FOOTNOTES:

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Arrian

1 Cf. Arrian (Cynegeticus, i. 4).

2 See Dio Cassius, lxix. 15.

3 Cf. Josephus (Vita ipsius, 76).

4 Cf. Lucian (Alexander, 2).

5 See Dio Cassius, lxix. 15.

6 See Anabasis, i. 10, 4; ii. 14, 4; ii. 25, 3; vi. 1, 4; vii. 23, 7.

7 Anab., vii. 25.

8 Life of Alexander, chap. 76.

9 See Anab., v. 5, 1; 6, 8; vi. 28, 6; Indica, 19, 21, 23, 32, 40 cc.

10 See Photius (codex 58); Dio Cassius, lxix. 15.

11 Ptolemaeus, surnamed Soter, the Preserver, but more commonly known as the Son of Lagus, a Macedonian of low birth. Ptolemy’s mother, Arsinoe, had been a concubine of Philip of Macedon, for which reason it was generally believed that Ptolemy was the offspring of that king. Ptolemy was one of the earliest friends of Alexander before his accession to the throne, and accompanied him throughout his campaigns, being one of his most skilful generals and most intimate friends. On the division of the empire after Alexander’s death, Ptolemy obtained the kingdom of Egypt, which he transmitted to his descendants. After a distinguished reign of thirty-eight years, he abdicated the throne to his youngest son, Ptolemy Philadelphus. He survived this event two years, and died B.C. 283. He was a liberal patron of literature and the arts, and wrote a history of the wars of Alexander, which is one of the chief authorities on which Arrian composed his narrative. For his beneficence, see Aelian (Varia Historia, xiii. 12). Not only Arrian, but Plutarch and Strabo, derived much information from Ptolemy’s work, which is highly commended by AthenÆus.

12 Aristobulus of Potidaea, a town in Macedonia, which was afterwards called Cassandrea, served under Alexander, and wrote a history of his wars, which, like that of Ptolemy, was sometimes more panegyrical than the facts warranted. Neither of these histories has survived, but they served Arrian as the groundwork for the composition of his own narrative. Lucian in his treatise, Quomodo historia sit conscribenda, ch. 12, accuses Aristobulus of inventing marvellous tales of Alexander’s valour for the sake of flattery. Plutarch based his Life of Alexander chiefly on the work of this writer. We learn from Lucian (Macrobioi, c. 22), that Aristobulus wrote his history at the advanced age of eighty-four. He was employed by Alexander to superintend the restoration of Cyrus’s tomb (Arrian, vi. 30).

13 ??a????a? in the sense of reading through = ??a?????s?e??, is found only in the later writers, Arrian, Plutarch, Dion, Callimachus, etc.

14 B.C. 336. He was murdered by a young noble named Pausanias, who stabbed him at the festival which he was holding to celebrate the marriage of his daughter with Alexander, king of Epirus. It was suspected that both Olympias and her son Alexander were implicated in the plot. At the time of his assassination Philip was just about to start on an expedition against Persia, which his son afterwards so successfully carried out. See Plutarch (Alex., 10); Diod., xix. 93, 94; Aristotle (Polit., v. 8, 10).

15 It was the custom of the Athenians to name the years from the president of the college of nine archons at Athens, who were elected annually. The Attic writers adopted this method of determining dates. See Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities.

16 Alexander the Great was the son of Philip II. and Olympias, and was born at Pella B.C. 356. In his youth he was placed under the tuition of Aristotle, who acquired very great influence over his mind and character, and retained it until his pupil was spoiled by his unparalleled successes. See Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 54). Such was his ability, that at the age of 16 he was entrusted with the government of Macedonia by his father, when he marched against Byzantium. At the age of 18 by his skill and courage he greatly assisted Philip in gaining the battle of Chaeronea. When Philip was murdered, Alexander ascended the throne, and after putting down rebellion at home, he advanced into Greece to secure the power which his father had acquired. See Diod., xvi. 85; Arrian, vii. 9.

17 See Justin, xi. 2.

18 “Arrian speaks as if this request had been addressed only to the Greeks within Peloponnesus; moreover he mentions no assembly at Corinth, which is noticed, though with some confusion, by Diodorus, Justin, and Plutarch. Cities out of Peloponnesus, as well as within it, must have been included; unless we suppose that the resolution of the Amphictyonic assembly, which had been previously passed, was held to comprehend all the extra-Peloponnesian cities, which seems not probable.”—Grote.

19 Justin (ix. 5) says: “Soli Lacedaemonii et legem et regem contempserunt.” The king here referred to was Philip.

20 See Justin, xi. 3; Aeschines, Contra Ctesiphontem, p. 564.

21 The Triballians were a tribe inhabiting the part of Servia bordering on Bulgaria. The Illyrians inhabited the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, the districts now called North Albania, Bosnia, Dalmatia and Croatia.

22 We learn from Thucydides, ii. 96, that these people were called Dii.

23 The Nessus, or Nestus, is now called Mesto by the Greeks, and Karasu by the Turks.

24 Now known as the Balkan. The defiles mentioned by Arrian are probably what was afterwards called Porta Trajani. Cf. Vergil (Georg., ii. 488); Horace (Carm., i. 12, 6).

25 pep????t?:—Arrian often forms the pluperfect tense without the augment. d?as?ed?s??s?:—The Attic future of this verb is d?as?ed?. Cf. Aristoph. (Birds, 1053).

26 The Agrianes were a tribe of Eastern Paeonia who lived near the Triballians. They served in the Macedonian army chiefly as cavalry and light infantry.

27 Perhaps Neapolis and Eion, which were the harbours of Philippi and Amphipolis.

28 This officer was commander of the royal body-guard. His father was Parmenio, the most experienced of Alexander’s generals.

29 Thucydides says (Bk. ii. 96): “On the side of the Triballians, who were also independent, the border tribes were the Trerians and the TilatÆans, who live to the north of mount Scombrus, and stretch towards the west as far as the river Oscius. This river flows from the same mountains as the Nestus and the Hebrus, an uninhabited and extensive range, joining on to Rhodope.” The Oscius is now called Isker. It is uncertain which river is the Lyginus; but perhaps it was another name for the Oscius.

30 Also named Danube. Cf. Hesiod (Theog., 339); Ovid (Met., ii. 249); Pindar (Olym. iii. 24).

31 It is uncertain in what part of the Danube this island was. It cannot be the Peuce of Strabo (vii, 3). Cf. Apollonius Rhodius (iv. 309); Martialis (vii. 84); Valerius Flaccus (viii. 217).

32 These two generals are mentioned (iii. 11 infra) as being present at the battle of Arbela. Sopolis is also mentioned (iv. 13 and 18 infra).

33 Bottiaea was a district of Macedonia on the right bank of the Axius.

34 The classical writers have three names to denote this race:—Celts, Galatians, and Gauls. These names were originally given to all the people of the North and West of Europe; and it was not till CÆsar’s time that the Romans made any distinction between Celts and Germans. The name of Celts was then confined to the people north of the Pyrenees and west of the Rhine. Cf. Ammianus (xv. 9); Herodotus (iv. 49); Livy (v. 33, 34); Polybius (iii. 39).

35 Arrian is here speaking, not of Alexander’s time, but of his own, the second century of the Christian era. The Quadi were a race dwelling in the south-east of Germany. They are generally mentioned with the Marcomanni, and were formidable enemies of the Romans, especially in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, when Arrian wrote. This nation disappears from history about the end of the fourth century.

36 The Marcomanni, like the Quadi, were a powerful branch of the Suevic race, originally dwelling in the south-west of Germany; but in the reign of Tiberius they dispossessed the Boii of the country now called Bohemia. In conjunction with the Quadi, they were very formidable to the Romans until Commodus purchased peace from them. The name denotes “border men.” Cf. CÆsar (Bel. Gal., i. 51).

37 The Iazygians were a tribe of Sarmatians, who migrated from the coast of the Black Sea, between the Dnieper and the Sea of Azov, in the reign of Claudius, and settled in Dacia, near the Quadi, with whom they formed a close alliance. They were conquered by the Goths in the fifth century. Cf. Ovid (Tristia, ii. 191).

38 Called also Sarmatians. Herodotus (iv. 21) says that these people lived east of the Don, and were allied to the Scythians. Subsequent writers understood by Sarmatia the east part of Poland, the south of Russia, and the country southward as far as the Danube.

39 These people were called Dacians by the Romans. They were Thracians, and are said by Herodotus and Thucydides to have lived south of the Danube, near its mouths. They subsequently migrated north of this river, and were driven further west by the Sarmatians. They were very formidable to the Romans in the reigns of Augustus and Domitian. Dacia was conquered by Trajan; but ultimately abandoned by Aurelian, who made the Danube the boundary of the Roman Empire. About the Getae holding the doctrine of immortality, see Herodotus (iv. 94). Cf. Horace (Carm., iii. 6, 13; Sat., ii. 6, 53).

40 The Scythians are said by Herodotus to have inhabited the south of Russia. His supposition that they came from Asia is doubtless correct. He gives ample information about this race in the fourth book of his History.

41 Herodotus (iv. 47) says the Danube had five mouths; but Strabo (vii. 3) says there were seven. At the present time it has only three mouths. The Greeks called the Black Sea p??t?? e??e????, the sea kind to strangers. Cf. Ovid (Tristia, iv. 4, 55):—“Frigida me cohibent Euxini litora Ponti, Dictus ab antiquis Axenus ille fuit.”

42 The sarissa, or more correctly sarisa, was a spear peculiar to the Macedonians. It was from fourteen to sixteen feet long. See Grote’s Greece, vol. xi. ch. 92, Appendix.

43 Son of Parmenio and brother of Philotas.

44 The parasang was a Persian measure, containing thirty stades, nearly three and three-quarter English miles. It is still used by the Persians, who call it ferseng. See Herodotus (vi. 42) and Grote’s History of Greece, vol. viii. p. 316.

45 Son of Neoptolemus. After Alexander’s death Meleager resisted the claim of Perdiccas to the regency, and was associated with him in the office. He was, however, soon afterwards put to death by the order of his rival.

46 Son of Machatas, was an eminent general, slain in India. See vi. 27 infra.

47 The Macedonian kings believed they were sprung from Hercules. See Curtius, iv. 7.

48 The Adriatic Sea.

49 Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 23); Strabo, vii. p. 293; Aristotle (Nicom. Ethics, iii. 7; Eudem. Eth., iii. 1):—???? ?? ?e?t?? p??? t? ??ata ?p?a ?pa?t?s? ?a??te?; Ammianus, xv. 12.

50 The Paeonians were a powerful Thracian people, who in early times spread over a great part of Thrace and Macedonia. In historical times they inhabited the country on the northern border of Macedonia. They were long troublesome to Macedonia, but were subdued by Philip the father of Alexander, who, however, allowed them to retain their own chiefs. The Agrianians were the chief tribe of Paeonians, from whom Philip and Alexander formed a valuable body of light-armed troops.

51 Bardylis was a chieftain of Illyria who carried on frequent wars with the Macedonians, but was at last defeated and slain by Philip, B.C. 359. Clitus had been subdued by Philip in 349 B.C.

52 This Glaucias subsequently afforded asylum to the celebrated Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, when an infant of two years of age. He took the child into his own family and brought him up with his own children. He not only refused to surrender Pyrrhus to Cassander, but marched into Epirus and placed the boy, when twelve years of age, upon the throne, leaving him under the care of guardians, B.C. 307.

53 The Taulantians were a people of Illyria in the neighbourhood of Epidamnus, now called Durazzo.

54 These were an Illyrian people in the Dalmatian mountains.

55 Cyna was the daughter of Philip, by Audata, an Illyrian woman. See AthenÆus, p. 557 D. She was given in marriage to her cousin Amyntas, who had a preferable claim to the Macedonian throne as the son of Philip’s elder brother, Perdiccas. This Amyntas was put to death by Alexander soon after his accession. Cyna was put to death by Alcetas, at the order of Perdiccas, the regent after Alexander’s death. See Diodorus, xix. 52.

56 The capital of Macedonia. On its site stands the modern village of Neokhori, or Yenikiuy. Philip and Alexander were born here.

57 A tributary of the Axius, called Agrianus by Herodotus. It is now called Tscherna.

58 This city was situated south of lake Lychnitis, on the west side of the chain of Scardus and Pindus. The locality is described in Livy, xxxi. 39, 40.

59 Now called Devol.

60 The use of ?a?t?? with a participle instead of the Attic ?a?pe? is frequent in Arrian and the later writers.

61 The Hypaspists—shield-bearers, or guards—were a body of infantry organized by Philip, originally few in number, and employed as personal defenders of the king, but afterwards enlarged into several distinct brigades. They were hoplites intended for close combat, but more lightly armed and more fit for rapid evolutions than the phalanx. Like the Greeks, they fought with the one-handed pike and shield. They occupied an intermediate position between the heavy infantry of the phalanx, and the peltasts and other light troops. See Grote’s Greece, vol. xi. ch. 92.

62 The heavy cavalry, wholly or chiefly composed of Macedonians by birth, was known by the honourable name of ?ta????, Companions, or Brothers in Arms. It was divided, as it seems, into 15 ??a?, which were named after the States or districts from which they came. Their strength varied from 150 to 250 men. A separate one, the 16th Ile formed the so-called agema, or royal horse-guard, at the head of which Alexander himself generally charged. See Arrian, iii. 11, 13, 18.

63 In addition to his other military improvements, Philip had organized an effective siege-train with projectile and battering engines superior to anything of the kind existing before. This artillery was at once made use of by Alexander in this campaign against the Illyrians.

64 Perdiccas, son of Orontes, a Macedonian, was one of Alexander’s most distinguished generals. The king is said on his death-bed to have taken the royal signet from his finger and to have given it to Perdiccas. After Alexander’s death he was appointed regent; but an alliance was formed against him by Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy. He marched into Egypt against Ptolemy. Being defeated in his attempts to force the passage of the Nile, his own troops mutinied against him and slew him (B.C. 321). See Diodorus, xviii. 36. For his personal valour see Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 39).

65 Coenus, son of Polemocrates, was a son-in-law of Parmenio, and one of Alexander’s best generals. He violently accused his brother-in-law Philotas of treason, and personally superintended the torturing of that famous officer previous to his execution (Curtius, vi. 36, 42). He was put forward by the army to dissuade Alexander from advancing beyond the Hyphasis (Arrian, v. 27). Soon after this he died and was buried with all possible magnificence near that river, B.C. 327 (Arrian, vi. 2).

66 The Cadmea was the Acropolis of Thebes, an oval eminence of no great height, named after Cadmus, the leader of a Phoenician colony, who is said to have founded it. Since the battle of Chaeronea, this citadel had been held by a Macedonian garrison.

67 Amyntas was a Macedonian officer, and TimolaÜs a leading Theban of the Macedonian faction.

68 Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 57).

69 These were two provinces in the west of Macedonia.

70 Two divisions of Epirus.

71 A town on the Peneus in Hestiaeotis.

72 A town in Boeotia, on the lake Copais, distant 50 stades north-west of Thebes.

73 It seems from Plutarch, that Alexander was really wounded in the head by a stone, in a battle with the Illyrians.

74 This Alexander was also called Lyncestes, from being a native of Lyncestis, a district of Macedonia. He was an accomplice in Philip’s murder, but was pardoned by his successor. He accompanied Alexander the Great into Asia, but was put to death in B.C. 330, for having carried on a treasonable correspondence with Darius. See Arrian, i. 25.

75 The friend and charioteer of Hercules.

76 He sent to demand the surrender of the anti-Macedonian leaders, Phoenix and Prothytes, but offering any other Thebans who came out to him the terms agreed upon in the preceding year. See Plutarch (Life of Alexander, 11); and Diodorus, xvii. 9.

77 The Boeotarchs were the chief magistrates of the Boeotian confederacy, chosen annually by the different States. The number varied from ten to twelve. At the time of the battle of Delium, in the Peloponnesian war, they were eleven in number, two of them being Thebans. See Grote, History of Greece, vol. ii. p. 296.

78 Arrian says that the attack of the Macedonians upon Thebes was made by Perdiccas, without orders from Alexander; and that the capture was effected in a short time and with no labour on the part of the captors (ch. ix.). But Diodorus says that Alexander ordered and arranged the assault, that the Thebans made a brave and desperate resistance for a long time, and that not only the Boeotian allies, but the Macedonians themselves committed great slaughter of the besieged (Diod. xvii. 11-14). It is probable that Ptolemy, who was Arrian’s authority, wished to exonerate Alexander from the guilt of destroying Thebes.

79 Amyntas was one of Alexander’s leading officers. He and his brothers were accused of being accomplices in the plot of Philotas, but were acquitted. He was however soon afterwards killed in a skirmish (Arrian, iii. 27).

80 The mythical founder of the walls of Thebes. See Pausanias (ix. 17).

81 The Thebans had incurred the enmity of the other Boeotians by treating them as subjects instead of allies. They had destroyed the restored Plataea, and had been the chief enemies of the Phocians in the Sacred War, which ended in the subjugation of that people by Philip. See Smith’s History of Greece, pp. 467, 473, 506.

82 More than 500 Macedonians were killed, while 6,000 Thebans were slain, and 30,000 sold into slavery. See Aelian (Varia Historia, xiii. 7); Diodorus (xvii. 14); Pausanias (viii. 30); Plutarch (Life of Alexander, 11). The sale of the captives realized 440 talents, or about £107,000; and Justin (xi. 4) says that large sums were offered from feelings of hostility towards Thebes on the part of the bidders.

83 B.C. 415-413. See Grote’s Greece, vol. vii.

84 B.C. 405. See Thucydides (ii. 13); Xenophon (Hellenics, ii. 2).

85 By Conon’s victory at Cnidus, B.C. 394.

86 At Leuctra they lost 400 Spartans and 1,000 other Lacedaemonians. See Xen. (Hellen., vi. 4).

87 The Achaeans, Eleans, Athenians, and some of the Arcadians, were allies of Sparta at this crisis, B.C. 369. See Xen. (Hellen., vii. 5); Diodorus (xv. 85).

88 B.C. 426. See Thuc., iii. 52, etc.

89 B.C. 416 and 421. See Thuc., v. 32, 84, etc.

90 These persons must have forgotten that Alexander’s predecessor and namesake had served in the army of Xerxes along with the Thebans. See Herodotus vii. 173.

91 Plutarch (Lysander, 15) says that the Theban Erianthus moved that Athens should be destroyed.

92 See Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 57).

93 Plutarch (Alexander, 13) tells us that Alexander was afterwards sorry for his cruelty to the Thebans. He believed that he had incurred the wrath of Dionysus, the tutelary deity of Thebes, who incited him to kill his friend Clitus, and induced his soldiers to refuse to follow him into the interior of India.

94 Orchomenus was destroyed by the Thebans B.C. 364. See Diod., xv. 79; Demosthenes (Contra Leptinem, p. 489). It was restored by Philip, according to Pausanias, iv. 27.

95 The Great Mysteries of Demeter were celebrated at Eleusis, from the 15th to the 23rd of the month Boedromion, our September.

96 All these nine men were orators except Chares, Charidemus, and Ephialtes, who were military men. Plutarch (Life of Demosthenes, 23) does not mention Chares, Diotimus, and Hyperides, but puts the names of Callisthenes and Damon in the list.

97 See Aeschines (Adversus Ctesiphontem, pp. 469, 547, 551, 603, 633); Plutarch (Demosthenes, 22; Phocion, 16); Diodorus, xvii. 5.

98 At the head of this embassy was Phocion.

99 He was put to death by Darius shortly before the battle of Issus, for advising him not to rely on his Asiatic troops in the contest with Alexander, but to subsidize an army of Grecian mercenaries. See Curtius, iii. 5; Diodorus, xvii. 30.

100 ArchelaÜs was king of Macedonia from B.C. 413-399. He improved the internal arrangements of his kingdom, and patronised art and literature. He induced the tragic poets, Euripides and Agathon, as well as the epic poet Choerilus, to visit him; and treated Euripides especially with favour. He also invited Socrates, who declined the invitation.

101 Aegae, or Edessa, was the earlier capital of Macedonia, and the burial place of its kings. Philip was murdered here, B.C. 336.

