MEDIAEVAL CASTLES AND WALLED TOWNS ON THE COAST
In the following account of the more important of the castles which in mediaeval times guarded the coast, it has been found convenient to include a notice of those walled towns with which, in many cases, they were closely associated. The mediaeval castle, generally speaking, represents an effort to maintain the power of the feudal lord, and, in a lesser and secondary degree, provision for resisting raids and invasion by foreign enemies. Walled towns, on the other hand, when situated on or near the coasts, or on navigable rivers, were primarily designed for coast defence. The mediaeval castles which were built in situations remote from the coast were the fastnesses and strongholds of nobles fighting amongst themselves or against the king.
In the following accounts of the more important examples of castles and walled towns wholly or partially designed for the defence of the coast, occasion will be taken to point out the interesting series of developments through which these mediaeval fortifications passed as time went on. For example:
The massive keep of the Norman castles was able to resist fire and battering-ram when the besieging force came near enough to apply them. Its strength consisted in its thick walls, its height, and its massive masonry. The Edwardian castle, on the other hand, presents certain structural improvements which mark a great advance in military construction. The walls, gates, and towers are so built as to present curved surfaces to the engines of the enemy, with the result that missiles hurled against them would glance off at various angles according to the direction of the curve at the point of impact. The extent to which this development of the curve is carried in the walls of many of the Edwardian castles is quite remarkable and instructive. It shows that mere weight and bulk were no longer relied upon, but constructive skill and the judicious use of materials were guiding principles in the military architecture of the period.
The following list does not include the sixteenth century blockhouses and other fortifications erected by Henry VIII, and in subsequent years.
The defences on the eastern coast of England consist of an extremely interesting and important series of fortresses. In the extreme north is—
Berwick-upon-Tweed, a town which, from its position on the English and Scottish border, has always been a place of strategic moment, and which Queen Elizabeth spoke of as “the chief key of the realm.” In the time of Edward I (1272-1307) it was encompassed by a great moat, or ditch, 80 feet wide and 40 feet deep. A crenelated wall from 15 to 22 feet high, with 19 towers at intervals, was constructed during the reign of Edward II (1307-1327). A castle had been erected at Berwick during the reign of Henry II, and together with the Edwardian wall and ditch must have formed an extremely formidable defence.
The mediaeval fortifications included a large area, and in the time of Elizabeth a portion within this area was enclosed and strengthened by works of more modern character, the main features of which comprised five examples of the orillon type of bastion. The orillon was an enclosure of flattened triangular form, projecting beyond the curtain. The middle angle was obtuse, and the passage from the opening in the curtain into the bastion was somewhat restricted. It is obvious that such a bastion as this, which was introduced into England in the latter half of the sixteenth century, would give the maximum range for defensive fire, whilst affording most valuable means of protecting the flanks.
The fortifications of Berwick-upon-Tweed were primarily intended for defence against the Scottish Border raiders and incursions coming overland, but they also served to protect the town against the enemy approaching by sea.
Bamborough.—The site of this castle must have been a place of great natural strength, and probably a fortress, from prehistoric times downwards. It would not be inaccurate to describe it as one of the important and historic spots in the kingdom. The castle dates from a period before the Norman Conquest. Here the Danish raiders were successfully repelled in 912. The castle was maintained in a good state of defence under Henry I, and the keep is of the twelfth century. Structural repairs were made at frequent intervals, viz., in 1183, 1197, 1198, 1201, and 1202. A new gate-house was built here in consequence of the invasions of the Scots in 1383-4.
On several occasions Bamborough Castle has served as a prison, and it was brought into considerable prominence during the Wars of the Roses. The part it played in the various wars between England and Scotland must have been important.[16]
Dunstanburgh.—Situated on a bold, rugged headland, this fine castle reminds one of such great fortresses on the east coast as Scarborough and Tynemouth. Its share in the Border troubles was perhaps less than that of Bamborough. Dunstanburgh is the largest castle in Northumberland, is built on a remarkable plan, and comprises an area of ten acres, the main part of which was occupied by the outer bailey. Its history is associated with Simon de Montfort and Thomas of Lancaster.
The castle was mainly erected in 1313-14. The great gate-house of the latter part of the fourteenth century, was planned and built on a colossal scale, and still forms a striking object, even in its ruin. By the sixteenth century the place had fallen into ruin.[17]
Warkworth.—This castle, remarkable for its eccentric plan, was built about the middle of the twelfth century.
Tynemouth.—The priory and castle of Tynemouth (for it was a combination of both) occupied a prominent position among the mediaeval coast defences of England. The office of Prior of Tynemouth was one of great importance. The person who held it was possessed of vast spiritual and worldly influence. He maintained his own armed force, just as the Bishop of Durham did, and the gate-house[18] of the priory was in reality a military fortress, a building of great solidity and strength. It was approached by a barbican, the passage-way being vaulted and furnished with a gate at each end.[19]
Scarborough.—This place was defended by walls or earthworks and a fosse before the time of Henry III. Its castle was built as early as the time of Stephen, and rebuilt or enlarged in the reign of Henry II. During the Civil War Scarborough Castle was besieged. It was surrendered in 1645, and has long been in ruins. It enclosed nineteen acres of land and occupied a romantic site 300 feet above sea-level.
