  Transcriber's Note: Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original document have been preserved. THE DECORATION OF HOUSESCharles Scribner's The Copyright, 1897, by Charles Scribner's Sons Printer's Logo "Une forme doit Être belle en elle-mÊme et on ne doit jamais compter sur le dÉcor appliquÉ pour en sauver les imperfections." Henri Mayeux: La Composition DÉcorative. TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF PLATES
BOOKS CONSULTEDFRENCHAndrouet du Cerceau, Jacques. Les Plus Excellents BÂtiments de France. Paris, 1607. Le Muet, Pierre. ManiÈre de Bien BÂtir pour toutes sortes de Personnes. Oppenord, Gilles Marie. Œuvres. 1750. Mariette, Pierre Jean. L'Architecture FranÇoise. 1727. Briseux, Charles Étienne. L'Art de BÂtir les Maisons de Campagne. Paris, 1743. Lalonde, FranÇois Richard de. Recueil de ses Œuvres. Aviler, C. A. d'. Cours d'Architecture. 1760. Blondel, Jacques FranÇois. Architecture FranÇoise. Paris, 1752. Cours d'Architecture. Paris, 1771-77. De la Distribution des Maisons de Plaisance et de la DÉcoration des Édifices. Paris, 1737. Roubo, A. J., fils. L'Art du Menuisier. HÉrÉ de Corny, Emmanuel. Recueil des Plans, ÉlÉvations et Coupes des ChÂteaux, Jardins et DÉpendances que le Roi de Pologne occupe en Lorraine. Paris, n. d. Percier et Fontaine. Choix des plus CÉlÈbres Maisons de Plaisance de Rome et de ses Environs. Paris, 1809. Palais, Maisons, et autres Édifices Modernes dessinÉs À Rome. Paris, 1798. RÉsidences des Souverains. Paris, 1833. Krafft et Ransonnette. Plans, Coupes, et ÉlÉvations des plus belles Maisons et HÔtels construits À Paris et dans les Environs. Paris, 1801. Durand, Jean Nicolas Louis. Recueil et ParallÈle des Édifices de tout Genre. Paris, 1800. PrÉcis des LeÇons d'Architecture donnÉes À l'École Royale Polytechnique. Paris, 1823. QuatremÈre de Quincy, A. C. Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages des plus CÉlÈbres Architectes du XIe siÈcle jusqu'À la fin du XVIII siÈcle. Paris, 1830. Pellassy de l'Ousle. Histoire du Palais de CompiÈgne. Paris, n. d. Letarouilly, Paul Marie. Édifices de Rome Moderne. Paris, 1825-57. RamÉe, Daniel. Histoire GÉnÉrale de l'Architecture. Paris, 1862. Meubles Religieux et Civils ConservÉs dans les principaux Monuments et MusÉes de l'Europe. Viollet le Duc, EugÈne Emmanuel. Dictionnaire RaisonnÉ de l'Architecture FranÇaise du XIee au XVIe siÈcle. Paris, 1868. Sauvageot, Claude. Palais, ChÂteaux, HÔtels et Maisons de France du XVe au XVIIIe siÈcle. Daly, CÉsar. Motifs Historiques d'Architecture et de Sculpture d'Ornement. Rouyer et Darcel. L'Art Architectural en France depuis FranÇois Ier jusqu'À Louis XIV. Havard, Henry. Dictionnaire de l'Ameublement et de la DÉcoration depuis le XIIIe siÈcle jusqu'À nos Jours. Paris, n. d. Les Arts de l'Ameublement. Guilmard, D. Les MaÎtres Ornemanistes. Paris, 1880. Bauchal, Charles. Dictionnaire des Architectes FranÇais. Paris, 1887. Rouaix, Paul. Les Styles. Paris, n. d. BibliothÈque de l'Enseignement des Beaux Arts. ENGLISHWare, Isaac. A Complete Body of Architecture. London, 1756. Brettingham, Matthew. Plans, Elevations and Sections of Holkham in Norfolk, the Seat of the late Earl of Leicester. London, 1761. Campbell, Colen. Vitruvius Britannicus; or, The British Architect. London, 1771. Adam, Robert and James. The Works in Architecture. London, 1773-1822. Hepplewhite, A. The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Guide. Sheraton, Thomas. The Cabinet-Maker's Dictionary. London, 1803. Pain, William. The British Palladio; or The Builder's General Assistant. London, 1797. Soane, Sir John. Sketches in Architecture. London, 1793. Hakewill, Arthur William. General Plan and External Details, with Picturesque Illustrations, of Thorpe Hall, Peterborough. Lewis, James. Original Designs in Architecture. Pyne, William Henry. History of the Royal Residences of Windsor Castle, St. James's Palace, Carlton House, Kensington Palace, Hampton Court, Buckingham Palace, and Frogmore. London, 1819. Gwilt, Joseph. Encyclopedia of Architecture. New edition. Longman's, 1895. Fergusson, James. History of Architecture. London, 1874. History of the Modern Styles of Architecture. Third edition, revised by Robert Kerr. London, 1891. Gotch, John Alfred. Architecture of the Renaissance in England. Heaton, John Aldam. Furniture and Decoration in England in the Eighteenth Century. Rosengarten. Handbook of Architectural Styles. New York, 1876. Horne, H. P. The Binding of Books. London, 1894. Loftie, W. J. Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren. London, 1893. Kerr, Robert. The English Gentleman's House. London, 1865. Stevenson, J. J. House Architecture. London, 1880. GERMAN AND ITALIANBurckhardt, Jacob. Architektur der Renaissance in Italien. Stuttgart, 1891. Reinhardt. Palast Architektur von Ober Italien und Toskana. Gurlitt, Cornelius. Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien. Stuttgart, 1887. Ebe, Gustav. Die SpÄt-Renaissance. Berlin, 1886. La Villa Borghese, fuori di Porta Pinciana, con l'ornamenti che si osservano nel di lei Palazzo. Roma, 1700. Intra, G. B. Mantova nei suoi Monumenti. Luzio e Renier. Mantova e Urbino. Torino-Roma, 1893. Molmenti, Pompeo. La Storia di Venezia nella Vita Privata. Torino, 1885. Malamani, Vittorio. Il Settecento a Venezia. Milano, 1895. La Vita Italiana nel Seicento. Conferenze tenute a Firenze nel 1890. INTRODUCTIONRooms may be decorated in two ways: by a superficial application of ornament totally independent of structure, or by means of those architectural features which are part of the organism of every house, inside as well as out. In the middle ages, when warfare and brigandage shaped the conditions of life, and men camped in their castles much as they did in their tents, it was natural that decorations should be portable, and that the naked walls of the mediÆval chamber should be hung with arras, while a ciel, or ceiling, of cloth stretched across the open timbers of its roof. When life became more secure, and when the Italian conquests of the Valois had acquainted men north of the Alps with the spirit of classic tradition, proportion and the relation of voids to masses gradually came to be regarded as the chief decorative values of the interior. Portable hangings were in consequence replaced by architectural ornament: in other words, the architecture of the room became its decoration. This architectural treatment held its own through every change of taste until the second quarter of the present century; but since then various influences have combined to sever the natural connection between the outside of the modern house and its interior. In the average house the architect's task seems virtually confined to the elevations and floor-plan. The designing of what are to-day regarded as insignificant details, such as mouldings, architraves, and cornices, has become a perfunctory work, hurried over and unregarded; and when this work is done, the upholsterer is called in to "decorate" and furnish the rooms. As the result of this division of labor, house-decoration has ceased to be a branch of architecture. The upholsterer cannot be expected to have the preliminary training necessary for architectural work, and it is inevitable that in his hands form should be sacrificed to color and composition to detail. In his ignorance of the legitimate means of producing certain effects, he is driven to all manner of expedients, the result of which is a piling up of heterogeneous ornament, a multiplication of incongruous effects; and lacking, as he does, a definite first conception, his work becomes so involved that it seems impossible for him to make an end. The confusion resulting from these unscientific methods has reflected itself in the lay mind, and house-decoration has come to be regarded as a black art by those who have seen their rooms subjected to the manipulations of the modern upholsterer. Now, in the hands of decorators who understand the fundamental principles of their art, the surest effects are produced, not at the expense of simplicity and common sense, but by observing the requirements of both. These requirements are identical with those regulating domestic architecture, the chief end in both cases being the suitable accommodation of the inmates of the house. The fact that this end has in a measure been lost sight of is perhaps sufficient warrant for the publication of this elementary sketch. No study of house-decoration as a branch of architecture has for at least fifty years been published in England or America; and though France is always producing admirable monographs on isolated branches of this subject, there is no modern French work corresponding with such comprehensive manuals as d'Aviler's Cours d'Architecture or Isaac Ware's Complete Body of Architecture. The attempt to remedy this deficiency in some slight degree has made it necessary to dwell at length upon the strictly architectural principles which controlled the work of the old decorators. The effects that they aimed at having been based mainly on the due adjustment of parts, it has been impossible to explain their methods without assuming their standpoint—that of architectural proportion—in contradistinction to the modern view of house-decoration as superficial application of ornament. When house-decoration was a part of architecture all its values were founded on structural modifications; consequently it may seem that ideas to be derived from a study of such methods suggest changes too radical for those who are not building, but are merely decorating. Such changes, in fact, lie rather in the direction of alteration than of adornment; but it must be remembered that the results attained will be of greater decorative value than were an equal expenditure devoted to surface-ornament. Moreover, the great decorators, if scrupulous in the observance of architectural principles, were ever governed, in the use of ornamental detail, by the σωφροσύνη, the "wise moderation," of the Greeks; and the rooms of the past were both simpler in treatment and freer from mere embellishments than those of to-day. Besides, if it be granted for the sake of argument that a reform in house-decoration, if not necessary, is at least desirable, it must be admitted that such reform can originate only with those whose means permit of any experiments which their taste may suggest. When the rich man demands good architecture his neighbors will get it too. The vulgarity of current decoration has its source in the indifference of the wealthy to architectural fitness. Every good moulding, every carefully studied detail, exacted by those who can afford to indulge their taste, will in time find its way to the carpenter-built cottage. Once the right precedent is established, it costs less to follow than to oppose it. In conclusion, it may be well to explain the seeming lack of accord between the arguments used in this book and the illustrations chosen to interpret them. While much is said of simplicity, the illustrations used are chiefly taken from houses of some importance. This has been done in order that only such apartments as are accessible to the traveller might be given as examples. Unprofessional readers will probably be more interested in studying rooms that they have seen, or at least heard of, than those in the ordinary private dwelling; and the arguments advanced are indirectly sustained by the most ornate rooms here shown, since their effect is based on such harmony of line that their superficial ornament might be removed without loss to the composition. Moreover, as some of the illustrations prove, the most magnificent palaces of Europe contain rooms as simple as those in any private house; and to point out that simplicity is at home even in palaces is perhaps not the least service that may be rendered to the modern decorator. ITHE HISTORICAL TRADITIONThe last ten years have been marked by a notable development in architecture and decoration, and while France will long retain her present superiority in these arts, our own advance is perhaps more significant than that of any other country. When we measure the work recently done in the United States by the accepted architectural standards of ten years ago, the change is certainly striking, especially in view of the fact that our local architects and decorators are without the countless advantages in the way of schools, museums and libraries which are at the command of their European colleagues. In Paris, for instance, it is impossible to take even a short walk without finding inspiration in those admirable buildings, public and private, religious and secular, that bear the stamp of the most refined taste the world has known since the decline of the arts in Italy; and probably all American architects will acknowledge that no amount of travel abroad and study at home can compensate for the lack of daily familiarity with such monuments. It is therefore all the more encouraging to note the steady advance in taste and knowledge to which the most recent architecture in America bears witness. This advance is chiefly due to the fact that American architects are beginning to perceive two things that their French colleagues, among all the modern vagaries of taste, have never quite lost sight of: first that architecture and decoration, having wandered since 1800 in a labyrinth of dubious eclecticism, can be set right only by a close study of the best models; and secondly that, given the requirements of modern life, these models are chiefly to be found in buildings erected in Italy after the beginning of the sixteenth century, and in other European countries after the full assimilation of the Italian influence. As the latter of these propositions may perhaps be questioned by those who, in admiring the earlier styles, sometimes lose sight of their relative unfitness for modern use, it must be understood at the outset that it implies no disregard for the inherent beauties of these styles. It would be difficult, assuredly, to find buildings better suited to their original purpose than some of the great feudal castles, such as Warwick in England, or Langeais in France; and as much might be said of the grim machicolated palaces of republican Florence or Siena; but our whole mode of life has so entirely changed since the days in which these buildings were erected that they no longer answer to our needs. It is only necessary to picture the lives led in those days to see how far removed from them our present social conditions are. Inside and outside the house, all told of the unsettled condition of country or town, the danger of armed attack, the clumsy means of defence, the insecurity of property, the few opportunities of social intercourse as we understand it. A man's house was in very truth his castle in the middle ages, and in France and England especially it remained so until the end of the sixteenth century. Thus it was that many needs arose: the tall keep of masonry where the inmates, pent up against attack, awaited the signal of the watchman who, from his platform or Échauguette, gave warning of assault; the ponderous doors, oak-ribbed and metal-studded, with doorways often narrowed to prevent entrance of two abreast, and so low that the incomer had to bend his head; the windows that were mere openings or slits, narrow and high, far out of the assailants' reach, and piercing the walls without regard to symmetry—not, as Ruskin would have us believe, because irregularity was thought artistic, but because the mediÆval architect, trained to the uses of necessity, knew that he must design openings that should afford no passage to the besiegers' arrows, no clue to what was going on inside the keep. But to the reader familiar with Viollet-le-Duc, or with any of the many excellent works on English domestic architecture, further details will seem superfluous. It is necessary, however, to point out that long after the conditions of life in Europe had changed, houses retained many features of the feudal period. The survival of obsolete customs which makes the study of sociology so interesting, has its parallel in the history of architecture. In the feudal countries especially, where the conflict between the great nobles and the king was of such long duration that civilization spread very slowly, architecture was proportionately slow to give up many of its feudal characteristics. In Italy, on the contrary, where one city after another succumbed to some accomplished condottiere who between his campaigns read Virgil and collected antique marbles, the rugged little republics were soon converted into brilliant courts where, life being relatively secure, social intercourse rapidly developed. This change of conditions brought with it the paved street and square, the large-windowed palaces with their great court-yards and stately open staircases, and the market-place with its loggia adorned with statues and marble seats. Italy, in short, returned instinctively to the Roman ideal of civic life: the life of the street, the forum and the baths. These very conditions, though approaching so much nearer than feudalism to our modern civilization, in some respects make the Italian architecture of the Renaissance less serviceable as a model than the French and English styles later developed from it. The very dangers and barbarities of feudalism had fostered and preserved the idea of home as of something private, shut off from intrusion; and while the Roman ideal flowered in the great palace with its galleries, loggias and saloons, itself a kind of roofed-in forum, the French or English feudal keep became, by the same process of growth, the modern private house. The domestic architecture of the Renaissance in Italy offers but two distinctively characteristic styles of building: the palace and the villa or hunting-lodge.[1] There is nothing corresponding in interior arrangements with the French or English town house, or the manoir where the provincial nobles lived all the year round. The villa was a mere perch used for a few weeks of gaiety in spring or autumn; it was never a home as the French or English country-house was. There were, of course, private houses in Renaissance Italy, but these were occupied rather by shopkeepers, craftsmen, and the bourgeoisie than by the class which in France and England lived in country houses or small private hÔtels. The elevations of these small Italian houses are often admirable examples of domestic architecture, but their planning is rudimentary, and it may be said that the characteristic tendencies of modern house-planning were developed rather in the mezzanin or low-studded intermediate story of the Italian Renaissance palace than in the small house of the same period. It is a fact recognized by political economists that changes in manners and customs, no matter under what form of government, usually originate with the wealthy or aristocratic minority, and are thence transmitted to the other classes. Thus the bourgeois of one generation lives more like the aristocrat of a previous generation than like his own predecessors. This rule naturally holds good of house-planning, and it is for this reason that the origin of modern house-planning should be sought rather in the prince's mezzanin than in the small middle-class dwelling. The Italian mezzanin probably originated in the habit of building certain very high-studded saloons and of lowering the ceiling of the adjoining rooms. This created an intermediate story, or rather scattered intermediate rooms, which Bramante was among the first to use in the planning of his palaces; but Bramante did not reveal the existence of the mezzanin in his faÇades, and it was not until the time of Peruzzi and his contemporaries that it became, both in plan and elevation, an accepted part of the Italian palace. It is for this reason that the year 1500 is a convenient point from which to date the beginning