102 A narrow strip of land in Macedonia, between the mouths of the Haliacmon and Peneus, the reputed home of Orpheus and the Muses.

103 Cf. Apollonius Rhodius, iv. 1284; Livy, xxii. i.

104 This man was the most noted soothsayer of his time. Telmissus was a city of Caria, celebrated for the skill of its inhabitants in divination. Cf. Arrian (Anab. i. 25, ii. 18, iii. 2, iii. 7, iii. 15, iv. 4, iv. 15); Herodotus, i. 78; and Cicero (De Divinatione, i. 41).

105 Diodorus (xvii. 17) says that there were 30,000 infantry and 4,500 cavalry. He gives the numbers in the different brigades as well as the names of the commanders. Plutarch (Life of Alexander, 15) says that the lowest numbers recorded were 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry; and the highest, 34,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry.

106 This lake is near the mouth of the Strymon. It is called Prasias by Herodotus (v. 16). Its present name is Tak-hyno.

107 This mountain is now called Pirnari. Xerxes took the same route when marching into Greece. See Herodotus, v. 16, vii. 112; Aesch?lus (Persae, 494); Euripides (Rhesus, 922, 972).

108 Now called Maritza. See Theocritus, vii. 110.

109 Cf. Homer (Iliad, ii. 701); Ovid (Epistolae Heroidum, xiii. 93); Herodotus (ix. 116).

110 The Athenians supplied twenty ships of war. See Diodorus, xvii. 22.

111 A landing-place in the north-west of Troas, near Cape Sigaeum.

112 Cf. Diodorus, xvii. 17; Justin, xi. 5.

113 The celebrated general, mentioned already in chap. 10.

114 Son of Amyntas, a Macedonian of Pella. He was the most intimate friend of Alexander, with whom he had been brought up. Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 7).

115 Plutarch (Life of Alex., 15), says that Alexander also went through the ceremony, still customary in his own day, of anointing himself with oil and running up to the tomb naked. Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, x. 4) Cicero (Pro Archia, ch. 10).

116 By Pindar and Bacchylides.

117 See Xenophon’s Anabasis, Book ii.

118 A town in the Macedonia district of Mygdonia, south of Lake Bolbe. It is now called Polina.

119 We find from Diodorus (xvii. 7), that the Persian king had subsidized this great general and 5,000 Greek mercenaries to protect his seaboard from the Macedonians. Before the arrival of Alexander, he had succeeded in checking the advance of Parmenio and Callas. If Memnon had lived and his advice been adopted by Darius, the fate of Persia might have been very different. Cf. Plutarch (Life of Alex., 18).

120 Diodorus (xvii. 18) says that Memnon, while advising the Persian generals to lay waste the country, and to prevent the Macedonians from advancing through scarcity of provisions, also urged them to carry a large force into Greece and Macedonia, and thus transfer the war into Europe.

121 The Granicus rises in Mount Ida, and falls into the Propontis near Cyzicus. Ovid (Metam., xi. 763) calls it Granicus bicornis.

122 This was a brigade of about 1,000 men. See Livy, xxxvii. 42.

123 ?p?f??s?e?. This future is used by the later writers for the Attic ?p?f??s?a?. It is found however in Xenophon.

124 Craterus was one of Alexander’s best generals. On the death of the king he received the government of Macedonia and Greece in conjunction with Antipater, whose daughter he married. He fell in battle against Eumenes (B.C. 321).

125 Calas was appointed viceroy of Phrygia. He consequently took no further part in Alexander’s campaigns after this.

126 Alexander had three generals named Philip, two of whom are mentioned here as sons of Amyntas and MenelaÜs. The third was son of Machatas, and was left in India as viceroy.

127 Son of Tyrimmas, was commander of the Odrysian cavalry. See iii. 12 infra.

128 Diodorus (xvii. 19) says that the Persian cavalry numbered 10,000, and their infantry 100,000. Both these numbers are inaccurate. We know from Arrian (chaps. 12 and 13) that the Persian infantry was inferior in number to that of Alexander.

129 This is an Homeric name for Mars the war-god. In Homer Ares is the Trojan and Enyalius the Grecian war-god. Hence they are mentioned as different in Aristophanes (Pax, 457). See Paley’s note on Homer (vii. 166). As to the practice of shouting the war-cry to Mars before battle, see Xenophon (Anab., i. 8, 18; v. 2, 14). The Scholiast on Thucydides (i. 50) says that the Greeks used to sing two paeans, one to Mars before battle, another to Apollo after it.

130 ?? ???st?? = ?? d??at??. Cf. Arrian, iv. 12, 6; Xenophon (Anab., i. 8, 11; Res. Laced., i. 3).

131 ???e?st??e? ???. This is a common expression with Arrian, copied from Herodotus (i. 74, et passim).

132 Plutarch (Alex., 16); Diodorus (xvii. 20).

133 Diodorus (xvii. 21) says that more than 10,000 of the Persian infantry were killed, and 2,000 cavalry; and that more than 20,000 were made prisoners.

134 Her name was Statira.

135 An important city in Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf, named after a temple of Zeus.

136 Lysippus of Sicyon was one of the most famous of Greek statuaries. None of his works remain, inasmuch as they were all executed in bronze. Alexander published an edict that no one should paint his portrait but Apelles, and that no one should make a statue of him but Lysippus. When Metellus conquered Macedonia, he removed this group of bronze statues to Rome, to decorate his own portico. See Pliny (Nat. Hist., xxxiv. 19); Velleius Paterculus (i. 11).

137 As most of the infantry on the Persian side were Grecian mercenaries, who, according to Plutarch, fought with desperate valour, and, according to Arrian himself, all the infantry were killed except 2,000, the number of Alexander’s slain must have been larger than Arrian here states.

138 At Corinth, B.C. 336.

139 For the fact that the Acropolis of Athens was often called simply polis, see Thucydides, ii. 15; Xenophon (Anab. vii. 1, 27); Antiphon (146, 2); Aristophanes (Equites, 1093; Lysistrata, 758).

140 A city at the foot of Mount Ida.

141 A city of Bithynia, on the Propontis.

142 About eight miles.

143 This river flows through Phrygia and Lydia, and falls into the gulf of Smyrna. Its present name is Kodus-Çhai. See Vergil (Georg., ii. 137); Silius, i. 159; Claudian (Raptus Proserpinae, ii. 67).

144 Nearly two-and-a-half miles.

145 For a description of this fortress, see Herodotus, i. 84.

146 Memnon had succeeded his brother Mentor as governor for the Persian king of the territory near the Hellespont. See Diodorus, xvii. 7.

147 This man took refuge with Darius, and distinguished himself at the battle of Issus. See Plutarch (Alex., 20); Curtius, iii. 28. He met with his death soon after in Egypt. See Arrian, ii. 6 and 13; Diod., xvii. 48.

148 The temple of Artemis at Ephesus had been burnt down by Herostratus in the night on which Alexander was born (Oct. 13-14, B.C. 356), and at this time was being restored by the joint efforts of the Ionian cities. See Strabo, xiv. 1. Heropythus and Syrphax are not mentioned by any other writers.

149 This was the Carian Magnesia, situated on the Lethaeus, a tributary of the Maeander. Tralles was on the Eudon, another tributary of the Maeander. See Juvenal, iii. 70.

150 Lysimachus was of mean origin, his father having been a serf in Sicily. He was one of Alexander’s confidential body-guards, and on the death of the great king obtained Thrace as his portion of the dismembered empire. In conjunction with Seleucus he won the battle of Ipsus, by which he obtained a great part of Asia Minor. He ultimately acquired all the European dominions of Alexander in addition to Asia Minor; but in his eightieth year he was defeated and slain by Seleucus at the battle of Corus, B.C. 281. Sintenis was the first to substitute Lysimachus for Antimachus, the reading of the MSS. Cf. vi. 28 infra.

151 Eleven in number. See Herodotus, i. 149-151.

152 Thirteen in number, of which Miletus and Ephesus were the chief in importance.

153 For the celebrated interview of Alexander with Apelles at Ephesus, see Aelian (Varia Historia, ii. 3).

154 Cf. Herodotus, vi. 7. Here the Persians destroyed the Ionic fleet, B.C. 497.

155 Famous for the victory won near it by Leotychides and Xanthippus over the Persians, B.C. 479.

156 Cf. Vergil (Aeneid, vi. 3). Obvertunt pelago proras. See Conington’s note.

157 Strabo (xiv. 1) says that Miletus had four harbours.

158 ?f?a?t???t??. This word is rare in prose. See Homer (Iliad, viii. 191); Apollonius Rhodius, i. 201.

159 Miletus lay nearly ten miles south of the mouth of the Maeander.

160 A similar stratagem was used by Lysander at Aegospotami, B.C. 405. See Xenophon (Hellenics, ii. 1).

161 Iassus was a city in Caria on the Iassian Gulf, founded by the Argives and further colonized by the Milesians.

162 Caria formed the south-west angle of Asia Minor. The Greeks asserted that the Carians were emigrants from Crete. We learn from Thucydides and Herodotus that they entered the service of foreign rulers. They formed the body-guard of queen Athaliah, who had usurped the throne and stood in need of foreign mercenaries. The word translated in our Bible in 2 Kings xi. 4, 19 as captains, ought to be rendered Carians. See Fuerst’s Hebrew Lexicon, sub voce ???????

163 Now called Budrum. It was the birthplace of the historians Herodotus and Dionysius.

164 Little more than half a mile.

165 Now called Melasso, a city of Caria, about ten miles from the Gulf of Iassus.

166 A colony of Troezen, on the western extremity of the same peninsula on which stood Halicarnassus.

167 Diodorus (xvii. 25) says that this incident occurred in the night, which is scarcely probable. Compare the conduct of the two centurions Pulfio and Varenus in the country of the Nervii. CÆsar (Gallic War, v. 44).

168 Compare the sieges of Avaricum, Gergovia, and Alesia by CÆsar (Gallic War, lib. vii.); and that of Saguntum by Hannibal. See Livy, xxi. 7-15.

169 This use of ?f? with the Dative, is poetical. The Attic writers use pe?? with the Accusative. Cf. ii. 3, 8; iii. 30, 1.

170 There were at least four generals in Alexander’s army of this name. The one here mentioned was probably not the famous son of Lagus.

171 Diodorus (xvii. 25-27) gives a very different account of the last struggle of the besieged in Halicarnassus. When the leaders saw that they must eventually succumb, they made a last desperate effort to destroy Alexander’s military engines. Ephialtes, the eminent Athenian exile, headed the sally, which was effected by troops simultaneously issuing from all the gates at daybreak. The advanced guard of the Macedonians, consisting of young troops, were put to rout; but the veterans of Philip restored the battle under a man named Atharrias. Ephialtes was slain, and his men driven back into the city.

172 Hecatomnus, king of Caria, left three sons, Mausolus, Hidrieus, and Pixodarus; and two daughters, Artemisia and Ada. Artemisia married Mausolus, and Ada married Hidrieus. All these children succeeded their father in the sovereignty, Pixodarus being the last surviving son.

173 Amyntas, king of Macedonia, grandfather of Alexander the Great, adopted the celebrated Athenian general Iphicrates, in gratitude to him as the preserver of Macedonia. See Aeschines (De Falsa Legatione, pp. 249, 250).

174 See Arrian, ii. 20 infra.

175 The Marmarians alone defended their city with desperate valour. They finally set fire to it, and escaped through the Macedonian camp to the mountains. See Diodorus (xvii. 28). As to Xanthus the river, see Homer (Iliad, ii. 877; vi. 172); Horace (Carm., iv. 6, 26).

176 Lycia was originally called Milyas; but the name was afterwards applied to the high table in the north of Lycia, extending into Pisidia. See Herodotus, i. 173.

177 Phaselis was a seaport of Lycia on the Gulf of Pamphylia. It is now called Tekrova.

178 He also crowned with garlands the statue of Theodectes the rhetorician, which the people of Phaselis, his native city, had erected to his memory. This man was a friend and pupil of Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander. See Plutarch (Life of Alex., 17); Aristotle (Nicom. Ethics, vii. 7).

179 Philip was murdered by Pausanias. Three only of his reputed accomplices are known by name, and they were Alexander, Heromenes, and Arrhabaeus, sons of AËropus. The two latter were put to death; but the first named was not only spared, but advanced to high military command for being the first to salute Alexander as king. Compare Curtius (vii. 1); Justin (xi. 2). Alexander was accused by some of forgiving his father’s murderers. Probably the reference was to his kind treatment of Olympias and this Alexander. See Curtius, vi. 43.

180 That of the Hellespontine Phrygia. See chap. xvii. supra.

181 See chap. xvii. supra.

182 Nearly £250,000.

183 See chap. xi. supra.

184 Compare Plutarch (Alex., 17). Just as the historians of Alexander affirmed that the sea near Pamphylia providentially made way for him, so the people of Thapsacus, when they saw the army of Cyrus cross the Euphrates on foot, said that the river made way for him to come and take the sceptre (Xen., Anab., i. 4). So also the inhabitants prostrated themselves before Lucullus when the same river subsided and allowed his army to cross (Plutarch, Lucullus, chap. xxiv.). There was the same omen in the reign of Tiberius, when Vitellius, with a Roman army, crossed the Euphrates to restore Tiridates to the throne of Parthia (Tacitus, Annals, vi. 37). Cf. Strabo, xiv. 3.

185 Aspendus was on the Eurymedon.

186 About £12,000.

187 Side was on the coast of Pamphylia, a little west of the river Melas.

188 Syllium was about five miles from the coast, between Aspendus and Side.

189 This river is celebrated for the double victory of Cimon the Athenian over the Persians, in B.C. 466. See Smith’s Greece, p. 252; Grote, vol. v. p. 163.

190 This lake is mentioned by Herodotus (vii. 30), as being near the city of Anava. It is now called Burdur.

191 Here Cyrus the Younger reviewed his Grecian forces and found them to be 11,000 hoplites and 2,000 peltasts. Here that prince had a palace and park, in which rose the river Maeander, close to the source of the Marsyas. See Xenophon (Anab., i. 2); compare Curtius (iii. 1).

192 Curtius (iii. 1) says they made a truce with Alexander for sixty days.

193 Antigonus, called the One-eyed, was father of Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the division of Alexander’s empire he received Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia. He eventually acquired the whole of Asia Minor; but was defeated and slain at the battle of Ipsus by the allied forces of Cassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus (B.C. 301). When he was slain he was in his eighty-first year.

194 Balacrus was left by Alexander to command in Egypt. See Arrian (iii. 5).

195 The capital of the old Phrygian kings. It was rebuilt in the time of Augustus, and called Juliopolis.

196 This Ptolemy was killed at the battle of Issus (Arrian, ii. 110).

197 We learn from Curtius (iv. 34) that Alexander released these prisoners at the request of ambassadors from Athens, who met him in Syria after his return from Egypt.

198 The other cities of Lesbos were Methymna, Antissa, Eresus, and Pyrrha.

199 Now called Cape Sigri, the west point of the island.

200 The southern point of Euboea, now called Cape Mandili. Cf. Homer (Odyss., iii. 177).

201 The south-eastern point of Laconia, now called Cape Malia di St. Angelo. It was dreaded by ancient mariners; see Homer (Odyssey, ix. 80); Ovid (Amores, ii. 16, 24); Vergil (Aeneid, v. 193). There was a saying:—?a??a? d? ???a? ?p?????? t?? ???ade (Strabo, viii. p. 250).

202 In accordance with the convention of Corinth. Compare next chapter. For the pillars compare Herodotus (ii. 102, 106); Thucydides (v. 18, 47, 56); Aristophanes (Acharnians, 727; Lysistrata, 513).

203 This treaty was concluded by the Spartans with the king of Persia, B.C. 387. It was designed to break up the Athenian supremacy. It stipulated that all the Grecian colonies in Asia were to be given to the Persian king; the Athenians were to retain only Imbros, Lesbos, and Scyros; and all the other Grecian cities were to be autonomous. See Xenophon (Hellenics, iv. 8; v. 1).

204 Cf. ii. 13 infra.

205 “Cyclades ideo sic appellatae, quod omnes ambiunt Delon partu deorum insignem.”—Ammianus, xxii. 8, 2. Cf. Horace (Carm., i. 14, 19; iii. 28, 14).

206 Cf. Vergil (Aeneid, ii. 21).

207 The regent of Macedonia and Greece during Alexander’s absence.

208 One of the Cyclades, a little to the north-east of Melos. It was noted for the low morality of its inhabitants. See Aristophanes (Fragment, 558; on the authority of Suidas).

209 Euripus properly means any narrow sea, where the ebb and flow of the tide is violent. The name was especially applied to the strait between Boeotia and Euboea, where the ancients asserted the sea ebbed and flowed seven times in the day (Strabo, ix. 1). Modern observers have noticed these extraordinary tides. The present name of the island, Negropont, is the Italian name formed from Egripo, the modern corruption of Euripus. Cf. Cicero, pro Muraena, xvii.:—Quod fretum, quem Euripum tot motus, tantas, tam varias habere putatis agitationes fluctuum, quantas perturbationes et quantos aestus habet ratio comitiorum. Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea, ix. 6:—t?? t????t?? ??? ??e? t? ????ata, ?a? ?? eta??e? ?spe? ????p??.

210 One of the Cyclades, about half-way between Attica and Siphnus.

211 ?p?pt??a?, a poetical form for ?p?pt?s?a?.

212 Cf. Justin, xi. 7.

213 Cf. Curtius, iii. 2 (Zumpt’s edition); Plutarch (Alexander, 18).

214 Now called Angora. In the time of Alexander the country was named Great Phrygia, the term Galatia being afterwards applied to it, from the fact that it was conquered by the Gauls in the 3rd century B.C.

215 Now called Kizil-Irmak, i.e. the Red River. It is the largest river in Asia Minor, and separated the empires of Persia and Lydia, until the conquest of the latter by Cyrus.

216 The chief pass over the Taurus between Cappadocia and Cilicia. It is more than 3,600 feet above the sea-level. Its modern name is Golek-Boghaz. Cf. Curtius, iii. 9-11. It is called Tauri Pylae by Cicero (Epistolae ad Atticum, v. 20, 2).

217 See Xenophon (Anabasis, i. 2, 20, 21).

218 Curtius (iii. 11) says, that Alexander wondered at his own good fortune, when he observed how easily Arsames might have blocked up the pass. Cyrus the Younger was equally fortunate in finding this impregnable pass abandoned by Syennesis, king of Cilicia. See Xenophon (Anabasis, i. 2, 21).

219 Now called Tersoos-Chai. See Curtius, iii. 12; Justin, xi. 8; and Lucian (De Domo, i.). At Tarsus the emperor Julian was buried. See Ammianus, xxv. 10, 5.

220 Probably none of the physicians would venture to prescribe, for fear of being held responsible for his death, which seemed likely to ensue. Nine years after, when Hephaestion died of fever at Ecbatana, Alexander caused the physician who had attended him to be crucified. See Arrian, vii. 14; Plutarch (Alexander, 72).

221 Cf. Curtius, iii. 14-16; Diodorus, xvii. 31; Justin, xi. 8; Plutarch (Alex., 19). The barbarous conduct of Alexander towards Philotas four years after, when contrasted with his noble confidence in Philip, shows the bad effect of his unparalleled success, upon his moral character.

222 This pass was called the Syrian Gates, lying between the shore of the Gulf of Issus and Mount Amanus. Cyrus the Younger was six days marching from Tarsus through this pass. See Xenophon (Anab., i. 4). The Greeks often gave the name of Assyria to the country usually called by them Syria. The Hebrew name for it is Aram (highland). Cf. Cicero (ad Diversos, xv. 4, 4); Diod., xiv. 21.

223 A city of Cilicia on the coast, a little west of the mouth of the Cydnus.

224 Said to have been the last of the Assyrian kings.

225 Cf. Strabo (xiv. 5) for a description of this statue.

226 This was, doubtless, the arrow-headed writing which has been deciphered by Sir Henry Rawlinson. Cf. Herodotus, iv. 87; Thucydides, iv. 50.

227 Now called Mezetlu. It was a Rhodian colony on the coast of Cilicia, between the rivers Cydnus and Lamus. It was afterwards re-named Pompeiopolis. The birthplace of Philemon, Aratus, and Chrysippus.