Hull.—From an early period this seaport has been defended by fortifications. In the seventeenth century these comprised a moat and a complete system of walls, fortified gates, and drawbridges. It possessed five gates, called Hessle Gate, Myton Gate, Beverley Gate, Low Gate, and North Gate, and two sally-ports. The whole fortified walls were 2,610 yards, or slightly less than one-and-a-half miles in circuit. In front of the principal gates were drawbridges and half-moon shaped batteries. In the year 1540 the eastern side of the town was defended by two blockhouses, erected by Henry VIII. These were known as the North Blockhouse and the South Blockhouse, and both mounted guns when the town was besieged during the Civil War. A castle was also built on the eastern side of the town by Henry VIII.
King’s Lynn.—The eastern side of this important town was in former times defended by a wall strengthened by nine bastions, and by a broad and deep fosse over which were three drawbridges leading to the principal gates. One of the latter and fragments of the wall remain. From the statement of Stow in his “Chronicle,” and from certain illustrations of the walls as they existed in 1800, we may infer that the walls at any rate belonged to the first half of the thirteenth century. The East Gate and the West Gate were rebuilt on the sites of earlier gates in the fifteenth century.
Yarmouth.—The town-wall, of which some traces remain, measured between six and seven thousand feet in compass, and possessed ten gates and sixteen towers. Swinden,[20] the historian of Yarmouth, states that the building of the wall
“was begun on the east side, and very probably at the north-east tower in St. Nicholas’s churchyard, and so proceeded southward: for in the 11th of Edward III we find them at work at the Black Friars, at the south end of the town; and afterwards we trace them to the north end, which, I presume, was the last part that was finished.
“And there is a tradition, that the north gate was built by the person or persons who had amassed considerable sums of money by being employed in burying the dead in the time of the plague.
“As soon as the walls were finished, there was made a moat or ditch round the town, with bridges at each gate: the whole so complete that boats could pass with their lading to any part of the town, for the conveniency of trade and commerce. And so careful were the magistrates to preserve the said moat from being filled or stopped with earth, rubbish, stones, etc., that in the rolls of the leets, there appear several fines, levied on different persons for offending in that behalf. Thus the tower being fortified with a wall and moat, towers, gates, and bars, was deemed a sufficient defence against all assailants with bows and arrows, slings, battering-rams, and all other missive engines of those times. But afterwards, when great guns of various denominations were employed in sieges, the aforesaid fortification, it was adjudged, would make but little resistance against them, without several additional works, as mounts, ravelins, etc.”
FIG. 20. SOUTH GATE, YARMOUTH, 1807
In the 36th year of Henry VIII the fortifications of Yarmouth were strengthened by rampiring, or backing up the walls by earthwork mounds. Additional works were constructed by Queen Mary in 1557, and by Queen Elizabeth, the complete process of rampiring not having been finished until 1587, the year before the coming of the Spanish armada. In the following year it was considered desirable to secure the haven against any sudden attacks of the enemy, and it was accordingly decided to construct jetties of timber on either side of the entrance, whilst across the actual entrance was placed a boom of massive timbers furnished with iron spikes, and this was so constructed that it could be opened or closed at pleasure. This work, including probably the two jetties and the boom, cost £120.
Traces of the wall of Yarmouth and its towers still remain, whilst other evidence of the wall is the extraordinary way in which the houses are crowded together, leaving only narrow alleys, or “rows,” for the traffic. A plan of Yarmouth in 1819, published as a frontispiece to John Preston’s “Picture of Yarmouth,” shows in an admirable way the congested state of the buildings within the walls.
FIG. 21. ST. MATTHEW’S GATE, IPSWICH
From a print published in 1785
Ipswich.—There is a tradition that Ipswich was defended by a wall and fortified gates soon after the time of the Norman Conquest, but unfortunately no traces of either remain. Westgate Street preserves the memory of the picturesque West Gate. The interesting old engraving shows St. Matthew’s Gate, now demolished. There appears to have been a castle at Ipswich built by William the Conqueror, and Roger Bigot, one of the Conqueror’s powerful nobles, held it. With the exception of certain earthworks all traces of the castle have perished. The form of the town in mediaeval times has been made out by John Wodderspoon in his “Memorials of Ipswich,” 1850.
Orford.—This castle, situated half a mile from the River Ore, in Suffolk (hence its name), commands a view of the sea, two miles distant, owing to the fact that it is built on a mound partly natural and partly artificial. All round is swampy ground.
