ONE of the most primitive ways of preparing to extinguish any fire that might arise is the following rule adopted by the City of London in the reign of Richard I. ‘Item. That all persons who occupy great houses have in summer time, and especially between the Feast of Pentecost and the Feast of St. Bartholomew, before their doors a barrel full of water for quenching fire, if it be not a house which has a fountain of its own.’

But there was sound wisdom in this, for the water would be at hand for instant use, and, as stated elsewhere, a gallon of water at the commencement of a fire is worth more than hundreds of gallons a little later. It is well known that a small engine at a large fire does more harm than good; and it is also well known that a small quantity of water thrown on a large amount of burning substances becomes decomposed and increases the activity of the burning. Mr. Grove has published particulars of some interesting experiments conducted by him, in which he found that water in contact with highly-heated platinum was decomposed and resolved into its elements, oxygen and hydrogen, and that the gaseous mixture thus produced burned with an activity amounting to an explosion.

Water acts in extinguishing fire by its cooling influence alone, and contains in itself the very elements of fire, so that when decomposed by a high temperature it will burn vigorously. Thus it is that a small quantity of water thrown on a large fire often does serious mischief. The methods of extinguishing fire are two, mechanical and chemical. The use of water, for the before-named reasons, ranks among the former, and its most successful application is by means of the steam fire-engine. There are many substances that chemically oppose combustion, and perhaps the best-known medium of these for the purpose is Sinclair’s fire exterminator. These being representatives of their respective classes, a short description may be of some value:—

The fire-exterminator appears outwardly as shown by the engraving, and is arranged so that it can be speedily and easily carried on a man’s back. There are various details as to the inner structure which need not be given here, but in brief it has inside it a solution of carbonic acid gas. It may be called a large soda-water bottle charged with gas and incombustible chemicals under great pressure.

The charge of acid is contained in a glass vessel, and this is so arranged that when the machine is wanted, a blow on the top with a mallet causes the chemicals to unite, and produce, when in operation, a stream of fluid which can be projected fifty feet against fire with certainty of success. The value of this machine is increased by the fact that a certain measure of incombustibility is communicated to burning bodies after they have been operated upon by the chemical solution. So many serious fires could be stopped in their commencement if proper means were at hand, that the importance of powerful machines in small compass, such as these, cannot be over-estimated; and their efficiency is proved by there being no less than 45,000 in use, and 6,000 fires having been extinguished by them. It is calculated by actual operations that one gallon of the chemical charge in an exterminator will do as much good as twenty-five gallons of water.

Passing to the highest type of mechanical methods now in use, we have to consider a more complete but wonderful machine, the steam fire-engine. Within the lifetime of a young man such an invention was unknown to the bulk of people, and had not come into general adoption; in its place were parish hand-engines, and a few kept up by the Fire Insurance Companies of London. There was no system under which the firemen worked, no one responsible if the engine was out of order, or any untoward accident happened; and until the great Tooley Street fire discovered the alarming possibility of another Fire of London, the public seemed well content to leave their protection from fire chiefly to chance. Some remarkable revelations concerning the state of fire-engines in these early days may be found in Mr. Young’s exhaustive work on ‘Fires and Fire Engines.’ He gives an instance in which a woman was found to be manager of two parish engines; her husband had been sexton and parish engineer; and when he died, the parish authorities, not knowing what to do with the widow, appointed her as engineer. A writer in the ‘Quarterly Review’ for December 1854 relates that Mrs. Smith might be seen at conflagrations hurrying about in her pattens directing the firemen of the engine.

The present extensive application of steam-power for working fire-engines has arisen from the manifest inability of hand-worked machines to arrest the progress of large fires; from the very beneficial results that are attained by the use of steam fire-engines even at small fires; and, lastly, from the great improvements that have been made in the portable steam-engine within the last twenty years.

The first steam fire-engine was constructed by Braithwaite, of London, in 1830 (before the formation of the London Fire Brigade), but the recognition of this valuable invention as a regular fire brigade appliance did not take place till twenty-two years later, when its public use was established in New York. In the same year (1852) the London Fire Brigade employed Messrs. Shand and Mason to apply steam power to one of their hand-worked floating fire-machines, and were so satisfied with the results that they immediately procured an entirely new self-propelling floating steam-engine, constructed upon designs supplied in competition by Messrs. Shand and Mason, after receiving the approval of the late Mr. Walker, engineer, of Great George Street. This is still the most powerful efficient steam floating fire-engine that has been constructed, and is in use for river-side work in London. In 1861 the same firm supplied the first land-engine (single horizontal) purchased by the London Fire Brigade, which is still in excellent order. Many others have been since built by them, and also by Messrs. Merryweather and Sons, these two firms being the best known fire-engine makers. Steam fire-engines comprise three classes; land, floating, and fixed. The appearance of the land-engine is now familiar to all the dwellers in our large towns, most of whom have seen it in its rapid progress to a fire, drawn by horses, and carrying its complement of firemen. Floating steam-engines are desirable in ports and docks, where warehouses and storehouses of goods are in immediate proximity to water. They are self-propelling, or are placed in a vessel to be moved about by steam tugs. Fixed steam fire-engines are placed in manufactories and other places where the steam boilers are already in use, the steam from which is available both day and night for working the engine. The use of these fixed engines is of course limited to the premises where they are situated, but these they protect efficiently by means of an arrangement of fixed cast-iron pipes, with outlets for attaching flexible hose; and being without the boiler, carriage, axles, springs, &c., of the land steam fire-engine, the cost is very much reduced.