228 About £49,000.

229 Asander was a nephew of Parmenio. He afterwards brought a reinforcement to Alexander from Greece (Arrian, iv. 7). After the king’s death he obtained the rule of Caria, but joining the party of Ptolemy and Cassander, he was defeated by Antigonus, b.c. 313.

230 These were Carian cities.

231 Cos, the birthplace of Apelles and Hippocrates, is one of the group of islands called Sporades, off the coast of Caria. Triopium is the promontory terminating the peninsula of Cnidus, the south-west headland of Asia Minor. Cf. Tibullus, ii. 3, 57; Propertius, i. 2, 1; ii. 1, 5; Herodotus, i. 174.

232 Called by the Romans, Aesculapius. He was the god of the medical art, and no doubt Alexander sacrificed to him, and celebrated the games, in gratitude for his recovery from the fever he had had at Tarsus.

233 This plain is mentioned in Homer, vi. 201; Herodotus, vi. 95. The large river Pyramus, now called Jihan, falls into the sea near Mallus.

234 Mallus was said to have been founded by Amphilochus after the fall of Troy. This hero was the son of AmphiaraÜs, the great prophet of Argos, whom Zeus is said to have made immortal. Magarsus, of Megarsa, was the port of Mallus. The difference of meaning between ??e?? and ??a???e?? is seen from Herodotus, ii. 44; Plutarch (Moralia, ii. p. 857 D).

235 Usually called the Syrian Gates. See chap. v. note1 supra.

236 A city on the Gulf of Issus, being a settlement of the Phoenicians. Herodotus (iv. 38) calls the gulf the Myriandric Gulf. Cf. Xenophon (Anab., 4).

237 Cf. Arrian, vii. 29; Curtius, viii. 17.

238 Aeschines tells us in his speech against Ctesiphon (p. 552), that the anti-Macedonian statesmen at Athens at this time received letters from their friends, stating that Alexander was caught and pinned up in Cilicia. He says Demosthenes went about showing these letters and boasting of the news. Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, xi. 7, 3) says that “not only Sanballat at Samaria but all those that were in Asia also were persuaded that the Macedonians would not so much as come to a battle with the Persians, on account of their multitude.”

239 There are two passes by which the eastern countries are entered from Cilicia; one on the south, near the sea, leads into Syria. The other pass lies more to the north, and leads to the country near the Euphrates. The latter was called the Amanic, and the former the Syrian gate. Alexander had just passed through the Syrian gate in order to march against Darius, at the very time that Darius was descending into Cilicia by the Amanic gate, and occupying Issus with his advanced guard. Alexander, who had reached Myriandrus in Syria, made a countermarch to meet Darius. Plutarch (Alex., 20) says that they missed each other in the night, which is quite a mistake.

240 Cf. Sallust (Catilina, 59); CÆsar (Bell. Gall., ii. 25).

241 See Xenophon (Anab., iii. 3).

242 At Cunaxa. Xenophon (ii. 2, 6) does not mention the name of the place where the battle was fought, but says that he was informed it was only 360 stadia (about 40 miles) from Babylon. We get the name Cunaxa from Plutarch (Life of Artaxerxes, c. 8), who says it was 500 stadia (about 58 miles) from Babylon.

243 Callisthenes the historian, who accompanied Alexander into Asia, states that the breadth of the plain between the mountain and the sea was not more than fourteen stadia, or a little more than one English mile and a half. See Polybius, xii. 17.

244 These seem to have been foreign mercenaries. See Polybius, v. 79, 82; Strabo, xv. 3. Hesychius says that they were not a nation, but foreigners serving for pay.

245 Callisthenes—as quoted in Polybius, xii. 18—reckoned the Grecian mercenaries of Darius at 30,000, and the cavalry at 30,000. Arrian enumerates 90,000 heavy-armed, not including the cavalry. Yet Polybius tries to prove that there was not room even for the 60,000 troops mentioned by Callisthenes.

246 “The depth of this single phalanx is not given, nor do we know the exact width of the ground which it occupied. Assuming a depth of sixteen, and one pace in breadth to each soldier, 4,000 men would stand in the breadth of a stadium of 250 paces; and therefore 80,000 men in a breadth of twenty stadia. Assuming a depth of twenty-six, 6,500 men would stand in the breadth of the stadium, and therefore 90,000 in a total breadth of 14 stadia, which is that given by Kallisthenes. Mr. Kinneir states that the breadth between Mount Amanus and the sea varies between one and a half mile and three miles.”—Grote.

247 Diodorus (xvii. 31), and Plutarch (Alex., 18), give the same number; but Justin (xi. 9) says the Persians numbered 400,000 infantry and 100,000 cavalry. It took five days for them to cross the Euphrates, over bridges of boats (Curtius, iii. 17). The money alone of the king required 600 mules and 300 camels to convey it (Curtius, iii. 8).

248 Cf. Arrian, iii. 11; and Xenophon (Anab., i. 8, 21, 22).

249 See Donaldson’s New Cratylus, sect. 178.

250 Cf. Xenophon (Cyropaedia, vii. 1, 6).

251 In describing the battle of Arbela, Arrian mentions eight distinct squadrons of Macedonian heavy cavalry, which was known by the name of the Companions. Among the squadrons several, if not all, were named after particular towns or districts of Macedonia, as here, Anthemus, and Leuge. We also find mention of the squadrons of Bottiaea, Amphipolis, and Apollonia. See also Arrian, i. 2; i. 12; iii. 11.

252 t? ???? ded????????. An expression imitated from Thucydides, iv. 34; compare Arrian, iii. 11; v. 19; vi. 16, where the same words are used of Porus and the Indians.

253 ????a? t?? f??a????. An expression imitated from Xenophon (Anab., i. 8,18). It is praised by Demetrius (De Elocutione, 84). KrÜger reads ??????a?. Cf. Plutarch (Pompey, 69).

254 Curtius (iii. 29) says that on Alexander’s side 504 were wounded, and 182 killed. Diodorus (xvii. 36) says, that 450 Macedonians were killed. Justin (xi. 9) states that 280 were slain.

255 Polybius, who lived nearly three centuries before Arrian, censures Callisthenes for asserting that the Persian cavalry crossed the river Pinarus and attacked the Thessalians. No doubt Arrian received this information from the lost works of Ptolemy and Aristobulus (Poly., xii. 18).

256 ??t?? is the poetical form of ??a?t??, the word used by Xenophon, Plato, and other Attic writers. The latter is found only once in Arrian (III. xiii. 5).

257 ? t?? pe??? is Martin’s emendation for ? ?? pe???.

258 Curtius (iii. 27) and Diodorus (xvii. 34) give a graphic description of a direct charge made by Alexander upon Darius, and a sanguinary conflict between Alexander’s body-guard and the Persian nobles, in which the Great King’s horses were wounded and became unmanageable, whereupon Darius got out, mounted a horse, and fled. We learn from Plutarch (Alex., 20) that Chares affirmed Alexander came into hand-to-hand conflict with Darius, and that he received a wound in the thigh from that king’s sword. Plutarch says that Alexander wrote to Antipater that he had been wounded in the thigh with a dagger, but did not say by whom. He also wrote that nothing serious had resulted from the wound. The account of Arrian is far the most trustworthy. Callisthenes stated that Alexander made a direct attack upon Darius (Polybius, xii. 22). We know from Xenophon that the Persian kings were in the habit of occupying the centre, and that Cyrus directed Clearchus to make the attack against the person of his brother Artaxerxes at the battle of Cunaxa. Polybius seems to have been ignorant of this custom of the Persian kings when he wrote his criticism on the statement of Callisthenes.

259 ?fe??et?. On this word see Donaldson (New Cratylus, sect. 315). Cf. Aesch?lus (Persae, 428); Thucydides (iv. 134); Xenophon (Hellenics, i. 2, 16).

260 The victories of the Greeks and Macedonians over the Persians were materially aided by the pusillanimity of Xerxes and Darius. Compare the conduct of Xerxes at Salamis (Herodotus, viii. 97; Aesch?lus, Persae, 465-470, with Mr. Paley’s note) and that of Darius at Arbela (Arrian, iii. 14).

261 Diodorus (xvii. 36) and Curtius (iii. 29) agree with Arrian as to the number of slain in the army of Darius. Plutarch (Alex., 20) gives the number as 110,000.

262 Justin (xi. 9) agrees with Arrian, that the wife of Darius was also his sister. Grote speaks of the mother, wife, and sister of Darius being captured, which is an error. Diodorus (xvii. 38) and Curtius (iii. 29) say that the son was about six years of age.

263 Cf. Xenophon (Cyropaedia, ii. 1, 3; vii. 5, 85).

264 Damascus,—the Hebrew name of which is Dammesek,—a very ancient city in Syria, at the foot of the Antilibanus, at an elevation of 220 feet above the sea, in a spacious and fertile plain about 30 miles in diameter, which is watered by three rivers, two of which are called in the Bible Abana and Pharpar. It has still a population of 150,000. The emperor Julian, in one of his letters, calls it “the Eye of all the East.”

265 About £730,000.

266 B.C. 333; end of October or beginning of November.

267 Alexander erected three altars on the bank of the Pinarus, to Zeus, Heracles, and Athena (Curtius, iii. 33). Cicero, who was proconsul of Cilicia, speaks of “the altars of Alexander at the foot of Amanus,” and says that he encamped there four days (Epistolae ad Diversos, xv. 4).

268 About £12,000.

269 This distinguished general saved Alexander’s life in India, in the assault on the city of the Mallians. After the king’s death, he received the rule of the lesser or Hellespontine Phrygia. He was defeated and slain by the Athenians under Antiphilus, against whom he was fighting in alliance with Antipater, B.C. 323. See Diodorus, xviii. 14, 15; Plutarch (Phocion, 25).

270 Compare Diodorus, xvii. 37, 38; Curtius, iii. 29-32.

271 Named Sisygambis.

272 In a letter written by Alexander to Parmenio, an extract from which is preserved by Plutarch (Alex., 22), he says that he never saw nor entertained the desire of seeing the wife of Darius, who was said to be the most beautiful woman in Asia; and that he would not allow himself to listen to those who spoke about her beauty. Cf. Ammianus (xxiv. 4, 27), speaking of Julian: “Ex virginibus autem, quae speciosae sunt captae, ut in Perside, ubi feminarum pulchritudo excellit, nec contrectare aliquam voluit, nec videre: Alexandrum imitatus et Africanum, qui haec declinabant, ne frangeretur cupiditate, qui se invictos a laboribus ubique praestiterunt.”

273 Thapsacus is understood to be identical with the city called Tiphsach (passage) in 1 Kings iv. 24; which is there said to have been the eastern boundary of Solomon’s empire. It is generally supposed that the modern Deir occupies the site of the ancient Thapsacus; but it has been discovered that the only ford in this part of the river is at Suriyeh, 165 miles above Deir. This was probably the site of Thapsacus. From the time of Seleucus Nicator the city was called Amphipolis (Pliny, v. 21). See Stephanus of Byzantium, sub voce Amphipolis. Cf. Xenophon (Anabasis, i. 4, 11).

274 The Euphrates is the largest river of western Asia, and rises in the mountains of Armenia. It unites with the Tigris, and after a course of 1,780 miles flows into the Persian Gulf. It is navigable by boats for 1,200 miles. The annual inundation, caused by the melting of the snow in the mountains of Armenia, takes place in the month of May. The Euphrates, Tigris, and Eulaeus had formerly three separate outlets into the Persian Gulf; but the three now unite in a single stream, which is called Shat-el-Arab. The Hebrew name for the river which the Greeks called Euphrates, was Perath (rapid stream). It is called in the Bible, the Great River, and the River (Gen. xv. 18; Exod. xxiii. 31; et passim). In Jeremiah xiii. 4-7, the word Perath stands for Ephrath, another name for Bethlehem; in our Bible it is mis-translated. See FÜrst’s Hebrew Lexicon.

275 The term Cenaan was applied to the lowland plain from Aradus to Gaza. The northern portion, from Aradus to Carmel, is known to us under its Grecian name of Phoenicia, which is probably derived from the Greek phoinix (a palm-tree), which grew abundantly in the country, and was the emblem of some of its towns. Others derive it from another Greek word phoinix (red dye), which formed one of its most important manufactures. The Phoenicians applied the term Cenaan to their land in contrast to the highlands to the west, which they called Aram (highland), the Hebrew name for Syria. The country of Phoenicia was 120 miles long and with an average breadth of 12 miles, never exceeding 20 miles. The chief cities of Phoenicia were Tyre, Sidon, Aradus, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, and Accho or Ptolemais. Its central position between the eastern and western countries, early developed its commercial power, and its intercourse with foreign nations at an early period produced an advanced state of civilization and refinement. The Phoenicians were a Semitic nation like the Israelites; and their language bears a remarkable affinity with the Hebrew, as is seen by fragments of the Carthaginian language preserved in Plautus. In an inscription discovered at Marseilles in 1845, out of 94 words 74 were found in the Hebrew Bible. The Phoenicians were asserted by the Greeks to have communicated to them the knowledge of letters; and this statement is corroborated by the similarity of the Hebrew and ancient Greek letters. Their colonies spread from Cyprus to Crete and the Cyclades, thence to Euboea, Greece, and Thrace. The coasts of Asia Minor and Bithynia were dotted with their settlements, and they carried their commerce into the Black Sea. They also had colonies in Sicily, Sardinia, Ivica, and Spain, where they founded Cadiz. The northern coast of Africa was lined with their colonies, the most flourishing of which was Carthage, which rose to be one of the great powers of the world. Strabo says that they had 300 colonies on the western coast of Africa. They visited the coasts of England for tin; and thus, to quote the words of Humboldt, “the Tyrian flag waved at the same time in Britain and the Indian Ocean.” Herodotus (iv. 42, 43) says that under the patronage of Necho, king of Egypt, they circumnavigated Africa; but he states that he does not believe it was a fact. The reason which he assigns for his disbelief is, that the navigators alleged that the sun was on their right hand, which is the strongest argument in favour of the truth of their statement. In Isaiah xxiii. 11, Phoenicia is called Cenaan, where the English Bible has erroneously, the merchant city. In the Bible the word Cenaanim is frequently used for merchants, because the Phoenicians were the principal commercial people of antiquity (Job xli. 6; Prov. xxxi. 24; Isaiah xxiii. 8; Hos. xii. 7; Zeph. i. 2; Zech. xiv. 21). Tripolis consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet apart, each having its own walls, but all united in a common constitution with one place of assembly. These cities were colonies respectively of Sidon, Tyre, and Aradus. Tripolis was a flourishing port on a headland which is a spur of Lebanon. It is now called Tripoli, and is still a large town. See Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Classical Geography.

276 The oldest towns in Cyprus,—Citium, Amathus, and Paphus,—were Phoenician colonies. These were afterwards eclipsed by the Greek colonies, Salamis, Soli, and New Paphus. In Hebrew the island is called Ceth, and the inhabitants Cittim. Gesenius says, that upon a Sidonian coin Ceth in Cyprus, which the Greeks called Citium, is described as a Sidonian colony. Diodorus (xvi. 42) says there were nine kings in Cyprus. It is probable that the kings of the Hittites mentioned in 1 Kings x. 29, were from Cyprus. Also the Hittite women whom Solomon married were probably Cyprians (1 Kings xi. 1). The kings of the Hittites of whom the Syrians were afraid were also Cypriotes (2 Kings vii. 6); and the land of the Hittites mentioned in Judges i. 26, probably means Cyprus. Josephus, Eusebius, and Jerome understand these passages to refer to Cyprus. In Isaiah xxiii. 1, the land of Cittim refers to Cyprus, which belonged to Tyre, the revolt of which the prophet announced. This revolt is confirmed by Menander (Josephus, ix. 14, 9).

277 Agis III. was ultimately defeated and slain by Antipater, B.C. 330. See Curtius, vi. 1 and 2; Grote’s Greece, vol. xii. pp. 102-106.

278 About £7,300.

279 Now Cape Matapan. Cf. Propertius, iii. 2, 11; Tibullus, iii. 3, 13; Homer (Hymn to Apollo, 411).

280 The Cretans were very early civilized and powerful, for we read in Homer of their 100 cities. Before the Trojan war lived the famous king Minos, who is said to have given laws to Crete, and to have been the first potentate who possessed a navy, with which he suppressed piracy in the Aegean Sea. The Cretans gradually degenerated, so that we find in the New Testament St. Paul quoting from their own poet, Epimenides: “Always liars and beasts are the Cretans, and inwardly sluggish” (Titus i. 12). The lying propensity of the Cretans is proved from the fact that the verb to Cretize, was used in Greek with the meaning “to speak falsely.” In Hebrew, Crete is called Caphtor (cypress). It is mentioned in Jer. xlvii. 4. It was the native land of a tribe of Philistines called Caphtorim (Gen. x. 14; Deut. ii. 23; 1 Chron. i. 12). The fact that the Philistines came partly from Crete is also affirmed in Amos ix. 7. Another branch of the Philistines came from Casloach in Egypt. The Caphtorim emigrated originally from Egypt to Crete, from which island they were probably driven by the Greeks. Tacitus asserts that the inhabitants of Palestine came from Crete (Historiae, v. 2); and the early name of Gaza was Minoa, after the famous king of Crete. Another Hebrew name for Crete is Cereth, whence the inhabitants were called Cerethim. They are mentioned in Ezek. xxv. 16, and Zeph. ii. 5; where the Septuagint and the Syriac have Cretans. We find the Philistines, who were partly emigrants from Crete, called Cerethim in 1 Sam. xxx. 14. From among these Cerethim and Philistines David chose his body-guard, which was composed of men skilled in shooting and slinging (2 Sam. viii. 18, xv. 18, xx. 7, 23; 1 Kings i. 38, 44; 1 Chron. xviii. 17).

281 From Diodorus (xvii. 48) it appears that Agis went personally to Crete, and compelled most of the cities to join the Persian side. We also learn that the deputies of the Greeks assembled at the Isthmian games at Corinth sent an embassy to Alexander to congratulate him on his victory at Issus, and to present him with a golden wreath. (See also Curtius, iv. 22.)

282 Coele-Syria, or Hollow Syria, is, in its more limited sense, the country between the ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, in which Damascus and Baalbek are situated; in its wider meaning, it comprises the whole of Northern Syria, in opposition to the countries of Phoenicia and Palestine.

283 Aradus is an island lying two or three miles from the mainland of Phoenicia. According to Strabo, a State was founded in it by refugees from Sidon. For a long time the island was independent, under its own kings; and even after it fell under the sway of the Macedonian kings of Syria, and subsequently under that of the Romans, it retained a great deal of its commercial prosperity. Aradus appears in Hebrew under the form Arvad. It is evident from Ezek. xxvii. 8, 11, that its inhabitants were skilful sailors and brave warriors. They sent out colonies to Aradus south of Carmel, the island of Aradus near Crete, and the islands in the Persian gulf. The present name of this island is Ruad. The Aradians inhabited the mainland opposite the island, as well as the island itself.

284 Artaxerxes Ochus reigned B.C. 359-338.

285 Perinthus was a Samian colony on the Propontis. For the siege by Philip, see Diodorus, xvi. 74-76.

286 Impartial historians deny that Philip’s murderers were bribed; they committed the murder from private resentment.

287 Ochus was poisoned about B.C. 338, by the eunuch Bagoas, who placed upon the throne Arses, one of the king’s sons, killing all the rest. Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, vi. 8). Two years afterwards, Bagoas put Arses and all his children to death; thus leaving no direct heir of the regal family alive. He then placed upon the throne one of his adherents, named Darius Codomannus, a descendant of one of the brothers of Artaxerxes Mnemon. Bagoas soon afterwards tried to poison this Darius; but the latter, discovering his treachery, forced him to drink the deadly draught himself (Diod., xvii. 5; Justin, x. 3). From Arrian, iii. 19, we learn that Bistanes, a son of Ochus, was alive after the battle of Arbela.