FIG. 22. ORFORD CASTLE, SUFFOLK, 1810
The building of Orford Castle was begun in 1166. Strictly speaking, perhaps, it should not be called a castle: it was essentially a keep, and its purpose primarily was to serve as an outpost for observation and for the protection of the coast. The plan of the actual keep, if so we may term it, was peculiar, being circular within, and so much modified by the buttresses without as to present the appearance of a large number of angles.
Harwich.—This ancient seaport situated on the extreme north-eastern point of Essex has always been a place of some strategic importance. It formerly was encompassed by a wall which had four gates and three posterns. In addition Harwich once possessed a small castle and other fortifications, but owing to the inroads of the sea these have for many years been submerged. Traces of the walls or foundations of the castle were seen, however, in 1784, when an unusually low tide laid bare more than usual of the sea-bottom.
On the south side of the town are some ancient earthworks locally ascribed to the Romans, although upon slender evidence.
Colchester, which is situated on the river Colne, and perhaps not too far from the shore to take some part in the defence of the coast, has been in its time a place of great importance and of formidable strength. Its walls, of which considerable parts remain, are of Roman workmanship, and its castle, built largely of Roman materials, and therefore by some regarded as Roman in date, is almost unquestionably of Norman construction. It must be admitted, however, that the castle presents several features which differentiate it from the normal castles of the Norman period. Originally the walls were furnished with four principal gates, viz.: Head Gate, North Gate, East Gate, and St. Botolph’s or South Gate, and three posterns, viz.: West Postern in St. Mary’s Street, Schere Gate or South Postern, and Rye Gate or River Postern, but these have been demolished. The north and west sides of the town were defended by strong earthworks. The place was besieged for eleven weeks during the Civil War. It was held by the Royalist party, and on its fall, two of its most gallant defenders, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle, were shot under the castle walls.
The weakness of mediaeval castles, built merely for passive resistance, has frequently been noticed, and what is true of them is equally true of the mediaeval walled town. Forces shut up within walls are obviously unable to prevent an enemy from over-running a country. It must be borne in mind, however, that the purpose of fortifications behind walls was not, and never has been, merely intended to oppose the ravages of the enemy. In that part of our military history which is subsequent to the use of gunpowder, the uses of walled defence has been varied and manifold. For example: they were intended to check the enemy’s advance; to give time for mobilization; to protect the strategical disposition of the army, especially in the early stages of a campaign; to protect important junctions in the lines of communications; and to safeguard magazines and stores against sudden and surprise attack of the enemy.
Cowling.—The castle at Cowling or Cooling, situated about seven miles to the east of Gravesend, and just two from the sea-shore, was built between 1380 and 1385 by John de Cobham. The gate-house, built in the regular form in vogue during the latter end of the fourteenth century, and comparable with that at Saltwood Castle and the West Gate of Canterbury, still remains in good preservation, as well as a good deal of the walls and angle-towers enclosing the inner ward, and certain parts of the walling enclosing the outer ward. The gate-house just referred to is on the south side of the outer ward, to which it gives access.
FIG. 23. COWLING CASTLE, KENT, 1784
Perhaps one of the most interesting things about Cowling Castle is the fact that it was built expressly for the defence of the coast against the French and the Spanish. This fact is rather pointedly referred to in the following contemporary inscription enamelled on copper plates attached to the eastern side of the gate-house:
Knouweyth that beth and schul be
That i am mad in help of the cuntre
In knowyng of whych thyng
This is chartre and wytnessyng.
The inscription is set out in the form of a regular charter, to which is attached a seal bearing the Cobham arms, gules, on a chevron or, three lions rampant sable.
The situation of Cowling Castle on low-lying ground near the coast is a circumstance which confirms the idea that the fortress was built for coast defence purposes. On the other hand, however, inscriptions of this kind are of great rarity, and it has been suggested with great show of reason, that whilst the purpose was partly for the defence of the coast and partly to keep the people of Kent in order in what were peculiarly troubled times, the inscription was so worded as to divert attention from the latter. The suggestion is worthy of consideration, but the fact remains that towards the end of the fourteenth century this part of Kent was overrun by Frenchmen and Spaniards, who burned and destroyed all the houses they came across, and Cobham’s intention in building Cowling Castle was to check these incursions.
Rochester.—It is clear that Rochester has in its time been an important part of our coast defences. It still retains many fragments of its Roman wall, whilst its Norman castle is represented mainly by a stately keep 70 feet square in plan, and 113 feet in height, which forms an impressive object, and is in fact a remarkably fine example of castle-building. The Norman keep was built between the years 1126 and 1139. The city wall, which was built in places on the site of the Roman wall, dates from the year 1225.
Queenborough.—There is a tradition, possibly it is little more, that a residence of the Anglo-Saxon kings of Kent was situated here near the north-western mouth of the Swale, the building being afterwards known as the castle of Sheppey, in which island it is situated. The whole fortress was rebuilt by Edward III about the year 1361 according to plans made by William of Wykeham. Edward III in due course visited the place and gave it the name of Queenborough in honour of his queen Philippa.
