FIRE, although most useful in its proper place, is the source of almost countless loss and destruction, and has well earned the character often given it, of being the best of servants but the worst of masters. Everyone knows how it has been feared by men from the world’s commencement, and worshipped by idolaters even to the present day, when millions still bow down to what they fear instead of to a Being they can love.

And perhaps it is not only its destructive power that causes fire thus to be reverenced by the ignorant, and dreaded in many forms by the more enlightened. Its mysterious origin and power of spontaneously coming into existence help to characterise it as the most remarkable of the elements, and to increase the liability to dangerous results when it has fuel to feed upon.

It is not my purpose to notice the various applications of fire in ways that cause it to bring about incalculable good to mankind. A moment’s thought as to what would result if fire could not be applied in numberless needful instances, and we had nothing to supply its place, will convince us that its value is far greater than all the loss it causes. But there often is loss, and to a considerable extent; and as this is generally preventable, it will be well for us to consider what are the proper means to adopt in order to guard against it.

The buildings in which fires occur most frequently are our ordinary dwelling-houses, because they largely outnumber all other classes of buildings—not perhaps because they are more liable to be burnt than others. I can find no authentic return of fires that have occurred throughout Great Britain, and therefore cannot give statistics of the relative proportions of the various kinds of structures that have been burnt. It seems to me a great mistake not to have an accurate report of every fire that happens, with full details of its cause, the damage done, &c.; the particulars might be registered more easily, and with less expense, than births and deaths are; and it is open to question if the benefit derived from such a course would not be of at least equal good. When a death results from fire the inquest often discloses facts which, if known before, might have prevented death; and it would be little trouble to arrange for the coroner or some qualified official to hold an enquiry—without a jury, of course—concerning every fire reported to him by the fire brigade in his district. If this had been done in bygone years there would not now be that ignorance of construction and of the right means of saving life and property which unhappily prevails. Why the insurance offices have not supported and carried into practice some such idea is possibly to be explained by the undoubted fact that a good fire brings them fresh business.

The number of fires is increasing rapidly every year in a proportion quicker than the increase of building or population; the explanation being that as the houses get crowded together they are more liable to be set on fire by external agency. But the increase, serious as it appears, is curiously small when one takes into account the causes, multiplying every day, by which this destruction may be effected. In the last few years London and many large towns have become intersected by railways, and the fires and sparks of engines are frequently scattered about as if the stations and dwellings near were bomb-proof. Vessels may be seen on the Thames and elsewhere getting up steam close to the windows of warehouses with inflammable goods inside; steam, with its attendant dangers, is used in places and for purposes never thought of a short time since. Gas, with its unmistakable smell, however, making it somewhat safe, is in large use; while its modern rivals, the explosive oils, are being too carelessly used in an increasing extent. Friction-matches only a few years ago were not to be found in the houses of the poor, but are now used by everyone. The use of tobacco has extended, and there is reason to believe very many fires are due directly or indirectly to it. Stoves, instead of the open fireplaces, are in larger request, and their flues are more dangerous than the old-fashioned wide chimneys. These, and other less important facts, will explain the following statistics given in evidence by Captain Shaw before a Parliamentary Committee: ‘During the 34 years since 1840, the population of London has increased from 1,907,036 to 3,342,490, or 75 per cent.; and the number of houses from 258,425 to 479,329, or 82 per cent. But during the same period the number of fires has more than doubled, having jumped from 681 to 1,548—equal to an increase of 127 per cent. The total number of fires throughout the 34 years was 38,241.’

Only a small proportion of these 38,000 fires were very serious ones; yet the majority of them might have been so but for the precautions and appliances at hand to prevent the mischief spreading. The best way of combating this foe for the future is to ensure better house-building, and to hold an enquiry into the cause of each fire, as already suggested. But we have to deal with cities and towns already built, and with the greater part of their buildings ready to form bonfires when any carelessness lets even the smallest portion ignite. In another chapter I have spoken of fireproof construction, and have given instances of the danger many of our public buildings are in. But dwelling-houses are scarcely ever built to be fireproof, space and cheapness being the desiderata, and it will ever be so. The construction of the older ones causes them to burn out, when once fairly alight, in an incredibly short space of time, affording but little opportunity for the escape of inmates, even should they be able to withstand the choking smoke.