288 Aeschines, in his speech against Ctesiphon (p. 634), asserts that Darius sent 300 talents to Athens, that the Athenians refused them, and that Demosthenes took them, reserving 70 talents for his own private use. Deinarchus repeats this statement in his speech against Demosthenes. (pp. 9-14). If Demosthenes had really acted thus, it is strange Alexander knew nothing about it.

289 This statement of Arrian is confirmed by Curtius (iii. 34), who says that Parmenio captured the treasure, not in the city, but from fugitives who were conveying it away.

290 In giving the names of the captured Grecian envoys, Curtius (iii. 35) seems to have confounded this with a future occasion, mentioned in Arrian (iii. 24).

291 The great Iphicrates had been adopted by Alexander’s grandfather, as is stated in a note on Book I. chap. 23.

292 Byblus is said by Strabo (xvi. 2) to have been situated on a height not far from the sea. It was reported to be the oldest city in the world. It possessed a considerable extent of territory, including Berytus, and was an independent State for a long period, the last king being deposed by Pompey. On a Byblus coin of Alexander’s time appears the name Einel, which is the king Enylus mentioned by Arrian (ii. 20). Byblus was the chief seat of the worship of Adonis, or Thammuz, who was supposed to have been born there. In the Bible it appears under its Hebrew name Gebal (mountain-district). The inhabitants of Gebal are said in Ezek. xxvii. 9 to have been skilled in building ships. In Josh. xiii. 5 the northern boundary of the Holy Land is said to reach as far as the land of the Giblite, or inhabitant of Gebal. In 1 Kings v. 18 the word translated in our Bible stone-squarers ought to be rendered Giblites. The Arabs still call the place Jebail. Cf. Milton (Paradise Lost, viii. 18).

293 Sidon, or in Hebrew Tsidon (fortress), is called in Gen. x. 15, 19 the firstborn son of Canaan, i.e. it was the first city founded by the Canaanites or Phoenicians. It lay about twenty miles south of Tyre, on a small promontory two miles south of the river Bostremus. We read in Homer that it was famous for its embroidered robes and metal utensils, and from other ancient writers we find that it manufactured glass and linen and also prepared dyes. Before the time of David it fell under the rule of Tyre; but when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, invaded Phoenicia, it revolted from Tyre and submitted to the invader. It was governed by its own kings under the Babylonian and Persian empires; and under the latter power it reached its highest prosperity, surpassing Tyre in wealth and importance. In the expedition of Xerxes against Greece, the Sidonians furnished the best ships in the whole fleet, and their king obtained the highest place under Xerxes in the council. But they revolted against Ochus, king of Persia, and being betrayed to him by their own king Tennes, they burnt their city and ships. It is said that 40,000 persons perished in the fire and by the sword, B.C. 351. (Diodorus, xvi. 43-45). No doubt this barbarous treatment of Ochus induced the Sidonians to take the side of Alexander. The city was already built and again flourishing when that king appeared on the scene. Near the site of the ancient city is the present town of Saida, with a population of about 5,000. Cf. Homer (Iliad, vi. 289; xxiii. 741); Lucan, iii. 217.

294 At Sidon, Alexander deposed the reigning king Strato, a friend of the Persians; and a poor man, named Abdalonymus, distantly related to the regal family, was put into his place (Curtius, iv. 3, 4). Diodorus (xvii. 47) tells the same story, but applies it to Tyre, probably by mistake.

295 The Hebrew name for Tyre is Tsor (rock). In Isa. xxiii. 4 it is called the fortress of the sea; and in ver. 8, “Tsor, the crowning one,” because Tyre gave rulers to the Phoenician cities and colonies. Valuable information about the power, trade, and customs of Tyre is derived from Ezek. xxvi-xxviii.; and we learn the fact that she employed mercenaries like her colony Carthage (Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11). In the classical writers the name is corrupted into Tyrus, and sometimes into Sarra. Tyre was unsuccessfully besieged for five years by Shalmaneser. It was also besieged for thirteen years by Nebuchadnezzar, and in the end an alliance was formed, by which the Tyrians retained their own king as a vassal of the king of Babylon. This arrangement was continued under the kings of Persia.

296 Curtius (iv. 7) tells us that the envoys also brought to Alexander a golden wreath, together with abundant supplies for his army.

297 This king must have brought home his ships for the defence of Tyre, for he was in the city when it was captured. See chap. 24.

298 The Phoenician god Melkarth (lord of the city), whom the Syrians called Baal (lord), was supposed to be identical with the Grecian Heracles, or Hercules, who was the mythical ancestor of the Macedonian kings. Curtius (iv. 7) tells us that Alexander affirmed he had been ordered by an oracle to sacrifice in Tyre to Heracles. Gesenius informs us that a Maltese inscription identifies the Tyrian Melkarth with Heracles.

299 Who was the son of Labdacus.

300 See Herodotus, ii. 43, 44.

301 The district comprising all the south-west of Spain outside the pillars of Heracles, or Straits of Gibraltar, was called Tartessis, of which the chief city was Tartessus. Here the Phoenicians planted colonies, one of which still remains under the name of Cadiz. The Romans called the district Baetica, from the principal river, the Baetis or Guadalquivir. The Hebrew name for this region is Tarshish, of which Tartessus is the Greek form. Tarshish was the station for the Phoenician trade with the West, which extended as far as Cornwall. The Tyrians fetched from this locality silver, iron, lead, tin, and gold (Isa. xxiii. 1, 6, 10, lxvi. 19; Jer. x. 9; Ezek. xxvii. 12, xxxviii. 13). Martial, Seneca, and Avienus, the first two of whom were Spaniards, understood Tartessus to stand for the south-west of Spain and Portugal. The word Tarshish probably means sea-coast, from the Sanscrit tarischa, the sea. Ovid (Met., xiv. 416); Martial, viii. 28; Silius, xiii. 673.

302 Of Miletus. Herodotus knew his writings well, but they have not come down to us. See Herod. (ii. 143; v. 36 and 125).

303 The Iberians were originally called Tibarenes, or Tibari. They dwelt on the east of the Black Sea, and west of Colchis, whence they emigrated to Spain. This nation is called Tubal in the Hebrew Bible; in Isa. lxvi. 19 the Iberians of western Europe are referred to.

304 An island near Cadiz, now called Leon. Cf. Hesiod (Theogonia, 287-294); Herodotus, iv. 8.

305 Now called Arta.

306 Arrian omits to mention that the Tyrians pointed out to him that his wish to sacrifice to Hercules might be gratified without entering their city, since at Palaetyrus, on the mainland, separated from Tyre only by a narrow strait, was a temple of that deity more ancient than that in Tyre. See Curtius, iv. 7; Justin, xi. 10. We learn from Arrian, i. 18, that when Alexander offered sacrifice to the Ephesian Diana he marched to the temple with his whole army in battle array. No doubt it was this kind of thing the Tyrians objected to. Alexander actually did the same at Tyre after its capture. (See chapter 24.)

307 For this use of ???p????, cf. Homer (Iliad, ii. 56); Aristophanes (Wasps, 1218).

308 Cf. Arrian, i. 11 and 25 supra.

309 The island was about half a mile from the mainland, and about a mile in length.

310 We learn from Diodorus (xvii. 40) that the breadth of this mole was about 200 feet.

311 Curtius (iv. 10) says that the timber was procured from Lebanon, and the stones from Old Tyre on the mainland.

312 Cf. Polyaenus (iv. 3).

313 Cf. CÆsar (Bell. Gall., vii. 24)—reliquasque res, quibus ignis excitari potest, fundebant. KrÜger has unnecessarily altered ?p? ta?t? into ?p’ a?t?? (i.e. p???a?).

314 Curtius (iv. 12) says that the stern was loaded with stones and sand.

315 Diodorus (xvii. 42) and Curtius (iv. 12) say that a great tempest helped to demolish the palisade.

316 We learn from Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, ix. 14), on the authority of Menander, that when Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, four centuries before Alexander’s time, besieged Tyre, the other Phoenicians supplied him with ships in like manner.

317 This was a state vessel, or guardship, similar to the Paralus and Salaminia at Athens. See Alciphron, Bk. I. Epistle 11, with Bergler’s note.

318 See Arrian, ii. 2 supra.

319 Curtius (iv. 11) says that about thirty of the Macedonians collecting timber in Lebanon were killed by a party of wild Arabs, and that a few were also captured by them. Lebanon is a Hebrew word meaning white, like Alpes. It was so called on account of its white cliffs, just as Britain is called by Aristotle, Albion, the Celtic for white.

320 Plutarch (Life of Alexander, 24) gives us, on the authority of Chares, some details of daring valour on the part of Alexander in this expedition.

321 Cleander was put to death by Alexander for oppression in exercising his duties as governor of Media. See Arrian, vi. 27 infra.

322 In regard to this manoeuvre, see Herodotus, vi. 12; Thucydides, i. 49, with Arnold’s note.

323 s?pep????a?:—“In the best authors p?p??a is used as the perf. pass. of p?????” (Liddell & Scott). Cf. v. 12, 4; 24, 4, infra.

324 Cf. Plautus (Mercator, iv. 2, 5), hortator remigum.

325 Amathus was a town on the south coast of Cyprus. It is now called Limasol. Cf. Herodotus, v. 104-115; Tacitus (Ann., iii. 62); Vergil (Aeneid, x. 51).

326 Curium was also a town on the south coast of Cyprus.

327 Diodorus (xvii. 45) says, that after Admetus was killed, Alexander recalled his men from the assault that night, but renewed it next day.

328 Agenor, the father of Cadmus, was the reputed founder of Tyre and Sidon. See Curtius, iv. 19.

329 The Tyrians had been encouraged in their resistance by the promise of aid from their colony Carthage. But the Carthaginians excused themselves on the ground of their own difficulties in contending with the Greeks. The Tyrians however despatched their women, children, and old men to Carthage for safety. See Diodorus, xvii. 40, 41; Curtius, iv. 8 and 15. We learn from Diod., xx. 14, that the Carthaginians were in the habit of sending to the Tyrian Hercules the tenth of their revenues.

330 Diodorus (xvii. 46) and Curtius (iv. 19) state that 2,000 Tyrians who had escaped the massacre were hanged on the seashore by Alexander’s order.

331 The end of July and beginning of August B.C. 332. Diodorus (xvii. 46) tells us that the siege lasted seven months. See also Curtius (iv. 20) and Plutarch (Life of Alexander, 24). We find from Strabo (xvi. 2) that Tyre again became a flourishing city.

332 About £2,440,000.

333 Diodorus (xvii. 54) puts the arrival of this embassy after Alexander’s conquest of Egypt. Curtius (iv. 21) says that the name of the daughter whom Darius offered to Alexander was Statira.

334 The term Palestine is derived from Pelesheth, the name given in Hebrew to the coast district in the south-west of Palestine, the inhabitants of which were called Pelishtim, or Philistines. As this tract of country lay directly between Phoenicia and Egypt, it became known to the Greeks sooner than the rest of the Holy Land, and they called it Syria Palaestine. The name was gradually extended until it became the usual one for all the Holy Land among Greek and Latin writers. An interesting account of Alexander’s visit to Jerusalem and his dealings with the Jews is found in Josephus (Antiquities, xi. 8).

335 Nearly two miles and a half. Strabo (xvi. 2) says that the city was only seven stades from the sea.

336 Gaza is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Azzah (fortress). Its position on the border of Egypt and Palestine has given it importance from the earliest times. It was one of the five cities of the Philistines; and retained its own king till a late period, as we learn from Zechariah ix. 5. It was the scene of a battle between Richard I. and the Saracens. It is now called Guzzeh, with a population of 15,000.

337 Compare Arrian, i. 11 and 25; ii. 18. Plutarch (Alex., 25) says that the bird was entangled and caught among the nets and cords. See also Curtius, iv. 26.

338 A stadium equalled 606-3/4 feet.

339 Cf. Thucydides, ii. 76 (description of the siege of Plataeae).

340 Diodorus (xvii. 48) says that the siege of Gaza lasted two months. Polybius (xvi. 40) speaks of the resolution and valour of the Gazaeans. We learn from Curtius (iv. 28) and from Dionysius of Halicarnassus (De Compositione Verborum, pp. 123-125) that Alexander treated the brave Batis with horrible cruelty. He ordered his feet to be bored and brazen rings to be put through them, after which the naked body was tied to the back of a chariot which was driven by Alexander himself round the city, in imitation of the treatment of Hector by Achilles at Troy. Cf. Arrian, vii. 14. Dionysius quotes from Hegesias of Magnesia, who wrote a history of Alexander, not now extant. Curtius says that nearly 10,000 of the Persians and Arabs were slain at Gaza. Strabo (xvi. 2) says that in his time (i.e. in the reign of Augustus) the city still remained desolate, as it was left by Alexander.

341 Pelusium is identical with the Hebrew Sin (a marsh) the most easterly city of Egypt, which is called in Ezekiel xxx. 15, the strength of Egypt, because it was the key to that country from its frontier position. Cf. Herodotus, iii. 5. Strabo (xvii. 1) says it was situated near marshes. It stood east of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, about 2-1/2 miles from the sea. This mouth of the river was choked up with sand as early as the first century of the Christian era (Lucan, viii. 465). Sennacherib advanced as far as this city, and here Cambyses defeated the Egyptians, B.C. 525. Iphicrates the Athenian advanced to Pelusium with the satrap Pharnabazus, B.C. 373. Cf. Vergil (Georgic, i. 228); Martial, xiii. 9; Silius, iii. 375.

342 Curtius (iv. 22) says that this fleet was under the command of Hephaestion.

343 His predecessor, Sabaces, was slain at Issus. See Arrian, ii. 11 supra.

344 Curtius (iv. 29) says that Mazaces surrendered to Alexander treasure to the amount of 800 talents, nearly £200,000.

345 Memphis, the capital of Egypt, is called in the Hebrew Bible, Noph. In Hosea ix. 6 it is called Moph. The Egyptian name was Menoph, of which both Moph and Noph are contractions. The name signifies place of Ftah, the Egyptian name for Vulcan. Memphis stood on the west bank of the Nile, and is said by Herodotus (ii. 99) to have been founded by Menes. It had a circumference of fifteen miles. Its numerous temples were famous and are mentioned in the poems of Martial, Ovid, and Tibullus. It never recovered the devastation committed by Cambyses, who was exasperated by its resistance. The rise of Alexandria as the capital under the Ptolemies, hastened the decline of Memphis. At Gizeh, near Memphis, are the three great pyramids, being of the height respectively of 460, 446, and 203 feet. Not far off are six smaller ones. Near the second pyramid is the Sphinx, cut out of the solid rock, which was probably an object of worship. Cf. Apollodorus, ii. 4.

346 Heliopolis is known in Hebrew as On, which is an Egyptian word meaning Sun. It is mentioned in Gen. xli. 45, 50; xlvi. 20. In Ezek. xxx. 17, it is called Aven, which is the same word in Hebrew as On, with a variation of the vowels. In Jer. xliii. 13 it is called Beith-Shemesh, which in Hebrew means House of the Sun, a translation of the Egyptian name. The Greeks called it Heliopolis, City of the Sun. The great temple of the Sun and its priesthood are described by Herodotus and Strabo. There are still remaining a beautiful obelisk of red granite nearly 70 feet high, and the brick wall of the temple 3,750 feet long by 2,370 feet broad. Cf. Apollodorus, ii. 4.

347 The word Nile never occurs in the Hebrew Bible; but that river is called Yeor (river). In Amos viii. 8 it is called Yeor Mitsraim, the river of Egypt; but it is usually called simply Yeor, the river. In Isa. xxiii. 3 the corn of Egypt is called the harvest of Yeor, or the Nile. In like manner Avon, Ganges, Rhine, mean river. The Greek name Neilos, or Nile, means a bed with a stream, and was originally applied to the land of Egypt, as the valley of the Nile. It rises in the lake Victoria Nyanza, and has a course of 3,300 miles. In Isa. xxiii. 3 and Jer. ii. 18 the Nile is called Shichor (turbid). In Homer (Odys., iv. 477, etc.) the river is called Egypt as well as the country. Cf. Ammianus, xxii. 15.

348 The Bull of Memphis, sacred to Ftah, the god of fire. See Herodotus, iii. 27, 28; Strabo, xvii. 1; Ammianus, xxii. 14; Ovid (Met., ix. 690).

349 Now Aboukir, about 13 miles north-east of Alexandria, near the westernmost mouth of the Nile. Cf. Aesch?lus (Supp., 311; Prom., 846); Strabo, xvii. 1, 17; Tacitus (Ann., ii. 60).

350 Usually called Lake Mareotis, now MariÛt. Cf. Vergil (Georgic, ii. 91).

351 We learn, from Curtius (iv. 33), that Alexander at first resolved to build the city on the island of Pharos, but finding it too small, built it on the mainland.

352 A goddess representing the moon, and wife of Osiris the sun-god.

353 Cf. Strabo (xvii. 1); Plutarch (Alex., 26); Diodorus (xvii. 52); Curtius (iv. 33); Ammianus (xxii. 16).

354 We find from Valerius Maximus (i. 4) and Ammianus, l.c., that his name was Dinocrates.

355 KrÜger substitutes ?pe??e? for ?p??e?, comparing iv. 1, 3, and 4, 1 infra.

356 See Arrian, ii. 2 supra.

357 Methymna was, next to Mitylene, the most important city in Lesbos.

358 Chares was an Athenian who had been one of the generals at the fatal battle of Chaeronea. Curtius (iv. 24) says that he consented to evacuate Mitylene with his force of 2,000 men on condition of a free departure.

359 On an island in the Nile, of the same name, opposite Syene. It served as the southern frontier garrison station.

360 The temple of Jupiter Ammon was in the oasis of Siwah, to the West of Egypt. Its ruins were discovered by Browne in 1792. This oasis is about 6 miles long and 3 broad. The people called Libyans occupied the whole of North Africa excluding Egypt. In Hebrew they are called Lubim (sunburnt). See 2 Chron. xii. 3; xvi. 8; Dan. xi. 43; Nah. iii. 9. Cf. Herodotus, ii. 32; iv. 168-199.

361 King of the island Seriphus. Cf. Herodotus, ii. 91.

362 The gigantic son of Poseidon and Ge.

363 King of Egypt, who was said to have sacrificed all foreigners that visited the land.

364 Perseus was the grandfather of Alemena, the mother of Hercules.

365 About 183 miles. This city lay at the extreme west of Egypt, in Marmarica.

366 “For some distance onward the engineers had erected a line of telegraph poles to guide us, but after they ceased the desert was absolutely trackless. Our guides were the stars—had the night been overcast the enterprise would have been impossible—and we were steered by a naval officer, Lieutenant Rawson, who had doubtless studied on previous nights the relation of these celestial beacons to the course of our march. The centre of the line was the point of direction; therefore he rode between the centre battalions (75th and 79th) of the Highland Brigade. Frequently in the course of the night, after duly ascertaining what dark figure I was addressing, I represented to him that his particular star was clouded over; but he always replied that he had another in view, a second string to his bow, which he showed me, and that he was convinced he had not deviated in the least from the proper direction. And he was right, his guidance was marvellously correct; for his reward, poor fellow, he was shot down in the assault, mortally wounded. Here we were adrift, but for the stars, in a region where no token existed on the surface by which to mark the course—any more than on the ocean without a compass—and the distance to be traversed was many miles.”—Sir Edward Hamley: “The Second Division at Tel-el-Kebir,” Nineteenth Century, December, 1882.

367 Strabo (xvii. 1) quotes from Callisthenes, whose work on Alexander is lost. He agrees with Aristobulus about the two ravens. Callisthenes is also quoted by Plutarch (Alex., 27) in regard to this prodigy. Curtius (iv. 30) says that there were several ravens; and Diodorus (xvii. 49) speaks of ravens.

368 Nearly five miles. Cf. Lucan, ix. 511-543.

369 This Fountain of the Sun, as it is called, is 30 paces long and 20 broad; 6 fathoms deep, with bubbles constantly rising from the surface. Cf. Herodotus, iv. 181; Lucretius, vi. 849-878; Ptolemy, iv. 5, 37.

370 This is what we call sal ammoniac, known to chemists as hydrochlorate of ammonia. The dactylos was the smallest Greek measure of length, about 7/10 of an inch.