As a coast defence a fortress on this site must have been of great value, commanding as it did the north-western mouth of the Swale, and protecting the water which divides the Isle of Sheppey from the mainland.
Henry VIII recognized the value of this point, and repaired it so as to make it suitable for use as one of his coast castles.
The plan of the mediaeval fortress, as might be expected when one remembers who designed it, is ingenious and remarkable.
FIG. 24. PLAN OF QUEENBOROUGH CASTLE, KENT
The main interest of this castle consists in its plan, which proves it to have been perhaps the earliest example of a fort as distinct from a typical castle of the middle ages, in which there was always a certain amount of accommodation for dwelling-house purposes. Queenborough Castle contained, mainly in its six lofty circular towers, more than fifty rooms, but these were of small size. The building of the castle was commenced in 1361 and finished about the year 1367. The plan was curiously symmetrical, and not unlike that of Camber Castle, built in the time of Henry VIII, but the elevations of the two fortresses display great differences. The lofty towers of Queenborough, serviceable enough in the fourteenth century when artillery attacks offered no serious menace, are wanting in Camber Castle, built in the sixteenth century, and their place is taken by low squat towers which offered little surface for cannon-shot.
FIG. 25. QUEENBOROUGH CASTLE, 1784
From a drawing by Hollar
Canterbury.—There were really two castles at Canterbury in quite early times. The first, largely perhaps of earthwork, was the work of Duke William of Normandy, and was constructed on and near what is now the most southern point of the city wall. The purpose of the first castle was to dominate and overawe the inhabitants of the city, and also to furnish a convenient post for observing the surrounding country. The castle was provided with a lofty moated mound for this particular purpose. The hill called the Dane John has sometimes been confounded with the original mound of the castle, but as a matter of fact the two were not related in any way, the castle mound having been destroyed many years ago, whilst that known as the Dane John was erected in the eighteenth century.
The masonry castle, the ruined keep of which stands to the north-west of the earlier castle, was built by Henry II between 1166 and 1174. The keep measures in plan 88 feet by 80 feet, and, owing to the upper storey having been pulled down in 1817, measures now only 45 feet in height. The castle was originally enclosed by a rampart and wall with several towers, and had its own gate to the city, and a barbican on its eastern side.
FIG. 26. CANTERBURY CASTLE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
The city of Canterbury was enclosed by a wall built about the same time as the castle (1166-1174). There were seven gates in the wall giving access to the city, viz.: (1) Newingate, or St. George’s Gate; (2) Ridingate; (3) Worthgate; (4) Westgate; (5) Northgate; (6) Burgate; and (7) Queeningate. From the evidence of various old engravings it is apparent that several of the gates had been rebuilt at different times. Westgate, the only one of the group which now survives, was erected in the reign of Richard II, and is an unusually good example of the mediaeval town-gate furnished, as it once was, with portcullis, machicolations, and other apparatus for defence. It is also a building of great beauty both of masonry and proportion.
Broadstairs.—This small town on the north-east coast of Kent, which in former times did a good deal of trade in connection with the North Sea fishing, still retains considerable traces of a gate, probably of the fifteenth century, which commanded the only means of access from the harbour to the town through a cutting in the chalk cliff. It is known as York Gate, and although altered and repaired, still possesses the massive lower part of the original gateway of flint and stone, and the grooves for the portcullis.
FIG. 27. THE FISHER GATE, SANDWICH, KENT
Sandwich.—The chief traces of the fortifications of this ancient and once important town are an earthern rampart or wall of considerable extent, a deep fosse, and two interesting and picturesque gates.
We know that Sandwich once possessed a castle, and this probably in Anglo-Saxon times, but its site is a matter of uncertainty. It must be borne in mind that for many centuries Sandwich was the principal port for traffic and merchandise to and from the Continent. It possessed a mint in the Anglo-Saxon period, doubtless in the castle, and times out of number it has taken an important part in repelling invading enemies and in preserving the peace and liberty of our shores.
The Fisher Gate, although buried to some depth in an accumulation of soil, retains several interesting features. One can still see the grooves for its portcullis and the recessed space in its outer wall into which the drawbridge fitted when drawn up. The gate is constructed of flints and stone, a certain proportion of which are squared blocks of sandstone, which from their size and shape may well have been derived from the walls of the ruined castrum of Richborough, less than two miles distant.
FIG. 28. THE BARBICAN GATE, SANDWICH, KENT
The Barbican is a peculiarly picturesque structure commanding the entrance to the town on the south-east side by the ancient ferry across the river Stour, which at this point is tidal and often rapid and deep. There is a modern bridge. The gateway, which is flanked by two towers presenting externally semicircular walls, is largely of Tudor masonry, arranged in chess-board fashion in black flint and grey stone, and long flat bricks. On the southern side of the gateway a modern door has been made into the south tower. Splayed embrasures commanding the approach are visible within the tower. According to local tradition these were intended for cannon. The upper part of the gate is a modern restoration in woodwork.