of modern house-planning; but it must be borne in mind that this date is purely arbitrary, and represents merely an imaginary line drawn between mediÆval and modern ways of living and house-planning, as exemplified respectively, for instance, in the ducal palace of Urbino, built by Luciano da Laurano about 1468, and the palace of the Massimi alle Colonne in Rome, built by Baldassare Peruzzi during the first half of the sixteenth century. The lives of the great Italian nobles were essentially open-air lives: all was organized with a view to public pageants, ceremonies and entertainments. Domestic life was subordinated to this spectacular existence, and instead of building private houses in our sense, they built palaces, of which they set aside a portion for the use of the family. Every Italian palace has its mezzanin or private apartment; but this part of the building is now seldom seen by travellers in Italy. Not only is it usually inhabited by the owners of the palace but, its decorations being simpler than those of the piano nobile, or principal story, it is not thought worthy of inspection. As a matter of fact, the treatment of the mezzanin was generally most beautiful, because most suitable; and while the Italian Renaissance palace can seldom serve as a model for a modern private house, the decoration of the mezzanin rooms is full of appropriate suggestion. In France and England, on the other hand, private life was gradually, though slowly, developing along the lines it still follows in the present day. It is necessary to bear in mind that what we call modern civilization was a later growth in these two countries than in Italy. If this fact is insisted upon, it is only because it explains the relative unsuitability of French Renaissance or Tudor and Elizabethan architecture to modern life. In France, for instance, it was not until the Fronde was subdued and Louis XIV firmly established on the throne, that the elements which compose what we call modern life really began to combine. In fact, it might be said that the feudalism of which the Fronde was the lingering expression had its counterpart in the architecture of the period. While long familiarity with Italy was beginning to tell upon the practical side of house-planning, many obsolete details were still preserved. Even the most enthusiastic admirer of the French Renaissance would hardly maintain that the houses of that period are what we should call in the modern sense "convenient." It would be impossible for a modern family to occupy with any degree of comfort the HÔtel VoguË at Dijon, one of the best examples (as originally planned) of sixteenth-century domestic architecture in France.[2] The same objection applies to the furniture of the period. This arose from the fact that, owing to the unsettled state of the country, the landed proprietor always carried his furniture with him when he travelled from one estate to another. Furniture, in the vocabulary of the middle ages, meant something which may be transported: "Meubles sont apelez qu'on peut transporter";—hence the lack of variety in furniture before the seventeenth century, and also its unsuitableness to modern life. Chairs and cabinets that had to be carried about on mule-back were necessarily somewhat stiff and angular in design. It is perhaps not too much to say that a comfortable chair, in our self-indulgent modern sense, did not exist before the Louis XIV arm-chair (see Plate IV); and the cushioned bergÈre, the ancestor of our upholstered easy-chair, cannot be traced back further than the Regency. Prior to the time of Louis XIV, the most luxurious people had to content themselves with hard straight-backed seats. The necessities of transportation permitted little variety of design, and every piece of furniture was constructed with the double purpose of being easily carried about and of being used as a trunk (see Plate I). As Havard says, "Tout meuble se traduisait par un coffre." The unvarying design of the cabinets is explained by the fact that they were made to form two trunks,[3] and even the chairs and settles had hollow seats which could be packed with the owners' wardrobe (see Plate II). The king himself, when he went from one chÂteau to another, carried all his furniture with him, and it is thus not surprising that lesser people contented themselves with a few substantial chairs and cabinets, and enough arras or cloth of Douai to cover the draughty walls of their country-houses. One of Madame de SÉvignÉ's letters gives an amusing instance of the scarceness of furniture even in the time of Louis XIV. In describing a fire in a house near her own hÔtel in Paris, she says that one or two of the persons from the burning house were brought to her for shelter, because it was known in the neighborhood (at that time a rich and fashionable one) that she had an extra bed in the house! | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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