371 We learn from Strabo (xvii. 1), on the authority of Callisthenes, that the declaration of the oracle of Ammon was confirmed by those of Apollo at Branchidae near Miletus, and of Athena at Erythrae in Ionia. Plutarch (Alex., 28) and Arrian (vii. 29) assert that Alexander set afloat the declaration that he was the son of Zeus to overawe the foreigners over whom he was extending his rule.

372 Ewald and others think that HeroÖpolis was identical with the Raamses of the Bible. Raamses, or Rameses, is a Coptic word meaning “the son of the sun.”

373 A city founded by the Milesians on the Canopic branch of the Nile. It remained a purely Greek city, being the only place where Greeks were allowed to settle and trade in Egypt. Cf. Herodotus, ii. 97, 135, 178, 179.

374 Cf. Tacitus (Historiae, i. 11).

375 We learn, from Curtius (iv. 34), that Alexander went to Samaria to chastise the inhabitants, who had burnt his deputy, Andromachus, to death.

376 From early times the Athenians kept two sacred vessels for state purposes, the one called the Paralus and the other Salaminia. In the earliest times the former was used for coasting purposes, and the latter for the journey to Salamis. Hence their respective names. See Dr. Smith’s Dict. of Antiquities. Aeschines, in his oration against Ctesiphon (p. 550), asserts that he was informed by the seamen of the Paralus that Demosthenes on this occasion sent a letter to Alexander soliciting pardon and favour.

377 Cf. Aelian, Varia Historia, i. 25; Curtius, iv. 34.

378 Beroea was a city of Macedonia, on the Astraeus, a tributary of the Haliacmon, about 20 miles from the sea.

379 Other historians call this queen Cleopatra. She was the daughter of a Macedonian named Attalus. Plutarch (Alex., 9 and 10) says that she was cruelly put to death by Olympias during Alexander’s absence. Justin (ix. 7; xi. 2) states that Olympias first slew her daughter on her mother’s bosom and then had Cleopatra hanged; while Alexander put to death Caranus, the infant son of Philip and Cleopatra. Pausanias (viii. 7) says that Olympias caused Cleopatra and her infant son to be roasted on a brazen vessel. Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, xiii. 35).

380 This king was brother of Alexander’s mother Olympias, and husband of Cleopatra the daughter of Philip and Olympias. He crossed over into Italy to aid the Tarentines against the Lucanians and Bruttians, but was eventually defeated and slain near Pandosia, B.C. 326.

381 June-July, B.C. 331.

382 We learn, from Curtius (iv. 37), that Alexander took eleven days to march from Phoenicia to the Euphrates.

383 Curtius (iv. 37) says that Tigris is the Persian word for arrow; and that the river was so named on account of the swiftness of its current. The Hebrew name is Chiddekel, which means arrow. See Gen. ii. 14; and Dan. x. 4, where it is called the great river. The name Tigris is derived from the Zend Tighra, which comes from the Sanscrit Tig, to sharpen. It is now called Dijleh. It joins the Euphrates 90 miles from the sea, and the united stream is called Shat-el-Arab. Its entire length is 1,146 miles. In ancient times the two rivers had distinct mouths. So the Rhon formerly had several mouths. See Livy, xxi. 26. Strabo (iv. 1, 8) says that Timaeus gave it five mouths; Polybius gives it two; others give seven.

384 This eclipse occurred September 20th, B.C. 331.

385 The part of Assyria lying between the Upper Tigris and the Lycus was called Aturia.

386 Called Carduchi by Xenophon. These mountains separate Assyria and Mesopotamia from Media and Armenia.

387 Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 38).

388 Arachosia comprised what is now the south-east part of Afghanistan and the north-east part of Beloochistan.

389 Aria comprised the west and north-west part of Afghanistan and the east part of Khorasan.

390 Parthia is the modern Khorasan. Hyrcania was the country south and south-east of the Caspian Sea. The Tapurians dwelt in the north of Media, on the borders of Parthia between the Caspian passes. Cf. Ammianus, xxiii. 6.

391 The Cadusians lived south-west of the Caspian, the Albanians on the west of the same sea, in the south-east part of Georgia, and the Sacesinians in the north-east of Armenia, on the river Kur.

392 The Red Sea was the name originally given to the whole expanse of sea to the west of India as far as Africa. The name was subsequently given to the Arabian Gulf exclusively. In Hebrew it is called Yam-Suph (Sea of Sedge, or a seaweed resembling wool). The Egyptians called it the Sea of Weeds.

393 The Uxians occupied the north-west of Persis, and Susiana was the country to the north and west of Persis.

394 The Sitacenians lived in the south of Assyria. ?tet??at? is the Ionic form for teta????? ?sa?.

395 The Greeks called this country Mesopotamia because it lies between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. In the Bible it is called Paddan-Aram (the plain of Aram, which is the Hebrew name of Syria). In Gen. xlviii. 7 it is called merely Paddan, the plain. In Hos. xii. 12, it is called the field of Aram, or, as our Bible has it, the country of Syria. Elsewhere in the Bible it is called Aram-naharaim, Aram of the two rivers, which the Greeks translated Mesopotamia. It is called “the Island,” by Arabian geographers.

396 Curtius (iv. 35 and 45) states that Darius had 200,000 infantry, 45,000 cavalry, and 200 scythed chariots; Diodorus (xvii. 53) says, 800,000 infantry, 200,000 cavalry, and 200 scythed chariots; Justin (xi. 12) gives 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse; and Plutarch (Alex., 31) speaks of a million of men. For the chariots cf. Xenophon (Anab., i. 8, 10); Livy, xxxvii. 41.

397 This is the first instance on record of the employment of elephants in battle.

398 This river is now called Ghasir, a tributary of the Great Zab. The village Gaugamela was in the district of Assyria called Aturia, about 69 miles from the city of Arbela, now called Erbil.

399 About 7 miles.

400 Xenophon (Anab., iii. 4, 35) explains why this was so.

401 sfe?? here stands for a?t??.

402 See note 252 to ii. 10 supra.

403 These people were a Scythian tribe leading a nomadic life east of the Caspian. They are called Daoi by Herodotus, i. 125; Dahae by Ammianus, xxii. 8, 21; Livy, xxxv. 48; xxxvii. 38; Vergil (Aeneid, viii. 728); Pliny, vi. 19; Strabo, xi. 7. They are mentioned in Ezra iv. 9 as subjects of Persia. The district is now called Daikh. See FÜrst’s Hebrew Lexicon, sub voce ?????.

404 A title of honour. Curtius says that they numbered 15,000.

405 Cf. Herodotus, vii. 41.

406 This people lived to the south of the Caspian.

407 “Several names of various contingents stated to have been present in the field are not placed in the official return—thus the Sogdiani, the Arians, and the Indian mountaineers are mentioned by Arrian as having joined Darius (iii. 8); the Kossaeans by Diodorus (xvii. 59); the Sogdiani, Massagatae, Belitae, Kossaeans, Gortyae, Phrygians, and Kataonians, by Curtius (iv. 12).”—Grote.

408 This distinguished general succeeded Antipater as regent of Macedonia, but was overcome by Cassander, the son of the former, and became subordinate to him.

409 There were thus six taxeis, or brigades of foot Companions, as they were called, in the phalanx of infantry at the battle of Arbela. Arrian’s description of the battle at the Granicus (i. 14) seems to be erroneous in some of the words of the text; yet it may be gathered from it that there were also six taxeis in Alexander’s phalanx on that occasion also.

410 See Arrian’s Tactics, 29.

411 Cf. Diodorus (xvii. 57).

412 See Donaldson’s New Cratylus, sect. 178.

413 Cf. Curtius, iv. 35. “Equitibus equisque tegumenta erant ex ferreis laminis serie inter se connexis.”

414 Compare the uselessness of the Persian scythed chariots at the battle of Cunaxa. See Xenophon (Anabasis, i. 8). So also at the battle of Magnesia between Scipio and Antiochus. See Livy, xxxvii. 41.

415 pef?????a, imitated from Homer (Iliad, iv. 282). Cf. Vergil (Aeneid, x. 178, horrentibus hastis); Livy, xliv. 41 (horrendis hastis).

416 Curtius (iv. 58, 59) and Diodorus (xvii. 60) describe quite an Homeric battle, Darius hurling a spear at Alexander, and Alexander hurling his at Darius and killing his charioteer. They say that the Persians mistook the fall of the Charioteer for that of the king, and fled, carrying Darius with them.

417 Curtius (iv. 59) and Diodorus (xvii. 60) say that so thick a cloud of dust was raised by the mighty mass of fugitives, that nothing could be clearly distinguished, and that thus the Macedonians lost the track of Darius. The noise of the shouting and the cracking of whips served as guides to the pursuers.

418 Sisygambis, the mother of Darius, whom these Persians were especially anxious to liberate from the custody of the Macedonians, refused to go with them. See Diodorus and Curtius.

419 Arrian does not say much about this vigorous charge of Mazaeus, the commander of the Persian right wing. See Curtius (iv. 60); Diodorus (xvii. 60).

420 We learn from Diodorus and Curtius that Parmenio had driven Mazaeus back before Alexander’s arrival.

421 The Lycus, now called the Great Zab, is a tributary of the Tigris. Xenophon calls it Zabatus (Anab., ii. 5). The Greek Lycus is a translation of the Syrian Zaba (wolf).

422 About sixty-nine miles. Cf. Strabo (xvi. 1, 3).

423 ?????sa?. This is an Ionic word used by Herodotus (viii. 71, etc.), and rarely in Attic poets and later prose writers.

424 See Arrian, ii. 11 supra.

425 Curtius (iv. 63) says that 40,000 of the Persians were slain, and that less than 300 Macedonians were killed. Diodorus (xvii. 61) states that more than 90,000 Persians and 500 Macedonians were slain.

426 September 331 B.C. Cf. Plutarch (Alex., 31).

427 For this prediction, see iii. 7 supra.

428 As to the kinsmen and apple-bearers, see iii. 11 supra.

429 Diodorus (xvii. 63) and Curtius (v. 6) state that from the treasure captured in Babylon, Alexander distributed to each Macedonian horseman about £24, to each of the Grecian horsemen £20, to each of the Macedonian infantry £8, and to the allied infantry two months’ pay.

430 Belus, or Bel, the supreme deity of the Babylonians, was identical with the Syrian Baal. The signification of the name is mighty. Cf. Herodotus (i. 181); Diodorus (ii. 9); Strabo (xvi. 1).

431 See i. 17 supra.

432 The Chaldees appear in Hebrew under the name of Casdim, who seem to have originally dwelt in Carduchia, the northern part of Assyria. The Assyrians transported these rude mountaineers to the plains of Babylonia (Isa. xxiii. 13). The name of Casdim, or Chaldees, was applied to the inhabitants of Mesopotamia (Gen. xi. 28); the inhabitants of the Arabian desert in the vicinity of Edom (Job i. 17); those who dwelt near the river Chaboras (Ezek. i. 3; xi. 24); and the priestly caste who had settled at a very early period in Babylon, as we are informed by Diodorus and Eusebius. Herodotus says that these priests were dedicated to Belus. It is proved by inscriptions that the ancient language was retained as a learned and religious literature. This is probably what is meant in Daniel i. 4 by “the book and tongue of the Casdim.” Cf. Diodorus (ii. 29-31); Ptolemy (v. 20, 3); and Cicero (De Divinatione, i. 1). See FÜrst’s Hebrew Lexicon, sub voce ????????.

433 In the Bible this city is called Shushan. Near it was the fortress of Shushan, called in our Bible the Palace (Neh. i. 2; Esth. ii. 8). Susa was situated on the Choaspes, a river remarkable for the excellence of its water, a fact referred to by Tibullus (iv. 1, 140) and by Milton (Paradise Reg., iii. 288). The name Shushan is derived from the Persian word for lily, which grew abundantly in the vicinity. The ruins of the palace mentioned in Esther i. have recently been explored, and were found to consist of an immense hall, the roof of which was supported by a central group of thirty-six pillars arranged in the form of a square. This was flanked by three porticoes, each containing two rows of six pillars. Cf. Strabo (xv. 7, 28).

434 The name of the viceroy was Abulites (Curtius, v. 8).

435 If these were Attic talents, the amount would be equivalent to £11,600,000; but if they were Babylonian or Aeginetan talents, they were equal to £19,000,000. Cf. Plutarch (Alex., 36, 37); Justin (xi. 14); and Curtius (v. 8). Diodorus (xvii. 66) tells us that 40,000 talents were of uncoined gold and silver, and 9,000 talents of gold bearing the effigy of Darius.

436 Cf. Arrian (vii. 19); Pausanias (i. 8, 5); Pliny (Nat. Hist., xxxiv. 9); Valerius Maximus (ii. 10, 1). For Harmodius and Aristogeiton see Thucydides, vi. 56-58.

437 Polis meant in early times a particular part of Athens, viz. the citadel, usually called the Acropolis. Cf. Aristophanes (Lysistrata, 245 et passim).

438 Demeter and Persephone.

439 About £730,000.

440 Antipater had been left by Alexander regent of Macedonia. Agis III., king of Sparta, refused to acknowledge Alexander’s hegemony, and after a hard struggle was defeated and slain by Antipater at Megalopolis, B.C. 330. See Diodorus, xvii. 63; Curtius, vi. 1 and 2.

441 According to Curtius (v. 6) these forces amounted to nearly 15,000 men. Amyntas also brought with him fifty sons of the chief men in Macedonia, who wished to serve as royal pages. Cf. Diodorus, xvii. 64.

442 A river flowing through Susiana, formed by the junction of the Eulaeus and Coprates.

443 Cf. Strabo, xv. 3.

444 p?e??e?t??e???, with dative, defrauded of. Cf. Demosthenes, 1035, 26.

445 ???a. An Homeric expression.

446 Named Sisygambis (Curtius, v. 11).

447 This was the Araxes. See Strabo, xv. 3.

448 Notice the use of the adverb p??? with the genitive, instead of the preposition p??. Cf. Pindar (Pythia, iv. 76) p??? ??a?.

449 Curtius (v. 16) says that Ariobarzanes after a bloody contest got away through the Macedonian lines, with about 40 horsemen and 5,000 foot, and made for Persepolis. Being shut out of that fortress, he was overtaken and slain with all his companions. Cf. Diodorus (xvii. 68).

450 Diodorus (xvii. 69) and Justin (xi. 14) state that on approaching Persepolis, Alexander met 800 Grecian captives, mutilated by loss of arms, legs, eyes, ears, or other members. Curtius (v. 17-19) says there were 4,000 of them. Alexander offered to send these men home, with means of future support; but they preferred to remain in Persis. The king gave them money, clothing, cattle, and land.

451 Diodorus (xvii. 71) and Curtius (v. 20) both state that the amount of treasure captured at Persepolis was 120,000 talents, or £27,600,000. In his own letter Alexander stated that there was sufficient treasure and valuable property to load 10,000 mule carts and 5,000 camels (Plutarch, Alex., 37). Curtius tells us that 6,000 talents were captured at Pasargadae.

452 Pasargadae was the old capital of Persia, founded by Cyrus; but its place was afterwards taken by Persepolis.

453 Diodorus (xvii. 70, 71) and Curtius (v. 20, 22) say that Alexander delivered Persepolis to his soldiers to pillage, and that he ordered a general massacre of the inhabitants. These authors agree with Plutarch (Alex., 38) in asserting that in a drunken revel he was instigated by the courtesan Thais to set fire to the palace, and accompanied her to commence the act of destruction. See Dryden’s famous ode. But Arrian’s account establishes the fact that the fire was the result of a deliberate plan. As regards the massacre, Plutarch (37) expressly states that Alexander wrote home that he ordered it from motives of policy.

454 This was the principal pass through the Elburz mountains from Media into Hyrcania and Parthia.

455 This was the capital of Media, called in Chaldee Achmetha (Ezra vi. 2). The present city of Hamadan is on the same site. It is situated at the foot of Mount Orontes, and was used by the Persian and Parthian kings as their summer residence. It was surrounded by seven walls, each overtopping the one before it, from the outer to the inner, crowned with battlements of different colours. Its citadel was used as a royal treasury. Below it stood a splendid palace, with silver tiles, and adorned with wainscotings, capitals, and entablatures of gold and silver. These treasures, to the value of 4,000 talents, were coined into money by Antiochus the Great of Syria. See Herodotus, i. 98; Polybius, x. 27.

456 This tribe lived in the mountains between Media and Persia.

457 £1,700,000.

458 Curtius (v. 23) says that 6,000 Grecian mercenaries under Plato the Athenian met Alexander in Media, having marched up from Cilicia.

459 Diodorus (xvii. 80) says that the amount of treasure deposited at Ecbatana was 180,000 talents or £41,400,000.

460 A large city in the extreme north of Media, mentioned in the Book of Tobit. It was famous in the Middle Ages under the name of Rai. The ruins of Rai lie south-east of Teheran.

461 ?ste generally means until. In its present use cf. ii. 11 supra, ?ste ?? f??? ??.

462 The Drangians lived in a part of Ariana west of Arachosia.

463 Justin (xi. 15) and Curtius (v. 34) state that Darius was bound in chains of gold. The former says that the name of the place was Thara in Parthia, where the king was arrested. Probably these chains were those worn by the king or his nobles, according to the Persian custom. This is the only sentence in Arrian where pe?? suffers anastrophe, coming after the noun.

464 Plutarch (Alex., 42) says that Alexander rode 3,300 stades, or about 400 miles, in eleven days. In the next chapter he says that only sixty of his men were able to keep up with him in the pursuit.

465 Curtius (v. 24-38) gives very ample details of what occurred during the last days of Darius. Cf. Diodorus (xvii. 73); Justin (xi. 15).

466 The Persian kings were buried at Persepolis. See Diodorus, xvii. 71. Plutarch (Alex., 43) says that Alexander sent the corpse of Darius to his mother.

467 In the year B.C. 330, the first of Hecatombaion fell on the first of July.

468 Darius came to the throne B.C. 336.

469 In 2 Kings xi. 4, 19 the word translated captains in our Bible is Carim, the Carians. These men formed the body-guard of the usurper Athaliah, who stood in need of foreign mercenaries. David had a body-guard of Philistines and Cretans. The Carians served as mercenaries throughout the ancient world, as we learn from Thucydides, i. 8; Herodotus, i. 171; ii. 152; v. 111; Strabo, xiv. 2. The Lydians appear in the Bible under the name of Lud (Isa. lxvi. 19). Herodotus (i. 94) gives an account of the colonization of Umbria by the Lydians, from which sprung the state of the Etruscans. Hence Vergil (Aeneid, ii. 782) speaks of the “Lydius Tybris.” See also Aeneid, viii. 479; Horace (Satires, i. 6, 1); Tacitus (Annals, iv. 55); Dionysius (Archaeologia Romana, i. 28).

470 He married Barsine, eldest daughter of Darius (Arrian, vii. 4 infra). She was also called Arsinoe and Stateira.

471 According to Curtius (vi. 6-10) the soldiers were very desirous of returning home; but Alexander made an harangue and induced them to advance into Hyrcania.

472 The modern Balkh.

473 The Caspian.

474 Diodorus (xvii. 75) calls this river Stiboetis; Curtius (vi. 10) calls it Ziobetis.

475 KrÜger has ??ta??a instead of t??t?.

476 Curtius (vi. 14) says Artabazus had nine sons, one of whom, Pharnabazus, was the admiral of the Persian fleet. See Arrian (ii. 1; ii. 2; iii. 2 supra).

477 Cf. Curtius, vi. 16.

478 Sinope was a prosperous colony of Miletus on the Euxine. It is still called Sinoub. It was the birthplace of Diogenes.

479 Chalcedon was a colony of Megara, situated on the Propontis at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Byzantium.

480 Areia occupied what is now the east part of Khorasan, and the west and north-west of Afghanistan. Susia is the modern Tus.