Sandwich originally possessed five gates, but those described are the only two which have survived.
Dover Castle.—For the last seven and a half centuries Dover Castle has been justly considered a fortress of paramount importance in the defence of England. Its site is remarkable for more than one reason. The steepness of the chalk cliffs towards the sea, and the abruptness of the other slopes, natural and artificial, which encircle it on the land side, give a peculiarly difficult, indeed, impregnable character to the fortress. The height of the hill on which the castle stands close to the narrowest part of the Channel which separates our shores from those of the Continent renders it a spot of unusual importance for the purposes of observing the approach of an enemy coming across the Straits of Dover.
Although there are no certain traces of defensive works on the eastern heights of Dover before the time of the Norman Conquest, the natural advantages of the site, and Caesar’s own words make it probable that some kind of camp or look-out post was established at Dover in prehistoric times. However, this is a matter of conjecture which lacks the confirmation of actual archaeological evidence.
One of the first acts of the Norman Conqueror was to establish his power over the English by building earthwork castles, and such a work was thrown up on the eastern heights of Dover. Its form and extent are unknown, but it may, with reasonable probability, be conjectured that its central eminence was that upon which the keep was subsequently erected in the reign of Henry II.
Dover Castle, as it exists to-day, presents a good example of the amalgamated defences of several different architectural periods. Its important position as the “Clavis et repagulum Angliae,” gives it a national rather than local importance, and every part of it is of historical interest. As a fortress which from Norman times, almost without intermission to the present day, has retained its garrison and maintained a foremost place in the defence of the realm, Dover Castle deserves more than a passing notice in these pages.
During the reign of Henry I (1100-1135) masonry began to take the place of earthwork defences, but in due time the need of stronger defences became apparent, and during the reign of Henry II (1154-1189) the keep, citadel, and defensive works to the north were carried out at the enormous expense of nearly £5,000.
The keep, one of the most important of the new works, forms a striking feature of the castle. In plan it is practically square, measuring 98 feet by 96 feet, exclusive of the fore-building, with walls at the lowest stage no less than 24 feet in thickness. This is amongst the largest buildings of its class in this country. Each of its three floors, basement, and first and second storeys, is occupied by two large apartments, those on the second floor being the chief or state apartments and possessing two tiers of windows.
Dover Castle suffered a siege in 1137, and again in 1216. The latter occurred under the second constableship of Hubert de Burgh at the hands of the Dauphin Louis of France. (See the section on the Cinque Ports, pp. 196-204.)
After this siege Dover Castle was strengthened by the construction of an additional defensive work, commanding the plateau to the north of the castle, and other works, including a subterranean passage, excavated in the solid chalk, which still exists. These works were carried out between 1220 and 1239. In 1371 a series of important repairs was effected, and during the reign of Edward IV the Clopton tower was re-built, and a sum of £10,000 was expended in placing Dover Castle in a state of thorough repair.
FIG. 29. BIRD’S-EYE VIEW OF DOVER TOWN AND HARBOUR,
temp. QUEEN ELIZABETH
Further important works were carried out by Henry VIII in connection with his great scheme of coast defence. In addition to the strengthening of the actual works of the castle, it appears that “bulwarks under Dover Castle,” probably near the level of the sea-shore, and a “bulwark in the cliff” were constructed at this period. An interesting plan of Dover, made in the time of Queen Elizabeth, shows not only the Arckcliffe Bulwark and the Black Bulwark, but also the walls and its towers inclosing the town of Dover. The plan was published in the sixth volume of “Archaeologia,” and is here reproduced in much reduced size by permission of the Society of Antiquaries.
In June 1666, and again in July 1667, an invasion of Dover by the Dutch fleet was expected. The invasion of this particular part of the sea-coast was never carried out, but the castle was provisioned for a siege, and it is probable that the actual fortifications were improved and augmented.
In the earlier part of the eighteenth century Dover Castle appears to have been much neglected, and an engraved view by Buck, published in or about the year 1735, indicates that certain parts of it had become almost ruinous; but in 1779, owing to the war with our colonies, as well as France and Spain, Dover Castle was hastily placed in a state of extra defence in order to resist the threatened invasion by our enemies.
The period of the Napoleonic menace saw great improvements at Dover Castle. Much of the underground work on the north side of the castle, as well as in other parts, belongs to this period. Of these and later works it is not necessary to speak in this volume. They belong to defences which are still effective, and at the present moment Dover Castle may be regarded as a fortress of enormous importance in the safe-guarding of our shores.
Folkestone.—No traces remain here of defensive work, but a castle was built in quite early times, by William de Arcis, for the protection of the town. Owing to the fall of the cliffs and the inroads of the sea, this has long since been destroyed. It is probable that there was some kind of protective work near the mouth of the little river which here runs into the sea, but no traces seem to remain.
