[2] It was not actually finished till twenty-three years later.

[3] Euripides had died a few months before.

[4] The Athenians used to inflict the penalty of death by a draught of hemlock.

[5] For the “Crows” in the original. “Going to the crows” was the first equivalent for our “Going to the dogs.” The “Isle of Dogs” is a wellknown spot near London.

[6] When he captured the Spartan garrison of the Island of Sphacteria, B. C. 425.

[7] This would amount to about $2.25—a drachma being equal to about 20c or 9½d. in English money.

[8] These “liturgies,” as they were called, were charges imposed upon all residents in Athens whose property was assessed at more than a certain amount (three talents, which, as a talent contained 6,000 drachmÆ, may be roughly estimated at $3,500, equivalent, it is probable, to much more in actual value). These were originally equivalents for special privileges and powers which the wealthy enjoyed under the earlier constitution, but they were continued in force after the democratic changes which put all citizens on an equality. The Aliens were not liable to all.

[9] Better known by its Latin name of Paestum.

[10] Fought in 407. Notium was the harbor of Colophon a city of Asia Minor, about nine miles north of Ephesus, and about fifteen miles from the sea.

[11] Noble Athenian damsels were the “basket-bearers” (Canephoroi), daughters of aliens “Sunshade-bearers” (Skiaphoroi) in the Paratheraea, or Great Procession of Athens.

[12] The Andronitis and Gynaekonitis, as they were called.

[13] A Greek at table, after it became the fashion to recline instead of sit (as had been the practice in the heroic ages) lay on his left side, supporting his head by his left arm, the other arm being left free to help himself from the dishes when they were placed before him. Women and children always sat at table.

[14] Cos was one of the cities belonging to the Dorian Pentapolis.

[15] Callicratidas was the admiral In command of the Spartan fleet.

[16] Hippocles is alluding to a well known story. Midas deciding in favor of Pan as a better musician than Apollo was punished by being given the long ears of an ass. He hid them under his Thurgian cap from all men except the barber who cut his hair. This man, oppressed with the secret, dug a hole in the earth, whispered into it, “King Midas has asses’ ears,” and filling it up again, so found relief from his burden. But a reed grew from the spot, and as it was moved by the wind whispered the secret to the world.

[17] The instances in which a Spartan general sent to fill some office abroad seemed to lose all self-restraint and all sense of shame are deplorably numerous. Pausanias, the Spartan who commanded at PlatÆa, and was afterwards banished for treacherous dealings with the Persians, was the first conspicuous example of this national failing, as it may be called; but it was an example often followed. The Spartan governors in allied or conquered cities were almost proverbial for profligacy, tyranny and corruption.

[18] A seaman was paid four obols a day, the rate having been increased by the liberality of Cyrus from three to four. Five obols went to the drachma, and a hundred drachmas to the mina.

[19] This was the prince commonly called the younger Cyrus, the second of the two sons of Darius Nothus, King of Persia, by his Queen Parysatis. He had come down about a year and a half before the time of which I am writing to take the government of a large portion of Asia Minor, viz: Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia. He was strongly pro-Spartan in his views, and as has been explained in a previous note, had increased the rate furnished by the Persian treasury to the Spartan fleet. But Lysander, in his anger at being suspended in the command, had, with the selfishness, characteristic of Spartan officers, paid back to Cyrus all the money that had been furnished for the pay of the sailors.

[20] Phormion won some brilliant victories in the Corinthian gulf in the early years of the war. He died prematurely, it would seem about 429 B. C.

[21] The number of triremes contributed by Athens to the Greek fleet of Salamis was one hundred and eighty, but this comprised, of course, literally every ship that they possessed. In the expedition against Syracuse, the triremes numbered one hundred and thirty-four.

[22] Diomedon was the officer in command of Samos, and had already attempted with the twelve ships that composed his squadron, to relieve Conon. His force was so inferior to that of the Spartans that he could only have hoped to succeed by eluding their observations. Accordingly he had avoided the harbors and endeavored to make his way up a narrow channel, known by the common name of “Euripus” (a channel with a swift current) by which Mitylene could be approached. Callicratidas, however, had discovered the maneuver and captured ten out of the twelve ships.

[23] I may refer my readers to a signal instance in earlier Greek history where the same system almost led to disaster. It was only by the unusual personal influence of Miltiades, a personal influence almost unparalleled in Athenian history, that thus the ten generals were induced to fight at Marathon. There can be little doubt that, if the conflict had been delayed the pro-Persian party might have seriously hampered, if it did not altogether defeat, the efforts of the patriots.