Messrs. Shand and Mason’s engines (see engraving on page 127) are all direct-acting, the steam and water pistons being connected by rigid rods, without the intervention of any joints, so that the force communicated by the steam to the steam-piston is instantaneously transmitted to the water-piston without any shock or blow. A crank is used to fix the length of the stroke, and to obtain a rotary motion with which to work the slide valve by an ‘eccentric,’ as in the ordinary steam-engine: a small fly-wheel is used in their single vertical, but none is required in their double or treble cylinder, nor in the patent horizontal engines. A great advantage, in Messrs. Shand’s opinion, attending the use of a rotary motion for steam fire-engines is, that it can be put in motion by hand in the engine-house as often as is necessary to prevent any of the working parts getting fixed through being out of use. In engines having no rotary motion this cannot be done without getting up steam, and frequently at fires the pistons have been found immovable, causing much valuable time to be lost. An engine with rotary motion does its work in a smooth and even manner, with a minimum of attendance on the part of the man in charge, and without the shocks, jerks, and irregular movement frequently found in those constructed without it.

The engines made by Messrs. Merryweather are in outward appearance somewhat similar to those just mentioned, but differ in constructional detail; the rotary motion is altogether dispensed with; the power is transmitted direct; and the working parts are perhaps fewer. This firm adopts long strokes of piston, and large cubical contents of cylinders; there are no cranks or dead centres, and thus the engines are stated to do a full amount of work with lower steam pressure and at less speed. Being direct acting, without fly-wheels, they work at any required speed to the maximum; it is stated they can be started in any position, and never set fast.

The engine engraved on page 124 is named the ‘First Grand Prize,’ and is provided with seats for firemen, coal bunkers, water tanks, &c. It is said to raise steam from cold water to working pressure in seven to eight minutes from the time of lighting the fire; and to be capable of pumping 600 gallons per minute to a height of 180 feet. The present price of this engine, including the various fixtures and fittings, is 820l.

The most important part of a Steam Fire-Engine is the boiler, which should be of such a nature as to supply the greatest amount of steam in the shortest possible space of time. Messrs. Merryweather have adopted the system invented by Mr. Field, which has already for some years given such excellent results in England. The distinctive feature consists in closed tubes suspended in such a manner as to be completely surrounded by the frame of the furnace; these tubes communicate by only one extremity with the boiler: inside of them are smaller tubes, open at both ends, and with the upper ends widened out in the form of a funnel. The release of the steam produced, and

the supply of fresh water for conversion into steam, is very rapid and takes place with ease.

Messrs. Shand, Mason and Co.’s ‘Patent Inclined Water-tube Boiler’ is now applied by them to all Steam Fire-Engines of their construction, as well as for a variety of purposes where it is desirable to secure the greatest possible amount of power in the smallest space, combined with efficiency, economy of fuel, and durability of construction.

For Steam Fire-Engines, steam of 100 lbs. pressure can be raised in six minutes and thirty-five seconds from lighting the fire, while for general purposes an increase in the number of layers of tubes is made, to the extent of rendering the boiler most economical as regards fuel.

The boiler is constructed in two pieces, bolted together by an angle iron-faced joint, which affords immediate access to the whole of the interior; but on account of the rapid circulation of water in the tubes, this feature, although retained, is not found necessary in practice.

Bowling iron only is used, with the longitudinal seams welded, and all holes, whether for rivets or bolts, are drilled and not punched. The tubes are of homogeneous metal, and as the pressure is inside, and the ends are removed from the hottest part of the fire, no leakage whatever takes place, while the complete through passage in the tubes, combined with their inclined position, prevents the accumulation of deposit, which in practice invariably takes place in tubes where one of the ends is closed.

The Cylindrical Tube Plate and the tubes being exposed to equal amounts of heat, it follows that the diameter of the tube plate increases by expansion to exactly the same extent as the tubes lengthen, so that no displacement of the ends of the tubes can take place from alternate expansion and contraction.