Saltwood.—Situated about two miles inland from Hythe, this castle can hardly be described as a purely coast fortress, but it is such a valuable example of the mediaeval castles of its time that it deserves special attention. It must be remembered that the typical mediaeval castle, with its elaborate defences, possessed a moral influence out of all proportion to its strategic value. As soon as effective charges of gunpowder were employed the weakness of mere walls of masonry became at once apparent. Explosives were far more effective and disconcerting than battering-rams.
Experience extending over many centuries teaches, what has been so thoroughly proved by recent events on the Continent, that offensive tactics are almost invariably preferable to those of a defensive character, even when practised under the protection of the strongest and most elaborate fortifications.
Still, as long as the only dangers were starvation and battering-rams, the mediaeval castle was as nearly as possible a perfect form of defence. Saltwood castle furnishes an excellent example of this.
FIG. 30. THE GATE-HOUSE, SALTWOOD CASTLE, KENT
Its main structure is of late fourteenth century date. Elaborate and complicated defences guarded the main entrance to the mediaeval castle. Before the unwelcome visitor could enter, the following obstacles had to be surmounted. First was the gateway in the outer wall of defence, access to which was by means of a drawbridge spanning a deep but perhaps dry moat. This first gateway was furnished with portcullis, and heavy timber doors capable of offering formidable resistance. The outer gateway passed, the invaders would proceed across the outer bailey towards the inner and far stronger gate-house, exposed all the while to such missiles, arrows, cross-bow bolts, etc., as might be projected from the battlements and loop-holes of the castle.
Here, at the entrance to the great gatehouse, the moat was generally wide, deep, and filled with water. Supposing that the drawbridge was down (a most unlikely circumstance), the enemy on approaching the gates was confronted by the massive portcullis, and at least two pairs of double timber gates beyond it, and whilst forcing the former he would be within the range of heavy stones and every kind of dangerous and unpleasant missile dropped or thrown from the machicolations situated between the flanking towers almost on a level with the battlements above. The massive and studded oak doors were constructed of a material which was not easily fired, and they were barred with oak beams of the strength and almost the consistency of steel. Even when these were burnt or battered down the invaders would encounter a flanking fusilade from the lateral passages.
On the other hand, if the drawbridge was up, it formed in itself an extremely formidable barrier, because by means of chains passing through holes in the wall it was drawn close to the gate-house tower and within the recess specially made to receive it, leaving the under side of the bridge flush with the surface of the gate-house wall.
It may be doubted whether anything in the whole range of military architecture furnishes a more perfect system of defence than the gateway, walls, ditches, moats, and drawbridges of a mediaeval castle; and it seems probable that it would have proved invulnerable against a direct attack from without had not the discovery of gunpowder put a new and terrible weapon in the hands of the attacking force.
Elaborate precautions were taken to secure the walls of mediaeval castles from attack. Experience proved that the massive masonry of Norman times was inadequate. A new principle was universally adopted. The plan of the castle was so arranged that every part of the enclosing wall was commanded by means of mural towers. These additions not only added to the passive strength of the work, but also when placed within a bow-shot distance enabled the defenders, themselves protected, to enfilade the intermediate curtain. Again, the use of curved walls and mural towers gave free scope for constructive skill and favoured the economical use of building materials.
Rye.—Wall and gates were built by Edward III. Of these the Landgate remains. The Ypres Tower, a work of the time of King Stephen, also survives. The first wall was built in the time of Richard I, and of this there are no traces, whilst of the wall built by Edward III one finds very few traces.
Winchelsea.—This town also was formerly walled and defended by strong gates. Of the latter three still survive, viz., Strand Gate, New Gate, and Land Gate.
Hastings.—This was the first castle built in England by the Normans after the Norman Conquest, and, in accordance with the plan of other fortresses of the period, consisted of a mound (shown in the Bayeux tapestry) and two, if not three, attached baileys. One of the baileys, called “Ladies Parlour,” is of rather small size, comprising little more than one acre, a circumstance which has led Mr. Harold Sands, F.S.A., an eminent authority on castles, to infer that it could not have been the outer bailey. His inference was confirmed by the discovery of the traces of another, and much larger, bailey, containing about five acres, situated on the eastern and northern sides.
The masonry part of the castle was probably erected in the years 1171 and 1172. Further important parts of the castle were subsequently built, notably in 1173-4, etc. The fall of the sandstone cliff, due to the inroads of the sea, has destroyed a very large part of these works, and what remains is a comparatively small part of the area of the castle.
The castle at Hastings mentioned in the “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” as having been built by the order of Robert, Earl of Mortain, is not to be confounded with that fortress whose ruins crown the hill overlooking Hastings. It was probably situated on the shore of the western, or Priory valley at a point near the site of the present railway station.