[24] Theramenes had taken a prominent part four years before this date in the establishment of the oligarchy of the Four Hundred; finding that his own position was not such as he conceived to be suited to his merits, and having reason also to believe that the oligarchy would soon be overthrown—the fleet had declared against them—he changed sides and was the means of bringing up the condemnation of two of his own intimate friends, Antiphon and Archeptolemus.

[25] Catullus mentions it as a special excellence of his yacht that it could

“Carry its load o’er stormy seas
Whether from right or left the breeze
Call o’er the main, as safe and fleet
Over course, as when, on either sheet
With equal strength blew fair behind,
With level keel the following wind.”

[26] Persons who had rendered distinguished services to their country in peace or war received, among other rewards, the privilege, lasting for life, of dining in the Town hall. The city had no greater honor to bestow.

[27] It had brought about for a time the subjection of all the Boeotian towns (Thebes only excepted) and of Phocis to Athens.

[28] Myronides marched out with the citizens above and under the military age—all the available force that was left at Athens at the time—and won two victories, the first at Megara, the second and most famous of the two at Œnophyta in Boeotia.

[29] The old man was thinking of the Spartan offer to make peace after the capture of the five hundred and ninety-two prisoners at Pylos (B. C. 425). Terms much more favorable might have been secured than were obtained four years afterwards by the Peace of Nicias. Again, after the defeat and death of the Spartan admiral Mindarus in B. C. 410 peace might have been made, and the ruin of Athens probably postponed for many years; but the people refused to enter into negotiations.

[30] When the meal was ended the tables were not cleared, but removed.

[31] There were three original moods in Greek music, the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian. The last of these was in a major scale, and was reckoned to be plaintive and effeminate. So Milton writes in L’Allegro.

“And ever against eating cares
Lap one in soft Lydian airs
Married to immortal verse;
Such as the melting soul may pierce
In notes with many a winding bout
Of linked sweetness long drawn out.”

The Dorian was in a minor scale, and was considered to be manly and vigorous. Martial music was of this kind. So, to quote Milton again, we have:

“Anon they move
In perfect phalanx to the Dorian mood
Of flutes and soft melodies; such as raised
To heights of noblest temper heroes old
Coming to battle.”

The third, or Phrygian, was also minor, and was considered to be suitable for sacrifices and other religious functions as being of an ecstatic kind. There were combinations and modifications of these moods. Readers who may desire to know more of the subject, should consult Professor Mahaffy’s Rambles and Studies in Greece, pp. 424-444 (3rd edition). A more elaborate account may be found in Mr. Chappell’s History of Music.

[32] So Hector in the single combat with Ajax.

[33] A quarter of Athens south of the city on the Ilissus.

[34] The “Kalokagathos” (literally handsome and good), combining the two Greek ideals, beauty of mind and beauty of body.

[35] See note page 22.

[36] Xenophon, who was probably in Athens at the time, positively asserts that this was done, and I cannot think that the arguments of Mr. Grote countervail his authority.

[37] The “Eleven” were commissioners of police who had, besides the charge of the guardians of public order, the care of the prisoners, and the custody of criminals.

[38] One of the most notorious instances in modern times was that of the Tartar who after the battle of the Alma invented the news that Sebastopol was taken. The report was almost universally believed in England for some days, and the contradiction of it caused the bitterest disappointment.

[39] Paper made from the rind of the papyrus, a reed which grew in the Nile and which the Egyptians knew by the name of Byblos (hence our ‘bible’). Parchment in its present form did not become common till much later than this time (even B. C. 150), though skin seems to have been used for writing. For ordinary purposes paper was used.

[40] Mr. Grote says that the condemned generals drank hemlock but it is evident from the report of Euryptolemus which is substantially taken from Xenophon’s report that the mode of execution for persons condemned under such charges as that brought against the generals was by being thrown into the Pit. This place was called the Barathron and was within the city walls and was a deep pit with hooks fastened into the walls. The officer in charge of it was called “The Man of the Pit.”

[41] The “Long Walls” ran from Athens down to its chief harbor the Piraeus.

[42] The Eupatridae were the old aristocracy of Athens. Under the early constitution they were the ruling castÆ, and they always retained the monopoly of certain religious offices.

[43] “The seas are closed,” says Vegetius in his treatise De Re Militari, “from the ninth of November to the tenth of March.”

