neither is his music on a par with that of Lortzing; he displays, none the less, a happy faculty for instilling warmth of sentiment into his works. SuppÉ (1820) has acquired the nomenclature of "The German Offenbach" by reason of his pleasing operettas and vaudeville. Johann Strauss junior (1825) owes a world reputation to his sprightly "Fledermaus." These are the men who have been instrumental in transplanting the daintiness and refinement of modern light French opera into indigenous German productions. The results have been directly beneficial. Not only has this transplantation of exotic principles tempered the general taste of the German public for an all too heavy and sedate form of melodic and structural treatment, but quite especially has German orchestration reacquired thereby much of that lightness of touch it apparently had lost after the culmination of Mozart's career. French instrumentation, in spite of certain of its superficial tendencies, is assuredly a very important factor in the evolution of orchestral music, and its continued development during the second half of the nineteenth century affords a fruitful topic for discussion as outlined in the next few pages.

(Summary on page 176.)