The following is a complete list of causes of fires in London for the year 1873:—

The proportion of unknown causes so frequently reported is far too large. An intelligent consideration of the circumstances which may give rise to chemical action would often solve the difficulty. There were lately reported some curious fires which occurred at Manchester, caused by the slow combustion of green wax-tapers which had been blown out but imperfectly extinguished. The smouldering wick gradually consumed away, setting the wax and surrounding materials on fire.

It has long been known that green wax office-tapers would thus gradually smoulder away if they are not carefully extinguished after they have been used. This danger arising from tapers may be guarded against by using any other colour than green.

Many things popularly deemed uninflammable are far from being so; for instance, tin is not a common combustible, but it will burn with considerable energy under peculiar conditions. This may be proved by placing a small portion of nitrate of copper upon a sheet of tin-foil. Both materials are inactive as long as they are dry, but upon moistening them with water the chemical action first heats the tin, which eventually will break out into flame. Lead is not usually regarded as liable to do more than melt, but under favourable circumstances it will burn with vehement heat. On the other hand, a room filled with coal-gas is by many persons supposed to be dangerously explosive, whereas it cannot even take fire excepting at the openings of the room, where, by coming into contact with the air, the necessary combination of atoms occurs so as to let the gas ignite and burn.

As most fires break out at night, the necessity is shown of examining a building at the latest possible hour. In warehouses, factories, and such like, a watchman should be employed.

The tell-tale clocks frequently used to prove whether the watchman has done his duty are of doubtful service, for it is better to rely upon an honest man’s carefulness than to compel him to go certain fixed rounds which may prevent his being able to give an alarm at the right moment.

One watchman is generally best even in very large buildings. ‘An instance[4] is on record in which a building standing in its own grounds was watched by four men, two of whom patrolled within and two without the walls, and yet the alarm of fire which happened in this building was first given by a street-constable who happened to see the light while going round his beat. If there had been but one watchman, or two, it might have been possible to impute some blame to them, but as there were four it was much more reasonable to assume that they were engaged in pegging clocks or carrying out some other so-called self-registering scheme of recording their duties instead of really transacting them.’

With regard to watching private houses this must be left chiefly to the police, but it should be seconded by an examination made by the master himself every night the last thing before retiring to rest. Many fires commence from a spark or ash falling out of the fire when it is not properly protected by a guard or fender. The habit of raking out a fire at night is a popular but mischievous one. If left to burn in the grate there is far less chance of danger than in raking out the hot ashes, which are likely to split the hearth-stone or fall on the floor or carpet. Gas-burners are dangerous when placed near the ceiling. A remarkable instance of this took place where a gas-jet set fire to a ceiling 28½ inches from it.

More attention should be paid to keeping chimneys swept, which operation should be done at regular intervals, and not left till the occupier thinks it is time they were done, or is reminded of it by a black shower of soot falling some wet day.

Notwithstanding that all owners of chimneys on fire can be fined for neglecting to have the flues cleaned, it has been recorded that as many as 2,435 cases of burning chimneys occurred in 1873 in London to which the firemen were called. The number is so large that the penalty appears to be too small to effect its object, and might with advantage be increased, as the risk to property from these chimney-fires is considerable. A district in Liverpool occupied by the Irish poor is stated to have had its chimneys freed from soot by the summary process of purposely setting fire to them; and I have read a statement giving a description of the curious sight witnessed when a whole district had its chimneys alight at once. This is fortunately not a fashionable way of ‘sweeping,’ but more care must be taken by those who prefer the customary mode.

Dustbins very often cause serious losses. In one instance 30,000l. to 40,000l. were lost, apparently from hot ashes being thrown into a dustbin. No heaps of rubbish or lumber of any sort should be allowed in a building of any value, and dustbins should always be placed in the open air.