[44] It is convenient in a narrative to speak of “hours,” and the Greeks had a division of time that was so named. But it must not be supposed that these hours were exact periods of time such as we mean by the word. The day between sunrise and sunset was divided into twelve equal parts, which varied in length according to the season of the year. The divisions of the whole period of a day and night into twenty-four equal unvarying parts was later than the period of which I am writing, being attributed to Hipparchus, the astronomer, a native of NicÆa in Bithynia who lived in the second century B. C. The water-clock mentioned in the text may have been one of those large ones which served for the whole night (Plato is said to have had one). The slave in announcing to the guest the time at which the meal would be served would probably indicate it by pointing to this or that division marked upon it. The water-clock may be roughly compared to a sand-glass, but the water flowed through several orifices, which were very minute.

[45] He returned in May, 407, conducted in person the procession to Eleusis; a ceremony which had been discontinued for some time on account of the presence of the Spartan garrison at Decelea, and left again to take command of the fleet a few days afterward. He never saw Athens again.

[46] Three drachmae would be something more than half-a-dollar, (2 s. 5 d. in English money). This is taking silver at its present conventional value. What its purchasing power would be now it would be difficult to say, but it would certainly be greater than that of the sum by which it is represented.

[47] So we have in Homer (Iliad 11, 261) “the libations of wine unmingled” mentioned together with “the hand-holt trusted of yore,” a thing that gave a solemn sanction to treaties. Similar references abound in the Greek and Latin poets.

[48] The ancients painted on panel, not on canvass. Thus the Latin equivalent for ‘picture’ is tabula or tabella, words which may otherwise be used for a ‘plank.’

[49] From 431 to 406 (the year of which I am now writing). The eight years from 424-416, during which the peace of Nicias and the truce that followed it were in force, must be excepted.

[50] A day or two before the expedition started the pedestal statues of Hermes which stood at the street corners were broken down. Alcibiades was charged with being an accomplice in this outrage, refused an opportunity of defending himself, sent out in joint command, and recalled when the campaign was in progress.

[51] The Parelus was one of the two consecrated ships, (the other being the Salanimia) which were used for such purposes as the conveyance of ambassadors, the carrying of offerings to shrines, and, in case of need, the conveyance of important tidings. They were always manned with picked crews.

[52] The Peloponnesus or Island of Pelops.

[53] Deccleia was the fort established in Athenian territory by the Peloponnesians early in the war and used as their headquarters during their annual invasion of the country.

[54] The Long Walls were the great strength of Athens. They joined the harbor of the Piraeus to the city.

[55] Xenophon distinctly says that he lingered with Lysander, waiting for the time when the Athenians, at the last pinch of starvation, should be ready to accept any terms that might be offered.

[56] Sellasia was a town on the border where the previous embassy had been bidden to wait till the Ephors could be communicated with.

[57] The class name of the Athenian nobility.

[58] A stadium was nearly a furlong; to be exact, 202 yards.

[59] See Thucydides, VII. 71.

[60] A very small space yet remained to be erected when Gylippus and his Lacedaemonians broke through, relieved Syracuse, and practically decided the issue of the campaign.

[61] Coronea (447) and Delium (424) had been defeats inflicted by the Boeotians on the Athenian army at very critical periods when the victory of the latter must have had very far reaching results.

[62] The two were Selinus and Egesta.

[63] Commonly known by its Latinized name of Agrigentum.

[64] Tyranny, in its Greek sense, it may be explained, is the unconstitutional rule of a single person. It does not necessarily connote, as in English, cruelty or oppression. Except in Sparta, where the kings, indeed, were only hereditary commanders-in-chief, there was no king in any Greek state. Wherever an individual ruled, he was, of necessity, a tyrant.

[65] Hermocrates, resenting the decree of banishment that had been passed against him, attempted to make himself master of the city. He marched with the force that he had raised from Selinus, where he was encamped, and made such haste that he found himself with only a few companions far in advance, and close to the gates of Syracuse. While he halted to allow the army to come up, the leaders within the walls sallied out, overpowered the little party, and killed their leader. There is very little doubt but that he had resolved to seize absolute power.

[66] Dionysius did actually compete many times. He is said to have gained the second and third prizes more than once; and finally in the last year of his life won the first honors for a play entitled “The Ransoming of Hector.” One of the various accounts of his death attributes it to the excessive feasting in which he indulged on hearing of his victory.

[67] Athens capitulated in March, 404; Callias is supposed to have received the letter about August, 401.

[68] From one daric to one daric and a half per month, $5 to $7.50.

