This second volume of Cicero's Letters to Atticus embraces one of the most important epochs in Roman history, the fall of the Republic in the struggle between Pompey and Caesar. The storm which had long been brewing broke just as Cicero returned from Cilicia over the question of Caesar's resignation of office. By the agreement made in 56 B.C. Caesar's governorship of Gaul was renewed for five years and he was then to be re-elected to the consulship in 48 B.C. As the renewal dated from March 1, 54 B.C., his term of office would naturally expire on March 1, 49 B.C.: but according to the rule in vogue at the time of the reappointment he would not be superseded until Jan. 1, 48 B.C., the date on which he would enter on the consulship. He would therefore hold office continually, and his enemies, the Senatorial party, would have no chance of bringing a prosecution against him, which might be fatal to his career. But in 52 B.C. they had induced Pompey to bring forward a new law by which ex-magistrates did not proceed to a province as soon as their office ended but after an interval of five years. Consequently for the next five years special appointments had to be made by the Senate—for example Cicero's appointment to Cilicia—and, as they could be made at any time, it would be perfectly easy to supersede Caesar on March 1, 49, and secure his prosecution, condemnation and downfall before he could enter on the consulship.

Another new law of Pompey's insisted on the [Pg vi]personal attendance of candidates for office, from which Caesar had previously obtained special exemption. On the remonstrance of Caesar's friends Pompey had inserted a clause allowing such special exemptions to stand: but this clause was never properly passed. This again was designed to ensure Caesar's presence in Rome, with a view to his prosecution.

During the next two years the question of his resignation was continually coming up in the House, but no definite conclusion was reached, owing largely to Curio's spirited attacks on all the Senatorial party's proposals. That party however was ready to catch at any trifle to pick a quarrel with Caesar: and they found an opportunity when in Sept. 50 B.C. Caesar decided to send the 13th legion into Cisalpine Gaul to replace the 15th, which he had had to surrender, nominally for the war in Syria, though actually the legion was kept in Italy. A report was circulated that he was sending four legions to Placentia with hostile intentions. The report was disproved by Curio: but, though the majority of the Senate supported the opposition, and refused to declare Caesar a public enemy, Marcellus, the consul, took upon himself to appoint Pompey to the command over two legions with authority to raise more against Caesar. On his return to Cisalpine Gaul in November, Caesar ignored this illegal commission and privately offered to give up Transalpine Gaul on March 1, if allowed to keep Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum with two legions or even Illyricum with one. It was at this juncture that Cicero returned to Italy, and he seems to have spoken in favour of accepting this proposal, though shocked at Caesar's "impudence" in making it. But neither Pompey nor the Senatorial party took it [Pg vii]seriously, and Caesar was forced to send an ultimatum stating that he would resign only if Pompey did the same. The Senate replied that, if he did not resign, he would be declared a public enemy: and, when their motion to that effect was vetoed by Antony and Cassius, the latter met with the same treatment and had to flee to Caesar in company with Curio.

On hearing their report Caesar took the first step in the war by crossing the Rubicon. His march southward was so quickly executed that Pompey and the consuls evacuated Rome. Negotiations for peace failed. Domitius with eighteen cohorts at Corfinium was taken prisoner, and Pompey retreated to Brundisium on his way to Greece. Hurrying after him Caesar blockaded the town: but Pompey succeeded in effecting his escape. Meantime Cicero was exhibiting the weakest side of his character. At the first outbreak he offered to go with Pompey: but he was given the command of Capua and the Campanian coast. This command he resigned in a few days: later he set out to join Pompey at Brundisium, but retreated for fear of capture: and thereafter for months he remained at Formiae shilly-shallying and writing querulous letters to Atticus for advice. However, when he met Caesar on his return from Brundisium to Rome, he had sufficient courage to refuse to take a seat in the House and support his demands.

Caesar's stay in Rome was short and marked only by his seizure of the public treasury and the appointment of his friends Lepidus and Antony as prefect of the city and military commander respectively. Then he hastened to Spain, where, after nearly meeting with a disaster, he defeated the five legions under Afranius and Petreius at Ilerda, and gained [Pg viii]the whole peninsula. While the issue was still uncertain in Spain, and indeed things looked unfavourable to Caesar, Cicero screwed up his courage and joined Pompey in Epirus. Meantime Sardinia was occupied by Caesar's adjutant P. Valerius and Sicily gave way to Curio. The latter passed on to Africa, where after some success he met with defeat and death at the hands of Juba. It was not till January 48 B.C. that Caesar effected a landing in Epirus, where he proceeded to surround Pompey's camp near Dyrrachium: but his lines were broken through and he sustained a slight defeat. He retired towards Thessaly and there in August won a decisive victory over Pompey at Pharsalus. Pompey fled to Cyprus and thence to Egypt, there to meet his death. The rest of the party split up, some going to Africa to carry on the war, others to Greece and Asia to make terms for themselves with Caesar. Cicero after a violent quarrel with his brother at Patrae returned to Brundisium, and there spent many miserable months wondering what his fate would be when Caesar returned. His misfortunes were increased by a rupture with his wife Terentia, and the unfaithfulness and general misconduct of his son-in-law Dolabella, which forced him to procure a divorce for Tullia. And there this volume leaves him, moaning.

The following abbreviations are used in the apparatus criticus:—

[Pg x]
[Pg xi]