481 Compare the words of Tissaphernes to Clearchus (Xenophon, Anabasis, ii. 5): “Though the king is the only man who can wear the tiara erect upon his head, I shall be able to wear mine erect upon my heart in full confidence, when you are in my service.” Cf. Curtius (iii. 8); Aristophanes (Birds, 487). The cap of the ordinary Persians was low, loose, and clinging about the head in folds; whereas that of the king was high and erect above the head. From Xenophon (Cyropaedia, viii. 3, 13) we learn that the Persian king’s vest was of a purple colour, half mixed with white, and that no one else was allowed to wear this mixture of white. He had loose trousers of a scarlet colour, and a robe entirely purple. Cf. also Strabo (xv. 3), where the tiara is said to be in the shape of a tower; and Seneca (De Beneficiis, vi. 31); Ammianus, xviii. 8, 5.

482 See Xenophon (Anab., i. 2, 27; Cyropaedia, viii. 3); Curtius (iii. 8).

483 These people are also called Drangians. They lived west of Arachosia in Drangiana.

484 According to Plutarch (Alex., 48, 49) Alexander suborned Antigone, the mistress of Philotas, to reveal his secret conversation.

485 Cf. Curtius, vi. 32.

486 The word ?p????t?? is found nowhere else in any Greek author.

487 Full details of the conspiracy and trial of Philotas are given by Curtius (vi. 25-44).

488 Arrian says nothing about Philotas being put to the torture; but this fact is asserted with ample details by Plutarch (Alex., 49); Diodorus (xvii. 80); Curtius (vi. 42, 43); and Justin (xii. 5).

489 Full particulars of the murder of Parmenio are given by Curtius (vii. 7-9).

490 For the trial of Amyntas, cf. Curtius, vii. 2-6.

491 Alexander also formed a separate cohort of the men who were pronounced sympathisers with Parmenio, and this cohort afterwards greatly distinguished itself. See Diodorus, xvii. 80; Curtius, vii. 10; Justin, xii. 5.

492 The Ariaspians inhabited the south part of Drangiana on the borders of Gadrosia. The river Etymander, now known as the Hilmend, flowed through their territories. Cf. Curtius, vii. 11; Diodorus, xvii. 81.

493 Gadrosia was the furthest province of the Persian empire on the south-east. It comprised the south-east part of Beloochistan.

494 This was not the range usually so called, but what was known as the Indian Caucasus, the proper name being Paropanisus. It is now called Hindu-Koosh.

495 This city was probably on the site of Beghram, twenty-five miles north-east of Cabul. See Grote’s Greece, vol. xii. ch. 94.

496 There are two kinds of silphium or laserpitium, the Cyrenaic, and the Persian. The latter is usually called asafoetida. See Herodotus (iv. 169); Pliny (Historia Naturalis, xix. 15; xxiii. 48); Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 37); Aristophanes (Plutus, 925); Plautus (Rud., iii. 2, 16); Catullus (vii. laserpitiferis Cyrenis).

497 Cyrene was a colony founded by Battus from Thera, an island colonized by the Spartans. The territory of Cyrenaica is now a part of Tripoli. Cf. Pindar (Pyth., iv. 457); Herodotus (iv. 159-205).

498 This Tanais was usually called Jaxartes, now Sir, flowing into the sea of Aral.

499 The Oxus, now called Jihoun or Amou, flows into the sea of Aral, but formerly flowed into the Caspian.

500 Some think this town stood where Naksheh now is, and others think it was at Kesch.

501 Cf. Xenophon, Anab., i. 5, 10.

502 Curtius (vii. 24) follows the account of Aristobulus, and so does Diodorus (xvii. 83) in the main. Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 37).

503 The modern Samarcand.

504 Arrian and Strabo are wrong in stating that the Jaxartes rises in the Caucasus, or Hindu-Koosh. It springs from the Comedae Montes, now called Moussour. It does not flow into the Hyrcanian, or Caspian Sea, but into the Sea of Aral. It is about 900 miles long.

505 The river Tanais, of which Herodotus speaks (iv. 45, 57), is the Don; and the Lake Maeotis, is the Sea of Azov. Cf. Strabo (vii. cc. 3 and 4).

506 Euxeinos (kind to strangers); called before the Greeks settled upon it Axenos (inhospitable). See Ovid (Tristia, iv. 4). Cf. Ammianus (xxii. 8, 33): “A contrario per cavillationem Pontus Euxinus adpellatur, et euethen Graeci dicimus stultum, et noctem euphronen et furias Eumenidas.”

507 So Curtius (vi. 6) makes the Don the boundary of Europe and Asia. “Tanais Europam et Asiam medius interfuit.” Ammianus says: “Tanais inter Caucasias oriens rupes, per sinuosos labitur circumflexus, Asiamque disterminans ab Europa, in stagnis Maeoticis delitescit.” The Rha, or Volga, is first mentioned by Ptolemy in the second century of the Christian era.

508 Gadeira is now called Cadiz. The Greeks called the continent of Africa by the name of Libya. So Polybius (iii. 37) says that the Don is the boundary of Europe, and that Libya is separated from Asia and Europe respectively by the Nile and the Straits of Gibraltar, or, as he calls the latter, “the mouth at the pillars of Hercules.” Arrian here, like many ancient authors, considers Libya a part of Asia. Cf. Juvenal, x. i.

509 Curtius (vii. 23) gives an account of the massacre by Alexander of the descendants of the Branchidae, who had surrendered to Xerxes the treasures of the temple of Apollo near Miletus, and who, to escape the vengeance of the Greeks, had accompanied Xerxes into the interior. They had been settled in Sogdiana, and their descendants had preserved themselves distinct from the barbarians for 150 years, till the arrival of Alexander. We learn from the table of contents of the 17th book of Diodorus, that that historian also gave an account of this atrocity of Alexander in the part of his history, now lost, which came after the 83rd chapter. Cf. Herodotus (i. 92, 157; v. 36); Strabo (xi. 11; xiv. 1).

510 See Homer’s Iliad, xiii. 6. Cf. Curtius, vii. 26; Ammianus, xxiii. 6.

511 Cf. Thucydides, ii. 97.

512 Curtius (vii. 26) says, he sent one of his friends named Berdes on this mission.

513 This was called Alexandria Ultima, on the Jaxartes, probably the modern Khojend.

514 Cf. Curtius (vii. 26). Zariaspa was another name for Bactra. See Pliny (vi. 18) and Strabo (xi. 11).

515 This city was also called Cyreschata, because it was the furthest city founded by Cyrus, and the extreme city of the Persian empire.

516 d?s? was not used in Attic Greek, or but seldom. It became common after the time of Alexander.

517 Instead of ???? ??, Sintenis reads ???a? ?a?.

518 This city was called by the Greeks, Alexandria on the Tanais. See Curtius, vii. 28.

519 Cf. Livy, xxi. 27:—Hispani sine ulla mole in utres vestimentis conjectis ipsi caetris superpositis incubantes flumen tranavere.

520 See Herodotus, iv. 122-142.

521 This was Maracanda, according to iii. 30 supra. There is an error in the text; Abicht proposes to read ?p? t? ???a, instead of ?? t? as??e?a.

522 This river is now called Sogd, or Kohik. The Greek name signifies “very precious,” a translation of the native name. Cf. Strabo, p. 518.

523 Curtius (vii. 32) says that Spitamenes laid an ambush for the Macedonians, and slew 300 cavalry and 2,000 infantry.

524 About 170 miles.

525 Curtius (vii. 40) says that Alexander founded six cities in Bactria and Sogdiana. Justin (xii. 5) says there were twelve.

526 This is a mistake; for it ends in a lake Dengiz near Karakoul.

527 The Areius is now called Heri-rud. The Etymander is the modern Hilmend. Nothing is known of the Epardus.

528 The Peneius is now called Salambria. It forces its way through the vale of Tempe, between mounts Olympus and Ossa, into the sea. Cf. Ovid (Met., i. 568-576).

529 On the analogy of p??? the later prose-writers use ?ste with the infinitive. Cf. Arrian, ii. 1, 3; v. 16, 1.

530 See Bk. iii. ch. 29 supra.

531 See Bk. iii. ch. 19 supra.

532 See Bk. iii. ch. 16 supra.

533 Curtius (vii. 40) says that the reinforcement was 19,000 men.

534 Cf. Plutarch (Alex., 43); Diodorus (xvii. 83).

535 I.e. non-Hellenic.

536 Cf. Diodorus, xvii. 77; Justin, xii. 3. We learn from Plutarch (Alex., 45), that he did not assume the tiara of the Persian kings. Cf. Arrian, vii. 9; vii. 29 infra. The Medic robe was a long silken garment reaching to the feet, and falling round the body in many deep folds.

537 Caranus, a descendant of Temenus, king of Argos, is said to have settled in Macedonia, and to have become the founder of the dynasty of Macedonian kings. Temenus was a descendant of Heracles. Cf. ii. 5; iv. 10. One of the chief causes of disgust which the Greeks felt at the conduct of Pausanias, the conqueror at Plataea, was, that he adopted the Persian attire. “This pedigree from Temenus and Hercules may be suspicious; yet it was allowed, after a strict inquiry by the judges of the Olympic games (Herodotus, v. 22), at a time when the Macedonian kings were obscure and unpopular in Greece. When the Achaean league declared against Philip, it was thought decent that the deputies of Argos should retire (T. Liv., xxxii. 22).”—Gibbon. Cf. Herodotus, viii. 137; Thucydides, ii. 99, 100; v. 80.

538 Cf. Curtius, viii. 6.

539 The sons of Jove, Castor and Pollux. ?p?f?as???ta is a word borrowed from Homer and Herodotus.

540 Cf. Curtius, viii. 17: “Non deerat talia concupiscenti perniciosa adulatio perpetuum malum regum, quorum opes saepius assentatio quam hostis evertit.”

541 Curtius (viii. 3 and 4) says that it was Alexander himself that spoke depreciatingly of Philip, and that Clitus even dared to defend the murdered Parmenio.

542 Instead of the usual reading from ?a? ta?t? to ?a? ta?t??, Sintenis reads ?? d? s???sa? pa?? t?? f?????? t???? ?a? ta?t? pa?sa?ta t?? ??e?t?? ?p??te??a?.

543 Cf. Curtius (viii. 3 and 6), who calls the sister of Clitus, Hellanice.

544 From Plutarch (Alex., 13) we learn that Alexander imagined he had incurred the avenging wrath of Bacchus by destroying Thebes, the birthplace of that deity, on which account it was supposed to be under his tutelary care.

545 Curtius (viii. 6) says, that in order to console the king, the Macedonian army passed a vote that Clitus had been justly slain, and that his corpse should not be buried. But the king ordered its burial.

546 A philosopher of Abdera, and pupil of Democritus. After Alexander’s death, Anaxarchus was thrown by shipwreck into the hands of Nicocreon, king of Cyprus, to whom he had given offence, and who had him pounded to death in a mortar.

547 Cf. Sophocles (Oedipus Col., 1382; Antigone, 451); Hesiod (Opera et Dies, 254-257); Pindar (Olympia, viii. 28); Demosthenes (Advers. Aristogiton, p. 772); Herodotus, iii. 31.

548 Plutarch (Alex., 52) tells us that Callisthenes the philosopher was also summoned with Anaxarchus to administer consolation, but he adopted such a different tone that Alexander was displeased with him.

549 Curtius (viii. 17) says that Agis was the composer of very poor poems.

550 Justin (xii. 6) says that Callisthenes was a fellow-student with Alexander under Aristotle. He composed three historical works: I. Hellenica, from B.C. 387 to 337; II. The History of the Sacred War, from B.C. 357 to 346; III. The History of Alexander. Cf. Diodorus, xiv. 117. According to Polybius (xii. 23), he was accused by Timaeus of having flattered Alexander in his History.

551 Hipparchus was slain B.C. 514, and Hippias was expelled from Athens B.C. 510. See Thucydides, vi. 53-59.

552 Eurystheus was king over Argos and Mycenae alone.

553 When Conon the famous Athenian visited Babylon, he would not see Artaxerxes, from repugnance to the ceremony of prostration, which was required from all who approached the Great King. We are also informed by Plutarch (Artaxerxes, 22), that Pelopidas declined to perform this ceremony, so degrading in the eyes of the Greeks. His colleague, Ismenias, however, dropped his ring in front of the king, and then stooped to pick it up, thus going through the act of prostration. Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, i. 21). Xenophon said to his soldiers:—??d??a ??? ?????p?? desp?t?? ???? t??? ?e??? p??s???e?te. (Anab., iii. 13).

554 Curtius (viii. 18) says that the speech proposing to honour Alexander as a god was made by Cleon, a Sicilian Greek.

555 ?????????. The usual reading is a???????.

556 Cf. Xenophon (Cyrop., 4, 27):—???eta? t??? s???e?e?? f?????ta? ?p?p?pes?a? a?t?? ??? ?e?s???.

557 p??s?e??ta?. Cf. Herodotus, i. 118:—t??s? ?e?? t?? a?t? p??s??eta?.

558 Alexander’s mother Olympias was daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, who traced his descent from Neoptolemus, son of Achilles, the grandson of Aeacus.

559 ?? ????? ??????ta?. There is another reading, ?????? ??????ta?.

560 Cf. Herodotus, i. 214, with Dean Blakesley’s note.

561 Curtius (viii. 20) says, that it was Polysperchon who made sport of the Persian, and incurred the king’s wrath.

562 Ammianus (xviii. 3) says: “Ignorans profecto vetus Aristotelis sapiens dictum, qui Callisthenem sectatorem et propinquum suum ad regem Alexandrum mittens, ei saepe mandabat, ut quam rarissime et jucunde apud hominem loqueretur, vitae potestatem et necis in acie linguae portantem.”

563 Cf. Curtius (viii. 21); Aelian (Varia Historia, xiv. 49). After the battle of Pydna, where the Romans conquered the Macedonians, the pueri regii followed the defeated king Perseus to the sanctuary at Samothrace, and never quitted him till he surrendered to the Romans. See Livy, xlv. 6.

564 For this use of d?ap?pte??, cf. Aristophanes (Knights, 695); Polybius (v. 26, 16); d?apes??s?? a?t? t?? ?p??????.

565 Alexander wrote to Craterus, Attalus, and Alcetas, that the pages, though put to the torture, asserted that no one but themselves was privy to the conspiracy. In another letter, written to Antipater the regent of Macedonia, he says that the pages had been stoned to death by the Macedonians, but that he himself would punish the Sophist, and those who sent him out, and those who harboured in their cities conspirators against him. Aristotle had sent Callisthenes out. Alexander refers to him and the Athenians. See Plutarch (Alex., 55).

566 Cf. Arrian (vii. 29).

567 Curtius (viii. 29) says that Alexander afterwards repented of his guilt in murdering the philosopher. His tragical death excited great indignation among the ancient philosophers. See Seneca (Naturales Quaestiones, vi. 23); Cicero (Tusc. Disput., iii. 10), speaking of Theophrastus, the friend of Callisthenes.

568 We find from chapter xxii. that these events occurred at Bactra.

569 The Chorasmians were a people who inhabited the country near the lower part of the river Oxus, between the Caspian and Aral Seas.

570 This mythical race of warlike females is said to have come from the Caucasus and to have settled near the modern Trebizond, their original abode being in Colchis. Cf. Arrian (vii. 13); Strabo (xi. 5); Diod. (xvii. 77); Curt. (vi. 19); Justin (xii. 3); Homer (Iliad, iii. 189); Aesch?lus (Eumenides, 655); Herod. (iv. 110-116; ix. 27).

571 See iii. 29 supra.

572 Propontis means the sea before the Pontus. Compare Ovid (Tristia, i. 10, 31):—“Quaque tenent Ponti Byzantia littora fauces.”

573 We learn, from Curtius (viii. 3), that it was at this place that Clitus was murdered.

574 These were a people dwelling to the north-east of the Caspian, who were chiefly remarkable for having defeated and killed Cyrus the Great. See Herodotus, i. 201-216.

575 There were two other generals named Peithon; one the son of Agenor, and the other the son of Crateas. See Arrian, vi. 15, 28, etc.

576 Curtius (viii. 1) says that the name of the defeated general was Attinas.

577 Artabazus was in his 95th year when he joined Alexander with the Grecian troops of Darius in B.C. 330. See Curtius, vi. 14. His viceroyalty was destined for Clitus; but on the death of that general it was conferred on Amyntas. See Curtius, viii. 3.

578 Curtius (viii. 11 and 12) says that the wife of Spitamenes murdered him and carried his head to Alexander.

579 The Hebrew name for Media is Madai, which means middle-land. The Greeks called the country Media, according to Polybius (v. 44), because it lies near the middle of Asia.

580 Of the year 327 B.C.

581 ??a, akin to Latin cura, a poetical and Ionic word, often found in Herodotus.

582 About £2,700.

583 About £327. Curtius (vii. 41) says that the first prize was 10 talents, the second 9 talents, and the same proportion for the eight others, so that the tenth man who mounted received one talent. The stater of Darius, usually called a daricus, was a gold coin of Persia. See Smith’s Dictionary of Antiquities.

584 Cf. Curtius (vii. 43), vela, signum capti verticis.

585 Roxana and her son Alexander Aegus were put to death by Cassander, B.C. 311.

586 Statira. She died shortly before the battle of Arbela.

587 ?a?te??? a?t??. Cf. Theocritus, xv. 94, ??? ?a?te???.

588 After the capture of Damascus, Alexander married Barsine, the widow of his rival Memnon, and daughter of Artabazus. She was distinguished for her beauty and accomplishments, having received a Grecian education. By her he had a son named Heracles. See Plutarch (Alex., 21). She and her son were put to death by Polysperchon, B.C. 309.

589 Cf. Herodotus, i. 131; Curtius, iv. 42. The Persians called this god Ormuzd.

590 Curtius (viii. 16) says that Alexander saw Roxana at a banquet given by Oxyartes in his honour.

591 KrÜger substituted pe??e???e for pe?????e?.

592 at?. Cf. Xenophon (Anab., iv. 6, 17).

593 Arrian imitates Herodotus in the use of ?? with the infinitive instead of ?ste.

594 This term is a Persian word meaning mountaineers. The tribe mentioned here lived between the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, on the borders of Bactria and Sogdiana.

595 Curtius (viii. 17) says Alexander took with him 30,000 select troops from all the conquered provinces, and that the army which he led against the Indians numbered 120,000 men.

596 This is the Indian Caucasus, or mount Parapamisus, now called Hindu-Koosh.

597 The Cophen is now called Cabul. Nicaea was probably on the same site as the city of Cabul. Others say it is Beghram. The Greek word Satrapes denotes a Persian viceroy. It is a corruption of a word meaning court-guardian, in the BehistÛn Inscriptions written KhshatrapÂ. See Rawlinson’s Herod., i. 192.

598 Curtius (viii. 43) says that Taxiles was the title which the king of this district received. His name was Omphis.

599 A district between the rivers Indus and Attock. Its capital, Peucela, is the modern Pekheli.

600 The brigade of Clitus still bore the name of its commander after his death. Cf. Arrian, vii. 14 infra.

601 These were tribes living in the north-west of the Punjab.

602 Probably the modern Kama, a tributary of the Cabul.

603 Supposed to be another name for the Choes.

604 ?a? t??? ??????. The usual reading is t??? ???????, 1,000 Agrianians.

605 A tributary of the Cophen, probably what is now called the Lundye, running parallel with the Kama.

606 Cf. Livy, xxi. 31:—“Amnis saxa glareosa volvens, nihil stabile nec tutum ingredienti praebet.”

607 This was the capital of the Assacenians. Curtius (viii. 37) calls it Mazagae, and describes its strong position.

608 See Bk. ii. 23 supra.

609 Curtius (viii. 37, 38) says that the name of the queen was Cleophis, and that after the surrender she gained Alexander’s favour. He also informs us that the king died just before Alexander’s arrival.

610 Probably Bajour, north-west of Peshawur. The position of Ora cannot be fixed.

611 This was the king of the Indian mountaineers. See Arrian, v. 8 infra.

612 On the ground of ?? t? p??e? ??f????te? not being classical Greek, KrÜger has substituted ?? t? p??e? ??pefe???te?, and Sintenis e?? t?? p???? ??f????te?. No one however ought to expect Arrian to be free from error, writing, as he did, in the middle of the second century of the Christian era.

613 This seems to be the Greek translation of the native name, meaning the place to which no bird can rise on account of its height. Cf. Strabo, xv. 1. This mountain was identified by Major Abbot, in 1854, as Mount Mahabunn, near the right bank of the Indus, about 60 miles above its confluence with the Cabul.