The following with reference to the prevention of fires appeared in the ‘Builder’ for May, 1867:—

‘Keep matches in metal boxes, and out of the reach of children; wax matches are particularly dangerous, and should be kept out of the way of rats and mice; be careful in making fires with shavings and other light kindling; do not deposit coal or wood ashes in a wooden vessel, and be sure burning cinders are extinguished before they are deposited; never put firewood upon the stove to dry, and never put ashes or a light under a staircase; fill fluid or spirit lamps only by daylight, and never near a fire or light; do not leave a candle burning on a bureau or a chest; always be cautious in extinguishing matches and other lighters before throwing them away; never throw a cigar-stump upon the floor or spitbox containing sawdust or trash without being certain that it contains no fire; after blowing out a candle never put it away on a shelf, or anywhere else, until sure that the snuff has gone entirely out; a lighted candle ought not to be stuck up against a frame-wall, or placed upon any portion of the woodwork in a stable, manufactory, shop, or any other place; never enter a barn or stable at night with an uncovered light; never take an open light to examine a gas-meter; do not put gas or other lights near curtains; never take a light into a closet; do not read in bed, either by candle or lamp light.

‘The principal register of a furnace should always be fastened open; stove-pipes should be at least four inches from woodwork, and well guarded by tin or zinc; rags ought never to be stuffed into stove-pipe holes; openings in chimney-flues for stove-pipes which are not used ought always to be securely protected by metallic coverings; never close up a place of business in the evening without looking well to the extinguishing of lights, and the proper security of the fires; when retiring to bed at night always see that there is no danger from your fires.’

If these directions can all be constantly observed, we may have a tolerable sense of security.

With respect to the detection of fires there is very little to say; for though many plans for arranging electric wires, or tubes with certain chemicals inside, have been tried, I know of none that have met with general acceptance. The truth is, if there were any pressing demand for such a thing, plenty of sensible inventions would be forthcoming; but fire generally discovers itself before anything else would show that it existed, and therefore our energies are chiefly directed to the extinction of it when once begun.

The number of lives endangered by fire is so numerous that I feel the subject would not be complete without a few words respecting escape from a burning house. The apathy that exists as to the best means of getting safely from such a perilous position can only be accounted for on the supposition that the probability of fire is too small to induce people to think seriously of it. But a time is likely to come in the lives of some of us when previous thought on the subject may become of enormous importance; and although at such a critical moment, when, perhaps aroused from a sound sleep, one finds oneself in a house on fire, presence of mind is the first thing required, yet a few simple suggestions that will start to the memory may be of value.

If on the first discovery of the fire it is found to be confined to one room, and to have made but little progress, it is of the utmost importance to shut, and keep shut, all doors and windows. On this particular Mr. Braidwood said: ‘It may often be observed, after a house has been on fire, that one floor is comparatively untouched, while those above and below are nearly burned out. This arises from the doors on that particular floor having been shut, and the draught directed elsewhere. If the fire appears at all serious, and there are fire-engines at a reasonable distance, it is best to await their arrival, as many buildings have been lost from opening the doors and attempting to extinguish fires with inadequate means. If no engines are within reach, and you have not a hand-pump or an extincteur, the next best thing is to collect as many buckets outside the room on fire as can be obtained, keeping the door shut while more water is being collected.’ Since the above was written, a valuable invention has been brought forward, by use of which a person may enter dense smoke that it would be otherwise impossible to exist in. The Smoke Respirator, which has the unattractive appearance shown by the engraving, is an apparatus to act as a filter for the separation of the pure air from an atmosphere charged with impurities detrimental to the healthy action of the lungs. It is on the system spoken of and recommended by Professor Tyndall, in his popular lectures upon ‘Dust and Smoke,’ and is useful for other purposes than that already named, such as in the case of metal-grinding, or in cleaning cotton, where the operators are subject to inconvenience from particles of dust. I mention this respirator because it not only serves the firemen in entering buildings, but would prevent many of the deaths caused in case of fire by suffocation. In lieu of this, however, a rough-and-ready protection from breathing the smoke may be had by thoroughly wetting a towel and fastening it firmly round the face over the mouth and nostrils. If I remember rightly, a man saved his life by doing this when the Star and Garter Hotel, at Richmond, was destroyed by fire.