The Fire Box is surrounded by a water space, which economises fuel, and avoids the necessity for a lining of

fire-bricks and fire-clay, the replacing and keeping in order of this being in some Steam Fire-Engines a fruitful source of annoyance.

The working steam pressure of Shand, Mason and Co.’s Engines in the Metropolitan Fire Brigade is 100 lbs. on the square inch, and the safety valves are constructed so that the man in charge cannot exceed this; but the boilers are proved to 300 lbs., and the engines may be worked with the greatest safety at a pressure of 150 lbs. on the square inch.

Fig. 1 is a sectional elevation of boiler; fig. 2, an elevation of absorption chamber; fig. 3, a plan of same.

A, the furnace; B, the absorption chamber sectioned on the line I, J, fig. 3; C, the chimney or funnel; D, the outer shell; E, the steam chest; F, the narrowest part of eccentric water space through which the tubes are supplied with water at their lower ends; K, the widest part of eccentric water space through which the upper ends of the tubes deliver the steam produced from the heat absorbed by the tubes, and transmitted to the water during its passage through them. By the arrangement of tubes shown at G, fig. 2, and at H, fig. 3, and water spaces shown at F and K, figures 1 and 3, a general circulation of water is obtained in the boiler, and especially through the tubes, while the water space at K increasing upwards allows of an easy separation of steam from the accompanying water, and of its rising into the steam chest separated, thus materially preventing priming, while the water returns to the lower ends of the tubes, thereby maintaining a constant circulation through them in the direction shown by the arrows; and by crossing the tubes in alternate layers, a constant flow towards and into their lower ends is induced, and a constant discharge from the upper ends throughout the other half, thus causing general and uninterrupted currents of water and steam.

As a conclusion to the subject of Fire-Engines, I may state that, when compared with manual engines, the steam-engines show an immense saving. From a return made to the Metropolitan Fire Brigade authorities, it was proved that at a fire in St. Katharine’s Docks there were nine steam-fire-engines at work from three to ten hours, the total cost of fuel being £3 18s. 5d., while the quantity of water thrown on the fire was estimated at 938,480 gallons.

The number of manual engines required to produce the same result would be forty-one, requiring 1,904 men to work them, at a cost of £476, including refreshments, showing a balance in favour of employing the steamers of £472 1s. 7d. The proportion of the cost was as 1 to 121; or, in other words, steamers for 20s. expenditure pump 251,000 gallons, and manuals for the same sum only 2,227.

These Steam Fire-Engines have frequently been used for other purposes than that of quenching fire. After the Sheffield inundation, one was used for a week continuously to raise water from the basements of dwellings; and many towns have had their water-supply kept up by the use of these invaluable engines, which will no doubt come into yet more extended use.

The most that can be done after constant care has failed to prevent fire, is to rely upon extraneous help to put it out; and this too often fails, in London at all events, because of the absurdities of the water supply. The work that can be done in attempting to extinguish a fire at an early stage is worth everything, and yet matters are so arranged that the firemen may get to a fire and watch it burning, while the turncock is sent for to find the plug and get the required supply of water; and if the pressure happens to be low in the main the supply runs short. Now this occurs at comparatively small fires; what if a whole street were ablaze, or a fire like that in Tooley Street broke out, away from the river with its friendly supply of water? Consequences of a most serious nature may result from the present system, which all persons, excepting the Water Companies, blame, and nobody alters. Constant water pressure and a good system of hydrants are urgently needed in every town. Without this the most efficient fire brigade in the world would be hampered, and it seems a crime to let anything stand in the way of the full development of the energy displayed by fire brigades like that in London—certainly the best in existence. By the kindness of its chief I am enabled to supply a few particulars about this energetic body of men, to whom the public are so indebted, and of the work they perform.

The strength of the brigade at present is as follows:—

The number of firemen employed on the several watches kept up throughout the Metropolis is at present 90 by day and 181 by night, making a total of 271 in every 24 hours; the number of those sick, injured, on leave, or under instruction, is generally between 40 and 50. The remaining men are available for general work at fires.

The number of journeys made by the fire-engines, during the year 1873, of the 50 stations, was 6,556, and the total distance run was 20,503 miles.

The number of calls for fires, or supposed fires, received during the year was 1,703. Of these, 83 were false alarms, and 1,548 were calls for fires, of which 166 resulted in serious damage, and 1,382 in slight damage.

These figures refer only to the regular calls for fires, or supposed fires, involving the turning out of firemen, fire-engines, horses and coachmen; they do not include trifling damage by fires which were not sufficiently important to require the attendance of firemen; neither do they include the ordinary calls for chimneys on fire, which are separately accounted for further on.