614 Cf. Arrian, ii. 16 supra.

615 Curtius (viii. 39) says that the river Indus washed the base of the rock, and that its shape resembled the meta or goal in a race-course, which was a stone shaped like a sugar-loaf. Arrian’s description is more likely to be correct as he took it from Ptolemy, one of Alexander’s generals.

616 Near mount Mababunn are two places called Umb and Balimah, the one in the valley of the river and the other on the mountain above it. See Major Abbot’s Gradus ad Aornon.

617 da???, a poetical word. Cf. Homer (Odyssey, viii. 159).

618 Probably Dyrta was at the point where the Indus issues from the Hindu-Koosh.

619 Gronovius first introduced ?a? before t??? ??????.

620 The name Indus is derived from the Sanscrit appellation Sindhu, from a root Syandh, meaning to flow. The name Indians, or Sindians, was originally applied only to the dwellers on the banks of this river. Hindustan is a Persian word meaning the country of the Hindus or Sindus. Compare the modern Sinde, in the north-west of India, which contains the lower course of the Indus. In Hebrew India was called Hodu, which is a contraction of Hondu, another form of Hindu. See Esther i. 1; viii. 9. KrÜger changed ?d?p??e?t? into ?d?p??e?.

621 This city was probably on the site of Jelalabad.

622 ?pe? te. This is the only place where Arrian uses this Ionic form for the simple ?pe?.

623 The Indians worship a god Homa, the personification of the intoxicating soma juice. This deity corresponds to the Greek Dionysus or Bacchus.

624 The slopes of this mountain were covered with vines. See Ovid (Fasti, ii. 313; Metamorphoses, xi. 86); Vergil (Georgics, ii. 98); Pliny, xiv. 9.

625 fa?e??. Arrian does not comply with the Attic rule, that the subjunctive should follow the principal tenses in the leading sentence. Cf. v. 6, 6; 7, 5; vii. 7, 5; 15, 2.

626 Cf. Pliny (Nat. Hist., vi. 23; viii. 60; xvi. 62). The ordinary reading is ??s? pa?t??a? ?a? de?? s?s????. For this KrÜger has proposed ??s? pa?t??? ??? s?s??a.

627 The other names of Dionysus were: Bacchus, Bromius, Evius, Iacchus, Lenaeus, Lyaens. The Romans called him Liber.

628 Curtius (viii. 36) says that the Macedonians celebrated Bacchanalia for the space of ten days on this mountain.

629 The 1st aor. pass. ?s????? is found only in Arrian and Plutarch. Cf. vii. 22, 2 infra.

630 The celebrated Geographer and Mathematician, who was born B.C. 276 and died about B.C. 196. His principal work was one on geography, which was of great use to Strabo. None of his works are extant. He was made president of the Alexandrian library, B.C. 236.

631 Cf. Arrian (Indica, v. 11).

632 The earliest mention of India which has descended to our times is in Aesch?lus (Supplices, 284).

633 Arrian frequently uses the Ionic and old Attic word, s?????.

634 About £480,000.

635 Alexander probably crossed the Indus near Attock. The exact site of Taxila cannot be fixed.

636 The Hydaspes is now called Jelum, one of the five great tributaries of the Indus.

637 Herodotus considered the Danube the largest river in the world as known to him, and the Dnieper the largest of all rivers except the Danube and the Nile. See Herodotus, iv. 48-53.

638 “Amnis Danubius sexaginta navigabiles paene recipiens fluvios, septem ostiis erumpit in mare. Quorum primum est Peuce insula supra dicta, ut interpretata sunt vocabula Graeco sermone, secundum Naracustoma, tertium Calonstoma, quartum Pseudostoma: nam Boreonstoma ac deinde Sthenostoma longe minora sunt caeteris: septimum ingens et palustri specie nigrum.”—Ammianus (xxii. 8, 44). Pliny (iv. 24) says that the Danube has six mouths, the names of which he gives.

639 The Indus does not rise in the Parapamisus, but in the Himalayas. It has two principal mouths, but there are a number of smaller ones. Ptolemy said there were seven. The Delta is between 70 and 80 miles broad. “Delta, a triquetrae litterae forma hoc vocabulo signatius adpellata.”—Ammianus, xxii. 15.

640 The territory included by the Indus and its four affluents is now called Punjab, a Persian word meaning five rivers.

641 Ctesias was the Greek physician of Artaxerxes Mnemon. He wrote a history of Persia and a book on India. His works are only preserved in meagre abridgement by Photius. Aristotle says that he was false and untrustworthy (Hist. of Animals, viii. 27; De Generatione Animalium, ii. 2). Subsequent research has proved Ctesias to be wrong and Herodotus generally right in the many statements in which they are at variance.

642 The fact is, that the Indus is nowhere more than 20 stades, or 2-1/2 miles broad.

643 See Strabo, xv. 1; xvi. 4; Herod., iii. 102, with Dean Blakesley’s note.

644 ??da?? is the Ionic form for ??d????.

645 The Greek name ?????? means sunburnt. The Hebrew name for Aethiopia is Cush (black). In ancient Egyptian inscriptions it is called Keesh. It is the country now called Abyssinia. Aethiopas vicini sideris vapore torreri, adustisque similes gigni, barba et capillo vibrato, non est dubium. (Pliny, ii. 80).

646 Cf. Xenophon (Cyropaedia, vii. 5, 67).

647 Called the Indica, a valuable little work in the Ionic dialect, still existing.

648 Nearchus left an account of his voyage, which is not now extant. Arrian made use of it in writing the Indica. See that work, chapters xvii. to lxiii.

649 Megasthenes was sent with the Plataean Deimachus, by Seleucus Nicator, the king of Syria and one of Alexander’s generals, as ambassador to Sandracotus, king of the country near the Ganges. He wrote a very valuable account of India in four books.

650 Taurus is from the old root tor meaning high, another form of which is dor. Hence Dorians = highlanders.

651 The ancient geographers thought that the Jaxartes bifurcated, part of it forming the Tanais, or Don, and flowing into the lake Maeotis, or Sea of Azov; and the other part falling into the Hyrcanian, or Caspian Sea. The Jaxartes and Oxus flow into the Sea of Aral, but the ancients thought that they fell into the Caspian, as there is indeed evidence to prove that they once did. Hyrcania is the Greek form of the old Persian VirkÂna, that is Wolf’s Land. It is now called GurgÂn.

652 Herodotus (i. 203) states decidedly that the Caspian is an inland sea. Strabo (xi. 1), following Eratosthenes, says that it is a gulf of the Northern Ocean.

653 The Euphrates, after its junction with the Tigres, flows through the marshes of Lamlum, where its current moves less than a mile an hour.

654 Cf. Arrian, vi. 27 infra.

655 Probably the Chandragupta of the Sanscrit writers. He conquered from the Macedonians the Punjab and the country as far as the Hindu-Koosh. He reigned about 310 B.C.

656 Mount Dindymus, now called Murad Dagh, was sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, who was hence called Dindymene.

657 Hecataeus of Miletus died about B.C. 476. He wrote a work upon Geography, and another on History. His works were well known to Herodotus but only fragments survive.

658 See Herodotus, ii. 5.

659 See Herodotus, ii. 10-34.

660 See Homer’s Odyssey, iv. 477, 581. In Hebrew the name for Egypt is Mitsraim (dark-red). In form the word is dual, evidently in reference to the division of the country by the Nile. The native name was Chem, meaning black, probably on account of the blackness of the alluvial soil.

661 ????? is Abicht’s reading instead of p?????.

662 Arrian, in his Indica, chap. 4, gives the names of these rivers.

663 See Herodotus, vii. 33-36; iv. 83, 97, 133-141. Bosporus = Oxford. The name was applied to the Straits of Constantinople, and also to those of Yenikale, the former being called the Thracian and the latter the Cimmerian Bosporus. Cf. Aesch?lus (Prom., 734). Ad Bosporos duos, vel bubus meabili transitu; unde nomen ambobus (Pliny, vi. 1).

664 Diodorus (xvii. 86) says that Alexander crossed on a bridge of boats. Cf. Strabo, p. 698; Curtius, viii. 34.

665 There was another river called Rhenus, a tributary of the Po, now called the Reno. It was called Rhenus Bononiensis, being near Bononia or Bologna.

666 a? p???a? ?????e?a?. For this nautical term compare Thucydides, i. 51; Herodotus, viii. 84; Diodorus, xi. 18; Aristophanes, Wasps, 399. ?at? ???? is KrÜger’s reading for the usual ?at? p????.

667 The explanation of this passage given in Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon, sub voce ???a?, is evidently incorrect, as there is nothing about a chariot in the original.

668 Compare the description of CÆsar’s bridge over the Rhine (Gallic War, iv. 17).

669 The place where Alexander crossed the Indus was probably at its junction with the Cophen or Cabul river, near Attock. Before he crossed he gave his army a rest of thirty days, as we learn from Diodorus, xvii. 86. From the same passage we learn that a certain king named Aphrices with an army of 20,000 men and 15 elephants, was killed by his own men and his army joined Alexander.

670 The kingdom of Porus lay between the Hydaspes and Acesines, the district now called Bari-doab with Lahore as capital. It was conquered by Lords Hardinge and Gough in 1849.

671 Diodorus (xvii. 87) says that Porus had more than 50,000 infantry, about 3,000 cavalry, more than 1,000 chariots, and 130 elephants. Curtius (viii. 44) says he had about 30,000 infantry, 300 chariots, and 85 elephants.

672 ?p?t???a? is KrÜger’s reading instead of ?p?t??a?.

673 About the month of May. See chap. 12 infra; also Curtius, viii. 45, 46. Strabo (xv. 1) quotes from Aristobulus describing the rainy season at the time of Alexander’s battle with Porus at the Hydaspes.

674 Cf. Arrian, i. 14 supra.

675 ???? ?e??? is KrÜger’s reading, instead of ???’ ??e????.

676 ??se? is Abicht’s reading for e?de?.

677 About 17 miles.

678 This use of p??? with infinitive after negative clauses, is contrary to Attic usage.

679 The perf. pass. p?p??a? is used by Arrian and Dionysius, but by Homer and the Attic writers the form used is p?p??a. Doric, p?pa?a.

680 Seleucus Nicator, the most powerful of Alexander’s successors, became king of Syria and founder of the dynasty of the Seleucidae, which came to an end in B.C. 79.

681 For this use of ?s??, cf. Homer (Iliad, ix. 354); Herodotus, iv. 45; Plato (Gorgias, 485 A; Euthydemus, 273 A).

682 Compare the passage of the Rhone by Hannibal. (See Livy, xxi. 26-28; Polybius, iii. 45, 46.)

683 100 Greek and 101 English feet.

684 See Donaldson’s New Cratylus, sec. 178.

685 p??? ?at?d?s??. In Attic, p??? ?? is the regular form with the subjunctive; but in Homer and the Tragic writers ?? is often omitted.

686 Cf. Arrian’s Tactics, chap. 29.

687 Diodorus (xvii. 89) says that more than 12,000 Indians were killed in this battle, over 9,000 being captured, besides 80 elephants.

688 According to Diodorus there fell of the Macedonians 280 cavalry and more than 700 infantry. Plutarch (Alex. 60) says that the battle lasted eight hours.

689 Curtius (viii. 50, 51) represents Porus sinking half dead, and being protected to the last by his faithful elephant. Diodorus (xvii. 88) agrees with him.

690 Cf. Curtius, viii. 44; Justin, xii. 8.

691 Cf. Arrian, ii. 10 supra. ded???????? t? ????. The Scholiast on Thucydides iv. 34, explains this by tetape??????? f??.

692 Cf. Plutarch (Alex., 60); Curtius, viii. 51.

693 Diodorus (xvii. 87) says that the battle was fought in the archonship of Chremes at Athens.

694 Nicaea is supposed to be Mong and Bucephala may be Jelalpur. See Strabo, xv. 1.

695 Cf. Plutarch (Alex., 61). Schmieder says that Alexander could not have broken in the horse before he was sixteen years old. But since at this time he was in his twenty-ninth year he would have had him thirteen years. Consequently the horse must have been at least seventeen years old when he acquired him. Can any one believe this? Yet Plutarch also states that the horse was thirty years old at his death.

696 Curtius (vi. 17) says this occurred in the land of the Mardians; whereas Plutarch (Alex., 44) says it happened in Hyrcania.

697 Diodorus (xvii. 89), says Alexander made a halt of 30 days after this battle.

698 Cf. Arrian, v. 8 supra, where an earlier embassy from Abisares is mentioned.

699 Strabo (xv. 1) says that this Porus was a cousin of the Porus captured by Alexander.

700 This is the Chenab. See Arrian (Indica, iii.), who says that where it joins the Indus it is 30 stades broad.

701 Diodorus (xvii. 95) says that Alexander received a reinforcement from Greece at this river of more than 30,000 infantry and nearly 6,000 cavalry; also suits of armour for 25,000 infantry, and 100 talents of medical drugs.

702 ????e?? is usually connected with the future infinitive; but Arrian frequently uses it with the present.

703 Now called the Ravi.

704 Sangala is supposed to be Lahore; but probably it lay some distance from that city, on the bank of the Chenab.

705 Compare CÆsar (Bell. Gall., i. 26): pro vallo carros objecerant et e loco superiore in nostros venientes tela conjiciebant, et nonnulli inter carros rotasque mataras ac tragulas subjiciebant nostrosque vulnerabant.

706 ?????e?? is an epic and Ionic word rarely used in Attic; but found frequently in Herodotus, Homer, Hesiod, and Pindar.

707 The Greeks had only three watches; but Arrian is speaking as a Roman.

708 Eumenes, of Cardia in Thrace, was private secretary to Philip and Alexander. After the death of the latter, he obtained the rule of Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. He displayed great ability both as a general and statesman; but was put to death by Antigonus in B.C. 316, when he was 45 years of age. Being a Greek, he was disliked by the Macedonian generals, from whom he experienced very unjust treatment. It is evident from the biographies of him written by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos, that he was one of the most eminent men of his era.

709 Now called the Beas, or Bibasa. Strabo calls it Hypanis, and Pliny calls it Hypasis.

710 In the Hebrew Bible Javan denotes the Ionian race of Greeks, and then the Greeks in general (Gen. x. 2, 4; Isa. lxvi. 19; Ezek. xxvii. 13; Joel iii. 6; Zech. ix. 13). In Dan. viii. 21, x. 20, xi. 2, Javan stands for the kingdom of Alexander the Great, comprising Macedonia as well as Greece. The form of the name Javan is closely connected with the Greek Ion, which originally had a digamma, Ivon. Pott says that it means the young, in opposition to the Graikoi, the old. According to Aristotle (Meteorologica, i. 14) the Hellenes were originally called Graikoi. Cf. Sanscrit, jewan; Zend, jawan; Latin, juvenis; English, young.

711 Coele-Syria, or the Hollow Syria, was the country between the ranges of Libanus and Antilibanus. Syria between the rivers is usually called by its Greek name of Mesopotamia. It is the Padan Aram of the Bible. Cappadocia embraced the whole north-eastern part of the peninsula of Asia Minor. Slaves were procured from this region. See Horace (Epistles, i. 6, 39); Persius, vi. 77. The name Pamphylia is from p?? and f???, because of the mixed origin of the inhabitants.

712 Cf. Arrian (Anabasis, vii. 1; Indica, 43). Herodotus (iv. 42) says that Pharaoh Neco sent a Phoenician expedition from the Red Sea, which circumnavigated Africa and returned by the Straits of Gibraltar, or the Pillars of Hercules. The Carthaginian Hanno is said to have sailed from Cadiz to the extremity of Arabia. See Pliny (Historia Naturalis, ii. 67; v. 1). Herodotus (iv. 43) says that the Carthaginians asserted they had sailed round Africa. There is a Greek translation of Hanno’s Periplus still extant. As to the Pillars of Hercules, see Aelian (Varia Historia, v. 3). They are first mentioned by Pindar (Olym. iii. 79; Nem. iii. 36).

713 The interior of Africa, from the Straits of Gibraltar to Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the then unexplored South.

714 Arrian, like many other ancient writers, includes Africa, or Libya, as a part of Asia. The boundaries were the Eastern Sea and the Atlas Mountains. Cf. Arrian, iii. 30; vii. 1 and 30. The name Asia first occurs in Homer (Iliad, ii. 461), in reference to the marsh about the Caÿster, and was thence gradually extended over the whole continent.

715 Heracles, from whom the Macedonian kings claimed to be descended.

716 Hence Hercules is called Tirynthius. (Virgil, Aeneid, vii. 662; viii. 228).

717 See chap. 1 of this book.

718 Cf. Xenophon (Anab., i. 7, 4).

719 Cf. Curtius, ix. 12.

720 Arrian (iii. 19) says that the Thessalians were sent back from Ecbatana.

721 Pontus Euxinus antea ab inhospitali feritate Axenos appellatus (Pliny, vi. 1).

722 The Latin name Carthago and the Greek Carchedon were corruptions of the Phoenician Carth-Hadeshoth, the “new city.”

723 Pliny (vi. 21), says that Alexander erected the altars on the farther bank of the Hyphasis, whereas Arrian, Diodorus, and Plutarch say they were on this side of the river. Curtius (ix. 13) does not specify the side of the river.

724 Herodotus (iv. 44) says that the Indus is the only river besides the Nile which produces crocodiles. He does not seem to have known the Ganges.

725 This was the Nelumbium speciosum, the Egyptian bean of Pythagoras, the Lotus of the Hindus, held sacred by them. It is cultivated and highly valued in China, where it is eaten. The seeds are the shape and size of acorns.

726 I.e. the Mediterranean.

727 See Arrian, v. 6 supra. The native name of Egypt was Chem (black). Compare Vergil (Georgic. iv. 291):—Viridem Aegyptum nigr fecundat arenÂ. Usque coloratis amnis devexus ab Indis.

728 This use of ?f? with the dative is instead of the Attic pe?? with the genitive or accusative.

729 Plutarch (Alex. 66) informs us that Alexander’s army numbered 120,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry. Cf. Arrian (Indica, 19).

730 Arrian, in the Indica (chap. 19), says that Alexander embarked with 8,000 men.

731 Strabo (xv. 1) says that the realm of Sopeithes was called Cathaia.

732 As Alexander was at this time east of the Indus, the expression, “beyond the Indus,” means west of it.

733 Cf. Arrian, v. 2 supra.

734 Only fragments of this narrative are preserved. Strabo (xv. 1) says that the statements of Onesicritus are not to be relied upon.

735 Curtius (ix. 13) and Diodorus (xvii. 95) say that there were 1,000 vessels. Arrian (Indica, 19) says there were 800. KrÜger reads ?????? in this passage instead of the common reading d?s??????.

736 From Arrian (Indica, 18) we learn that he sacrificed to his country gods, and to Poseidon, Amphitrite, the Nereids, the Ocean, as well as to the three rivers. Cf. i. 11, supra.

737 Cf. iii. 3 supra.

738 Cf. Arrian (Indica, 7).

739 Cf. Curtius (ix. 15); Diodorus (xvii. 97). The latter says that Alexander offered sacrifice to the gods for having escaped the greatest danger, and having contested with a river like Achilles.

740 According to Diodorus (xvii. 96) and Curtius (ix. 14) Alexander here made an expedition against the Sibi; defeated an army of 40,000 Indians, and captured the city of Agallassa.

741 The chief city of the Mallians is the modern Mooltan.

742 ??p?. In later writers ? is often used where the Attic writers would use ??.

743 Strabo and Curtius call this river Hyarotis.

744 The Brachmans, or Brahmins, were a religious caste of Indians. The name was sometimes used for the people whose religion was Brahminism. Cf. Arrian (Indica, 11); Strabo, xv. 1; p. 713 ed. Casaubon.

745 Cf. Arrian i. 11 supra.

746 The Romans called these men duplicarii. See Livy, ii. 59; vii. 37.

747 t??? ?pe?ta p???s?a?. Cf. Homer (Iliad, xxii. 305; ii. 119).