But if the flames have too great a hold to allow of escape by the staircase or roof, and the window of the room is the only means of egress, the situation becomes a serious one, unless its possibility has been foreseen and guarded against.

Only as the last resource should a person run the risk of jumping to the ground; either endeavour by tying the bedclothes together to make some sort of rope, fastening one end to a heavy piece of furniture, and going down the rope hand-over-hand—a rather difficult thing to do without practice—or, if within reach of one, wait as long as possible for the arrival of a fire-escape or ladder. Some people always keep a stout knotted rope in their room, and have an iron hook fixed inside the window, to which it may be affixed. This certainly gives a chance of escape, but after all it is from the outside that the most effectual assistance can be had. Captain Shaw’s experience is that the danger to life is increasing, because of the enormous height to which buildings in London are being carried, without any precautions whatever for safety in the upper storeys. He states that a ‘fire-escape such as those now in use can, immediately on its arrival, reach a height of 30 feet; after about half a minute’s delay, about 40 feet; after a minute’s delay, it can reach 50 feet, but it cannot reach higher; and, consequently, persons living in the lofty buildings so common in the metropolis should invariably make their own arrangements for getting down externally to spots within reach of these machines, which are at present the only means of escape available from the outside. For this purpose there are many obvious plans which might be adopted, but among these there are two which appear to be specially easy of attainment, and within the reach of all concerned, at a moderate cost. The first is to fix on buildings external ladders of wrought-iron or some other material able to resist the effects of fire at its commencement, and extending from the roof to within 40 feet of the ground; the other, to provide on every storey continuous balconies of wrought-iron or any other material proof against immediate destruction by heat; and if the balconies on the several storeys were made to communicate with each other by means of external stairs, great additional safety would be attained. Indeed, with such an arrangement it is certain that heavy loss of life would be most improbable in any fire, however rapid in its action and otherwise serious in its results. In rows of houses the use of balconies is manifest, but even in detached buildings there can be very little doubt that, if sufficiently long, they would serve as a means of egress for those inside, and of access for those giving help from without. It may be assumed that the reason of their not being generally adopted is the double fear which owners of premises have—first, of their servants and other inmates getting out too frequently; secondly, of persons breaking in for improper purposes. But those who guard themselves from these dangers should remember at what cost they do so, and should be prepared to accept the results of a fire, causing loss of life or property, as the direct and inevitable consequence of their own state of preparation.’ Captain Shaw goes on to say: ‘I have always hoped to procure higher ladders than those now in use, within the limits of weight to which, for the sake of rapid travelling, I have been compelled to restrict myself; and I take this opportunity of repeating here what I have for years explained to all inventors who have come to me from various parts of the world on the subject, viz., that our present machines, the running weight of which is under 14 cwt., are capable of throwing to a height of about 50 feet, and of carrying half-a-ton weight on the weakest part when so extended, and that any machine which can be rapidly run and worked as these are by one skilled man and two unskilled assistants, and can throw to a greater height, would be considered an improvement, provided that it can safely carry the same weight and is free from any complicated gearing likely to cause delay or difficulty when subjected to rough usage in the dark.’

Mr. Wright, the Secretary of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire, has kindly placed at my disposal the following directions for saving life at fires, being the result of long and varied experience. I understand he is desirous of spreading the knowledge thus gained, and will be happy to send these directions, printed on a large scale, to any person who will get them hung up where others may read and profit by them:—

PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR AIDING ENDANGERED PERSONS TO ESCAPE FROM BUILDINGS ON FIRE, AVOIDING ACCIDENTS, AND FOR THE TREATMENT OF INJURIES.