The fires of 1873, compared with those of 1872, show an increase of 54; but compared with the average of the last ten years there is a decrease of 17.

The proportion of serious to slight losses in 1873—166 to 1,382—is about as favourable as hitherto.

The following table gives it both in actual numbers and percentages, and shows that there was considerable success in reducing losses during the year.

The number of fires in the Metropolis in which life was seriously endangered, during the year 1873, was 74, and the number of these in which life was lost was 20.

The number of persons seriously endangered by fire was 140, of whom 105 were saved and 35 lost their lives. Of the 35 lost, 12 were taken out alive, but died afterwards, in hospitals or elsewhere, and 23 were suffocated or burned to death.

The number of calls for chimneys was 3,602, of these 1,167 proved to be false alarms, and 2,435 were for chimneys on fire. In these cases there was no attendance of engines, but only of firemen with hand-pumps.

The quantity of water used for extinguishing fires in the Metropolis during the year was 22,610,379 gallons, in round numbers a little more than 22½ million gallons, or about 101,000 tons. Of this quantity 66,113 tons, or almost exactly two-thirds of the whole, were taken from the river, canals, and docks, and the remainder from the street pipes.

During the year there were 6 cases of a short supply of water, 29 of late attendance of turncocks, and 17 of no attendance, making altogether 52 cases in which the water arrangements were unsatisfactory.

The monthly summary of fires for the same year is as follows:—

Many a damaging fire has been stopped by the immediate application of water, and many more would have been if a little common sense and presence of mind were oftener displayed. As a simple precaution in one’s own house, always keep the bedroom water-jugs full, and have an exterminator in a handy place ready for immediate use. For places liable to fire—and what building is not—this latter handy instrument, with its peculiar liquid, is invaluable, its contents being worth several times the same quantity of water. For some purposes it is better than the pumps and portable engines so largely employed, and is always a valuable addition to them; the effects I have witnessed of its operation are so remarkable that its general adoption should be only a matter of time.

Country mansions need special appliances for putting out fire, which are determined by the style of building, its position, whether or not near a good water supply, &c., but all the fixed apparatus should not supersede the little engines just mentioned. A large mansion in Hampshire, burnt not long since, was specially constructed with a view to have a good water supply in case of fire; the tank at the top to charge fixed pipes being kept full by a pump, and everything else possible done to ensure safety. But the fire broke out when the pump was out of order, and no water could be had, and so the house that took years to build was burnt in a few hours. No precautions, however ample or costly, can be reckoned on unless constant supervision is exercised over them, and care taken to keep the various appliances ready for action.

The destruction of Messrs. Hadley’s great steam flour mill in Thames Street, close to Blackfriars Bridge, did not fail to call attention to the problem of protecting large buildings from fire. The ‘Engineer’ of November 1872 states that the mill was erected in 1852. It had a frontage of 65 feet to the river, was 250 feet long, and 7 storeys high. Originally the machinery was driven by the condensing side lever engines which were specially designed and built to work the Blackwall Railway with ropes, a duty they performed for several years. About four years ago these engines were replaced by a pair of fine compound horizontal condensing engines, capable of working up to about 500 horse-power. The mill was considered to be fireproof, and no doubt deserved the title as well as many of the so-called fireproof buildings in London and the provinces. The fire broke out in one of the upper floors, some time on Sunday morning, Nov. 10, 1872, and in a very few hours the mill, with the exception of the outer walls, and portions of the lower part, was utterly destroyed. At one time no fewer than thirty engines were present; eighteen of them, including the Thames floating engine, being steam-engines.

A correspondent of the ‘Builder’ stated that the following mills were destroyed by fire in four consecutive weeks in 1872. Oct. 26, Waterloo Cotton Mills, loss £30,000. Hyson and Sharpe’s Cotton Mills, Blackburn, £6,000. Nov. 14, Dean’s Cotton Mills, Swinton, £10,000. Nov. 10, Hadley’s Mill, London, say £20,000. Nov. 15, Parker’s Cotton Mills, Preston, £16,000. Nov. 18, Whateley’s Cotton Mill, Aberdeen, £18,000. Nov. 22, Bury and Heap’s Cotton Mills, £10,000. Nov. 23, Gomersall Bros. Woollen Mills, Dewsbury, £15,000. Total loss, £132,000.

In reckoning the losses occasioned by fire, we cannot, however, confine ourselves to the mere cost of the building; the wages lost by workpeople thrown out of employ, the trade gone into other hands, and possibly never recovered—these, and other considerations, should lead to extreme care being taken to prevent fire, and to having proper appliances at hand to extinguish it, if, unfortunately, it breaks out.