It may not be generally known that in former times Hastings was protected on the sea side by a wall. This wall, which had a gateway and portcullis, extended from the Castle Hill to the East Hill, and was so arranged as to cut off the valley of the Bourne from the shore. A portion of the wall is figured as being in existence in 1824, when “The History and Antiquities of Hastings” was published by W. G. Moss. Slight traces of the wall may still be seen. The steep character of the hills of the Bourne valley rendered walls unnecessary on either side. This wall at Hastings is in some ways comparable with the defensive gate at Broadstairs already described.
A little to the west of this wall, situated on the very edge of the shore, was formerly a fort, the memory of which is preserved in local names.
Pevensey.—The Roman castrum here, with its very interesting masonry, has been described in the earlier part of this volume. Reference has also been made to the construction of a mediaeval castle within its area. It has long been supposed that there had been a Norman keep, and this has been confirmed by recent excavation and examination of the site.
Bramber.—An early earthwork, possibly a Danish camp, at Bramber, has already been mentioned. The site was granted by William the Conqueror to William de Broase, and a massive castle, of which certain ruins remain, was erected by him. It is now, owing to modifications of our river systems, somewhat remote from the main stream of the Shoreham River (incorrectly called the Adur), but there is every reason to believe that at the time of the Danes, and probably long after, it had a direct communication by water with the sea. Shoreham itself, it may be added, in 1346, furnished no less than twenty-six ships for Edward III’s invasion of France.
Portsmouth.—The existence of remains of the Roman castrum at Porchester, situated on the upper waters of Portsmouth Harbour, goes to show that in those early times the value of this part of the coast as a great harbour was recognized. It is curious, therefore, that no town of any importance was built at Portsmouth until the twelfth century. The actual building of the town was commenced in the reign of Richard I, and a charter was granted in the year 1194. Confirmation of this charter was made at various dates by successive sovereigns, and important additions to the privileges were made in 1627 by Charles I.
The town itself was defended by a wall with towers and gates, the date of which is not clear; but from the position of the place on the south coast, and open in a peculiar degree to invasion by the French, it is reasonable to infer that the defences were made at an early period in the history of the town, probably in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.
FIG. 31. ENTRANCE TO PORTSMOUTH HARBOUR,
temp. KING HENRY VIII
Leland in his “Itinerary” describes the defences as consisting of a “mudde waulle armid with tymbre, whereon be great peaces both of yron and brassen ordinaunces.” The circuit of the town was a mile, and a ditch was constructed outside the wall. Leland records that he heard in the town that the defences of the entrance to the harbour (“the tourres in the hauen mouth”) were commenced in the reign of Edward IV, continued in the time of Richard II, and finished in that of Henry VII. In the time of Edward VI two towers of stone were built, one on either side, at the mouth of Portsmouth Harbour, and a chain of immense weight and strength was placed between them in such a way as to form a defence against the advance of the ships of the enemy. The actual chain, with large long links, is shown on a plan of Portsmouth of the time of Queen Elizabeth.[21]
The approaches to Portsmouth, east and west, were commanded by several forts and the two block-houses, popularly known as Southsea Castle and Hurst Castle, both works being of the time of Henry VIII.
FIG. 32. SOUTHSEA CASTLE, temp. KING HENRY VIII
An extremely interesting picture, in the nature of a bird’s-eye view, of the defences of Portsmouth and the adjacent coast-line, extending as far as the northern shores of the Isle of Wight, is given in the engraving showing the encampment of the English forces near Portsmouth, 1545, published many years ago by the Society of Antiquaries of London. The original of this picture perished in the fire which destroyed Cowdray House, the mansion of Viscount Montague, at Midhurst, Sussex, but fortunately the Society of Antiquaries has preserved for us the copy of a picture which is full of interest, as illustrating the mediaeval walls of Portsmouth and the castles, forts, and other works as well as the guns, ammunition, and methods of working them, in vogue for the defence of the coast about the middle of the sixteenth century. One can see, too, the two towers built at the mouth of the harbour for carrying the chain which once protected it. The picture also comprises a bird’s-eye view of the naval forces of England and France drawn up in battle order at the commencement of the action between the two navies on 19 July 1545.
Southampton.—For many years Southampton took such a prominent part as a seaport, and was such a favourite town for landing and embarking during the Middle Ages, that it would indeed be remarkable if it had been left undefended. As a matter of fact its mediaeval walls and towers and gates were peculiarly strong. The walls varied from 25 feet to 30 feet in height, nearly 2,000 yards in length, and was strengthened by 29 towers. There were seven principal gates, and four of them, as well as large portions of the walls, remain. The gates which remain are (1) the North, or Bar-gate; (2) God’s House, or South Castle-gate; (3) West-gate, and (4) the Postern, now known as Blue Anchor-gate. The following have been destroyed: (1) East-gate; (2) Biddle’s-gate; and (3) the South, or Water-gate. There were also formerly a Castle Water-gate (now walled up) and a Postern near the Friary and God’s House: the site of the latter is lost. The mural towers were chiefly drums, or of half-round form. The masonry of the wall, to a large extent, is of Norman work, and in some parts the walls are rampired, or backed with earth to the summit.