[69] For the second of the great victories of Alexander.

[70] Thipsach or “The Passage.”

[71] The battle of Cunaxa, in which Cyrus fell, was fought on Sept. 3d. The day at which we have now arrived is Oct. 31st.

[72] For convenience’ sake I have translated the dates of the Attic year which Callias, of course, used with the corresponding days in our reckoning. October 27 would be the “fifth day of the middle of Boedromia.” Each month was divided into three portions, often days each, respectively called beginning, middle, and ending. The days of the last were reckoned backwards. If this month had twenty-nine days only, the third division had nine.

[73] According to some accounts no competitor was crowned unless he was successful in all. But victory in five exercises so dissimilar could seldom, if ever, have been gained. Quoit-throwing, for instance, corresponding to our “putting the stone,” required lofty stature and great muscular strength, and would very seldom be the specialty of a very fleet runner.

[74] The Island of Pelops or Peloponnesus.

[75] The legend was that Poseidon and Athene contended together for the honor of being the patron Deity of Attica. This was to be adjudged to the Power which should present it with the most useful gift. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident, and produced the horse; Athene bade the olive spring forth, and was judged to have surpassed her rival. Reference is made to this legend in the most beautiful of the choral odes of Sophocles, the “Praise of Colonas” in the second of the two plays in the Story of Œdipus.

[76] The examination of accounts (euthuna) was one of the most important constitutional usages in the Athenian commonwealth. All magistrates on coming out of office, and ambassadors returning from a mission had to undergo it. The existence of this usage would make the difference in the eyes of an Athenian between a constitutional and a despotic government. The other Greek States, though we know but little of their internal arrangements, probably had some similar institution.

[77] Rather more than £400.

[78] Artaxerxes Longimanus, so called from the circumstance of his right hand being longer than his left. He reigned from 465 to 425.

[79] About £5,200, ($25,000), if gold is to be reckoned at thirteen times the value of silver. This is Herodotus’ calculation, and it probably held good in Greece for a century or more from his time, until, in fact, the enormous influx of gold from the Asiatic conquests of Alexander altered the proportion.

[80] The last scene of his life is described by Xenophon. I give the passage with some explanation. When he drank the fatal cup he threw the dregs on the floor with the peculiar jerk given in playing the game of Cottabos. This game had several forms; but the feature common to them all was the heaving of wine out of a cup. Sometimes the object seems to have been a kind of fortune telling. A guest when he had finished his cup would jerk out any dregs that might be left. At the same time he named the guest who was to drink next, and the sound made by the drops falling was supposed to give some omen good or bad. “To the gracious Critias,” said Theramenes. It was to be a prophecy of his fate. As a matter of fact Critias fell a few weeks afterward in a battle with Thrasybulus and the exiles of the democratic party.

[81] It was usual to kick not to knock with the hand.

[82] About $18,000.

[83] Something less than $6.

[84] The battle of Delium (between the Boeotians and the Athenians) was fought in 424. The precise age of Socrates at the time of his death was seventy.

[85] The lines from Hesiod:

“No labor mars an honest name;
’Tis only Idleness is shame,”

was one instance (quoted by Xenophon in the Recollections of Socrates). Another (from the same source) is the story of how Ulysses stayed the Greeks from hurrying to their ships and leaving the siege of Troy. The common men he struck, but if he found a chief in the crowd he only remonstrated with him,

“But if he saw perchance, some common man
Blinded with panic, clamorous of tongue,
With staff he smote him, adding blow to blame.”

[86] The priestess of Apollo at Delphi.

[87] It was the curious custom in the Athenian courts of criminal justice that the accused, if found guilty, was required to name a counter penalty to that proposed by the prosecutor. The prosecutor, as has been seen, had proposed death. Socrates, under the circumstances, could hardly have proposed anything less than banishment, if he had any wish that it should be accepted by the court.

[88] Rather more than $600.

[89] The Eleven were the executioners of the law rather taking the place of the sheriff and the under-sheriff than that of the hangman. The vagueness of its name is an interesting example of the Greek distaste for naming anything terrible.

[90] A young Greek wore his hair long till he reached the age of eighteen. This little detail is a proof of Phaedo’s extreme youth at this time.

[91] The Greek philo-lacon. The word had been applied to Cimon, son of Miltiades, who had always been a popular statesman and so might be used in a friendly way. If Callias had spoken of Xenophon as disposed to laconismus it would have been almost an affront, this word meaning not so much admiration of Spartan ways of life as devotion to Spartan interests.