FIG. 33. GROUND PLAN OF SOUTHAMPTON
The castle at Southampton occupied not only nearly the whole of the north-western corner of the area within the town-walls, but also the highest ground. Although some authorities have regarded it as a Saxon or Danish castle, the weight of evidence seems to be very much in favour of the view that it was built very soon after the Norman Conquest. It also seems probable that in the first instance it was mainly composed of an artificially-heightened mound and other earthworks, crowned, perhaps, by palisades. In due course, perhaps in the time of Henry I, a shell-keep of masonry was built on the mound, and its wall-footings were carried on massive piers of masonry, 8 feet square, and sunk 15 feet into the earth so as to have the benefit of the original hard surface. The other parts of the castle were built in masonry at about the same time or perhaps within the next fifty years.
Southampton suffered much from repeated ravages of the Danes, and from various other enemies at different times in the Middle Ages.
Wareham.—The early earthwork defences of this ancient town still exist on the east, north, and west sides. They consist of a rampart of some size with ditch on the outside and another ditch of smaller dimensions on the inside. In plan, the earthworks take a roughly quadrangular form, except that there is no earthwork along the south front facing the River Frome. A Norman castle, of which the mound still remains, was formerly part of the protection of Wareham. It stood within the south-western corner of the town.
Bristol.—Bristol has been a considerable sea-port from quite early times, having been engaged in trading from about the year 1000. The defences also date from an early period, as might be imagined where great wealth and interests were at stake. The date of the first castle is unknown, but it is said to have been rebuilt in the reign of King Stephen, and in it he himself was imprisoned for nine years. It seems probable that the earlier castle was one of the regular Norman defences mainly of earth-work, whilst that subsequently built was a masonry castle erected to take the place of or to strengthen the earthworks. The keep was square and built very strong and massive.
The castle was situated on the eastern side of the town, and on ground rising considerably above the level of the river. The town-wall, commencing near the west corner of the castle, partially enclosed the town, following the main course of the River Frome, and then taking an almost right-angle turn to the north-east as far as the bank of the River Avon.
Of the numerous castles and walled towns of Wales it is not, perhaps, necessary to speak in these pages, because it is obvious that their function was not so much to defend the coast against foreign invaders as to establish the power of the English, and to assist in the complete conquest of Wales.
Lancaster.—An interesting and important Norman castle[22] was built partly without and partly within the southern angle of the Roman castrum which was built here long before. The keep is of fairly early Norman workmanship. The whole work is perhaps somewhat remote from the coast—a little over four miles, in fact—but being situated on the River Lune, it may well have taken its share in coast defence.
Liverpool.—The castle here is believed to have been built in the year 1089 by Roger de Poictiers. During the Civil Wars in the time of Charles I it was dismantled, and its ruined walls were finally pulled down about the year 1725. One or two forts for the protection of Liverpool have been subsequently built on the north shore, but they have been demolished to make way for new buildings connected with the gigantic shipping trade done here.
Carlisle.—The defences of Carlisle are said to date from Roman times. The present castle is well situated on the highest point of ground within the city, about 60 feet above the river. Its walls enclose a roughly triangular space of an extent of about three acres. The keep, rectangular in plan, measures 66 feet by 60 feet and is at present 68 feet in height. It rose to a greater height originally. As one would infer from the dimensions of the keep, it is of Norman workmanship, but it has received a good many strengthening additions in comparatively recent times. The keep is situated in the inner ward which occupies the eastern end of the castle enclosure. It is approached by means of two gate-houses, one near the middle of the southern wall, leading into the outer ward, and the other about the middle of the wall which separates the outer and inner ward. The south wall of the castle is of Norman date: the other walls are of both Norman and Edwardian construction. The castle (doubtless as a fortress comprising mostly earthworks and palisading), is attributed to William II. The work was doubtless continued (probably in masonry), by Henry I, and completed in 1135 by David, King of Scotland, who also heightened the city walls.
Carlisle was, perhaps, only in a very minor sense of any importance as one of the coast defences of England. Its castle, its walls, and other defences were doubtless intended, primarily, to keep the Scottish border raiders in check, and to serve as a military base against Scotland.
The general principle of defending the coast by means of strong castles erected near the shore was in due course extended in accordance with local requirements. Thus, Tynemouth Priory, situated on the coast of Northumberland, was provided as we have seen, with a gate-house closely resembling in form and massive strength the gate-house of a mediaeval castle. It is certain that its builders contemplated and provided for military defence.
Houses of great personages, and of wealthy institutions such as monastic houses were also built on a defensive or semi-defensive scale.