748 Curtius (ix. 22) calls the physician Critobulus. Near the city of Cos stood the Asclepieum, or temple of Asclepius, to whom the island was sacred, and from whom the chief family, the Asclepiadae, claimed descent. Curtius says:—Igitur patefacto latius vulnere, et spiculo evolso, ingens vis sanguinis manare coepit, linquique animo rex, et caligine oculis offusa, veluti moribundus extendi.

749 Cf. Plutarch (Alex. 63); Diodorus (xvii. 98, 99); Curtius (ix. 18-23); Justin (xii. 9).

750 As to Fame, or Rumour, see Homer (Iliad, ii. 93; Odyss. xxiv. 412); Hesiod (Works and Days, 758-762); Vergil (Aeneid, iv. 173-190); Ovid (Met. xii. 39-63); Statius (Theb. ii. 426).

751 Curtius (ix. 18) says it was the town of the Oxydracians.

752 Nearly 70 miles.

753 Isthmus is from the same root as ???a?, to go, and thus means a passage. Pindar (Isthmia, iv. 34) calls it the “bridge of the sea.”

754 We learn from Curtius (ix. 21) that the authors who stated that Ptolemy was present in this battle were Clitarchus and Timagenes. From the history of the former, who was a contemporary of Alexander, Curtius mainly drew the materials for his history of Alexander.

755 Ptolemy received this appellation from the Rhodians whom he relieved from the assaults of Demetrius. The grateful Rhodians paid him divine honours as their preserver, and he was henceforward known as Ptolemy Soter. B.C. 304. See Pausanias, i. 8, 6.

756 The word ?ta?a?p???? is used in a similar way by Thucydides, i. 20, 4.

757 Curtius (ix. 24) says that Craterus was deputed by the officers to make this representation to the king, and that he was backed up by Ptolemy and the rest.

758 This line is a fragment from one of the lost tragedies of Aesch?lus: d??sa?t? ??? t? ?a? pa?e?? ?fe??eta?.

759 Curtius (ix. 23) says that he was cured of his wound in seven days. Diodorus (xvii. 99) says that it took many days.

760 Arrian does not mention the Sutledj, which is the fifth of the rivers of the Punjab. Pliny (vi. 21) calls it Hesidrus; Ptolemy (vii. 1) calls it Zaradrus.

761 About 12 miles. Ita se findente Nilo ut triquetram terrae figuram efficiat. Ideo multi Graecae literae vocabulo Delta appellavere Aegyptum (Pliny, v. 9).

762 This tribe dwelt between the Acesines and the Indus. Diodorus (xvii. 102) calls them Sambastians; while Curtius (ix. 30) calls them Sabarcians. The Xathrians and Ossadians dwelt on the left bank of the Indus.

763 We find from Curtius (ix. 31) and Diodorus (xvii. 102) that the name of this was Alexandria. It is probably the present Mittun.

764 Curtius (ix. 31) calls this satrap Terioltes, and says he was put to death. His appointment as viceroy is mentioned by Arrian (iv. 22 supra).

765 This king is called Porticanus by Curtius (ix. 31), Diodorus (xvii. 102), and Strabo (xv. 1).

766 An expression imitated from Thucydides (iv. 34). Cf. Arrian, ii. 10; v. 19; where the same words are used of Darius and Porus.

767 Diodorus (xvii. 102) says that Sambus escaped beyond the Indus with thirty elephants.

768 See note, page 327 supra.

769 The Indica, a valuable work still existing. See chapters x. and xi. of that book.

770 These people inhabited the Delta of the Indus, which is now called Lower Scinde. Their capital, Patala, is the modern Tatta.

771 Cf. Arrian (Indica, ii.).

772 Curtius (ix. 34) calls this king Moeris.

773 Aristobulus, as quoted by Strabo (xv. 1), said that the voyage down the Indus occupied ten months, the fleet arriving at Patala about the time of the rising of Sirius, or July, 325 B.C.

774 The right arm of the Indus is now called the Buggaur, and the left Sata.

775 I.e. caused a heavy swell of waters. Cf. Apollonius Rhodius, ii. 595; Polybius, i. 60, 6. This wind was the south-west monsoon.

776 Cf. Curtius (ix. 35, 36); CÆsar (Bell. Gall. iv. 29). t? s??f? ?ete??????t?. Arrian does not comply with the Attic rule, that the plural neuter should take a verb in the singular. Compare ii. 20, 8; v. 17, 6 and 7; etc.

777 Plutarch (Alex. 66) says that Alexander called the island Scillustis; but others called it Psiltucis. He also says that the voyage down the rivers to the sea took seven months.

778 In regard to this expedition, see Arrian, vii. 20 infra.

779 About 200 miles. Arrian here follows the statement of Nearchus. Aristobulus said that the distance was 1,000 stades. See Strabo, xv. 1.

780 See Curtius, ix. 38. This lake has disappeared.

781 These periodical winds are the southerly monsoon of the Indian Ocean. Cf. Arrian (Indica, 21).

782 This occurs at the beginning of November. The Romans called the Pleiades Vergiliae. Cf. Pliny (ii. 47, 125): Vergiliarum occasus hiemem inchoat, quod tempus in III. Idus Novembres incidere consuevit. Also Livy (xxi. 35, 6): Nivis etiam casus, occidente jam sidere Vergiliarum, ingentem terrorem adjecit.

783 This river, which is now called the Purally, is about 120 miles west of the mouth of the Indus. It is called Arabis by Arrian (Indica, 21); and Arbis by Strabo (xv. 2).

784 These were a people of Gadrosia, inhabiting a coast district nearly 200 miles long in the present Beloochistan. Cf. Arrian (Indica, 22 and 25); Pliny, vi. 23.

785 The Arabitians dwelt between the Indus and the Arabius; the Oritians were west of the latter river.

786 Rhambacia was probably at or near Haur.

787 According to Diodorus (xvii. 104) the city was called Alexandria.

788 Ora was the name of the district inhabited by the Oritians.

789 Cf. Pliny (Nat. Hist. xii. 33-35).

790 Cf. Strabo (xv. 2); Pliny (Nat. Hist. xii. 26).

791 Probably the snow-flake.

792 This is the well-known catechu, obtained chiefly from the Acacia Catechu. The liquid gum is called kuth or cutch in India.

793 These people were called Ichthyophagi, or Fish-eaters. They are described by Arrian (Indica, 29); Curtius, ix. 40; Diodorus, xvii. 105; Pliny (Nat. Hist. vi. 25, 26); Plutarch (Alex. 66); Strabo, xv. 2. They occupied the sea-coast of Gadrosia, or Beloochistan. Cf. Alciphron (Epistolae, i. 1, 2).

794 A man of Callatis, a town on the Black Sea in Thrace, originally colonized by the Milesians.

795 Cf. Herodotus, i. 193.

796 Pura was near the borders of Carmania, probably at Bampur. The name means town.

797 Cf. Strabo, xv. 2; Diodorus, ii. 19, 20. According to Megasthenes, Semiramis died before she could carry out her intended invasion of India. See Arrian (Indica, 5). Neither Herodotus nor Ctesias mentions an invasion of India by Cyrus; and according to Arrian (Indica, 9), the Indians expressly denied that Cyrus attacked them.

798 Strabo says that some of these marches extended 200, 400, and even 600 stades; most of the marching being done in the night. KrÜger substitutes ???t???? for ??et??? ??sa.

799 Cf. Thucydides, ii. 49, 3.

800 Cf. Xenophon (Anab. vii. 5, 13); Homer (Odyss. vii. 283).

801 Curtius (vii. 20) mentions a similar act of magnanimity as having occurred on the march in pursuit of Bessus through the desert to the river Oxus. Plutarch (Alex. 42) says it was when Alexander was pursuing Darius; Frontinus (Strategematica, i. 7, 7) says it was in the desert of Africa; Polyaenus (iv. 3, 25) relates the anecdote without specifying where the event occurred. ete??te??? is an Ionic form very frequently used by Herodotus.

802 Compare note on page 146.

803 This man had been placed over the Oritians. See page 351 supra.

804 Curtius (ix. 41) says that Craterus sent a messenger to the king, to say that he was holding in chains two Persian nobles, Ozines and Zeriaspes, who had been trying to effect a revolt.

805 The Areians were famed for their skill as professional mourners. See Aesch?lus (ChoËphorae, 423). For the origin of the name see Donaldson (New Cratylus, sect. 81.)

806 ????????? is substituted by Sintenis for the common reading ?????????.

807 According to Curtius (x. 1), Cleander and his colleagues were not slain, but put into prison; whereas 600 of the soldiers who had been the agents of their cruelty were put to death. Curtius says Cleander was spared for having killed Parmenio with his own hand. Cf. iii. 26 supra.

808 The thriambus was a hymn to Bacchus, sung in festal processions in his honour. It was also used as a name of that deity, as we learn from Diodorus, iv. 5. It was afterwards used as synonymous with the Roman triumphus, by Polybius, Dionysius, and Plutarch.

809 The Bacchanalian procession through Carmania is described by Curtius (ix. 42); Plutarch (Alex. 67); and Diodorus (xvii. 106).

810 Diodorus (xvii. 106) says that the port into which Nearchus put was called Salmus.

811 ??pe??p?e?s??ta. The Attic future of p??? is p?e?s?a?. p???s? is only found in Polybius and the later writers.

812 See Arrian (Indica, 18-43).

813 The name for Persia and the Persians in the Hebrew Bible, is Paras. Cyrus is called Koresh (the sun) in Hebrew; in the cuneiform inscriptions the name is Khurush. Cambyses is called Ahasuerus in Ezra iv. 6; and Smerdis the Magian is the Artaxerxes who was induced by the Samaritans to forbid the further building of the temple (Ezra iv. 7-24). The Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther is probably Xerxes. Artaxerxes the Long-handed was the patron of Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra vii. 11-28; Neh. ii. 1-9, etc). “Darius the Persian,” mentioned in Neh. xii. 22, was probably Darius Codomannus, who was conquered by Alexander. The province of Susiana, previously called Elymais, appears in the Hebrew under the name of Eilam or Elam. Persis is still called Fars.

814 B.C. 325.

815 Aria. See chap. 27 supra.

816 Curtius (x. 4) says Orxines was descended from Cyrus.

817 See iii. 25 supra.

818 Cf. Strabo, xv. 3, where a description of this tomb is given, derived from Onesicritus, the pilot of Alexander. See Dean Blakesley’s note on Herodotus i. 214.

819 Just a few lines above, Arrian says that the couch was by the side of the coffin.

820 Cf. Ammianus, xxiii. 6, 32, 33. The Magi were the priests of the religion of Zoroaster, which was professed by the Medes and Persians. Their Bible was the Avesta, originally consisting of twenty-one books, only one of which, the twentieth (Vendidad), is still extant.

821 See iii. 18 supra.

822 According to Curtius (x. 4, 5) Orxines was not only innocent, but was very devoted and attached to Alexander. The favourite eunuch, Bagoas, poisoned the king’s mind against him, and suborned other accusers against him. He was condemned unheard.

823 Purpura et nitor corporis, ornatusque Persicus multo auro multisque gemmis.—Cicero (de Senectute, 17).

824 Pasargadae was the ancient capital of Cyrus, but Persepolis was that of the later kings of Persia. The tomb of Cyrus has been discovered at Murghab; consequently Parsagadae was on the banks of the river Cyrus, N.E. of Persepolis. The latter city was at the junction of the Araxes and Medus. Its extensive ruins are called Chel-Minar, “the forty columns.”

825 The Tigris rises in Armenia, and joins the Euphrates ninety miles from the sea, the united stream being then called Shat-el-Arab. In ancient times the two rivers had distinct outlets. In the Hebrew the Tigris is called Chiddekel, i.e. arrow. The Greek name Tigres is derived from the Zend Tighra, which comes from the Sanscrit Tig, to sharpen. Its present name is Dijleh. The respective lengths of the Euphrates and Tigris are 1,780 and 1,146 miles.

826 Among these were Curtius (x. 3); Diodorus (xviii. 4); and Plutarch (Alex., 68).

827 Gadeira or Gades was a Phoenician colony. The name is from the Hebrew ??????, a fence. Cf. Pliny (iv. 36); appellant Poeni Gadir ita Punica lingua septum significante. Also Avienus (Ora Maritima, 268): Punicorum lingua conseptum locum Gaddir vocabat. According to Pliny (v. 1), Suetonius Paulinus was the first Roman general who crossed the Atlas Mountains.

828 See note 714, page 309.

829 Now called Capo di Leuca, the south-eastern point of Italy.

830 Cf. Arrian (Indica, 11).

831 Cf. Alciphron (Epistolae, i. 30, 1), with Bergler and Wagner’s notes.

832 This must have occurred B.C. 336. See Plutarch (Alex. 14); Cicero (Tusculanae Disputationes, v. 32). Alexander said: “If I were not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes.” Cf. Arrian, i. 1; Plutarch (de Fortit. Alex., p. 331).

833 Cf. Strabo, xv. 1.

834 Strabo calls this sage Mandanis.

835 Strabo says, Alexander’s messengers summoned Mandanis to the son of Zeus.

836 Plutarch (Alex., 65) says this philosopher’s name was Sphines; but the Greeks called him Calanus, because when he met them, instead of using the word ?a??e greeting them, he said ?a??. The same author says that he was persuaded to come to Alexander by Taxiles. See also Strabo (xv. 1).

837 Strabo (xv. 1) says that the voluntary death of Calanus occurred at Pasargadae; Aelian (Varia Historia, v. 6) says it was at Babylon; but Diodorus (xvii. 107) says it happened at Susa, which statement is confirmed by the fact of Nearchus being seemingly present.

838 Cf. Arrian (Indica, 10).

839 Cf. Arrian, vii. 13 infra; and Herodotus, vii. 40.

840 Cf. Cicero (Tusc. Disput. v. 27).

841 Media. See vi. 29 supra.

842 Oxathres was killed by Alexander himself with a sarissa, or long Macedonian pike. See Plutarch (Alex. 68), who calls him Oxyartes.

843 For this use of f?e???a?, cf. Aristophanes (Plutus, 610); Alciphron, i. 13, 3; with Bergler’s note.

844 Cf. Curtius, x. 5.

845 She was also called Statira. See Diodorus, xvii. 107; Plutarch (Alex., 70). She is called Arsinoe by Photius.

846 “By these two marriages, Alexander thus engrafted himself upon the two lines of antecedent Persian kings. Ochus was of the Achaemenid family, but Darius Codomannus, father of Statira, was not of that family; he began a new lineage. About the overweening regal state of Alexander, outdoing even the previous Persian kings, see Pylarchus apud Athenaeum, xii. p. 539.”—Grote.

847 See p. 242.

848 Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, viii. 7). A copious account of this celebrated marriage feast is given in AthenÆus, xii. p. 538.

849 Cf. Curtius, x. 8.

850 About £4,600,000. Justin, xii. 11, agrees with Arrian; but Diodorus (xvii. 109); Plutarch (Alex., 70); Curtius (x. 8) say 10,000 talents.

851 Cf. Curtius (ix. 41); Arrian (vi. 22) supra.

852 The Epigoni, or Afterborn, were the sons of the seven chiefs who fell in the first war against Thebes. See Herodotus, Pindar, Sophocles, etc.

853 For this mesanculon see Gellius (Noctes Atticae, x. 25); Polybius, xxiii., 1, 9; Euripides (Phoenissae, 1141; Andromache, 1133); Alciphron, iii. 36.

854 It was at this time that Harpalus, viceroy of Babylon, having squandered a great deal of the treasure committed to his charge, became frightened at the return of Alexander, and fled to Greece with 50,000 talents and 6,000 mercenary troops. See Diodorus, xvii. 108.

855 The Eulaeus is now called Kara Su. After joining the Coprates it was called Pasitigris. It formerly discharged itself into the Persian Gulf, but now into the Shat-el-Arab, as the united stream of the Euphrates and Tigris is now called. In Dan. viii. 2, 16, it is called Ulai. Cf. Pliny, vi. 26, 31; xxxi. 21.

856 The Greeks and Romans sometimes speak of Mesopotamia as a part of Syria, and at other times they call it a part of Assyria. The Hebrew and native name of this country was Aram Naharaim, or “Syria of the two rivers.”

857 The Tigris now falls into the Euphrates.

858 Cf. Arrian, iii. 7, supra; Curtius, iv. 37.

859 Cf. Strabo, xvi. 1; Herodotus, i. 193; Ammianus, xxiv. 3, 14.

860 Probably this city stood at the junction of the Tigris with the Physcus, or Odorneh. See Xenophon (Anab. ii. 4, 25); Herodotus, i. 189; Strabo, (xvi. 1) says that Alexander made the Tigris navigable up to Opis.

861 Cf. Justin (xii. 11); Diodorus (xvii. 109); Curtius (x. 10, 11). These authors put the punishment of the ringleaders after the speech instead of before.

862 Thracians mean mountaineers; Hellenes, warriors; Dorians, highlanders; Ionians, coast-men; and Aeolians, mixed men. See Donaldson (New Cratylus, sect. 92).

863 The gold and silver mines at Mount Pangaeon near Philippi brought Philip a yearly revenue of more than 1,000 talents (Diodorus, xvi. 8). Herodotus (v. 17) says that the silver mines at Mount Dysorum brought a talent every day to Alexander, father of Amyntas.

864 This is a Demosthenic expression. See De Falsa Legatione, 92; and I. Philippic, 45.

865 B.C. 346.

866 He here refers to his own part in the victory of Chaeronea, B.C. 336. See Diodorus, xvi. 86; Plutarch (Alex. 9).

867 This fact is attested by Demosthenes (De Haloneso, 12).

868 The Thebans under Pelopidas settled the affairs of Macedonia, and took young Philip to Thebes as a hostage, B.C. 368.

869 About £122,000. Cf. Plutarch (Alex. 15); Curtius, x. 10.

870 ??? is the Hebrew Javan without the vowel points. In the Persian name for the Greeks ????e?, one of these vowels appear. See Aesch?lus (Persae, 178, 562).

871 Larger Phrygia formed the western part of the great central table-land of Asia Minor. Smaller Phrygia was also called Hellespontine Phrygia, because it lay near the Hellespont. See Strabo, xii. 8.

872 A blue band worked with white, which went round the tiara of the Persian kings.

873 Cf. Ammianus, xxv. 4, 15: “(Julianus) id aliquoties praedicans, Alexandrum Magnum, ubi haberet thesauros interrogatum, apud amicos benevole respondisse.”

874 Cf. Arrian, i. 16 supra.

875 It is supposed that the Saxones, i.e. Sacasuna, sons of the Sacae, originated from this nation.

876 At the Persian court, kinsman was a title bestowed by the king as a mark of honour. Curtius says they were 15,000 in number. Cf. Diodorus, xvi. 50; Xenophon (Cyropaedia, i. 4, 27; ii. 2, 31).

877 As to this Persian custom, see Xenophon (Agesilaus, v. 4; Cyropaedia i. 4, 27).

878 Cf. Justin, xii. 7; Plutarch (Eumenes, 16); Curtius, viii. 17; Livy xxxvii. 40; Polybius, v. 79, 4.

879 ?e??? ??pa????te?. The more usual construction would be ???p????? ????te?. Cf. Herodotus, ix. 45 (??pa??ete ????te?); iii. 51 (???p??ee ?st?????)

880 The paean was sung, not only before and after battle, but also after a banquet, as we see from this passage and from Xenophon (Symposium, ii. 1).

881 About £240.

882 Literally “with his own head,” an Homeric expression. We learn from Plutarch (Eumenes, 6), that Craterus was a great favourite with the Macedonians because he opposed Alexander’s Asiatic innovations. See also Plutarch (Alexander, 47); Diodorus, xvii. 114:—???te??? ?? ??? e??a? f???as???a, ?fa?st???a d? f??a???a?d???.

883 The use of ?e?e?e?? with the dative, is in imitation of Homer. Cf. i. 26, 3 supra.

884 We learn from Diodorus (xviii. 4) that when Alexander died, Craterus had got no farther than Cilicia on his return journey. He had with him a paper of written instructions, among which were projects for building an immense fleet in Phoenicia and the adjacent countries for conveying an expedition against the Carthaginians and the other western nations as far as the pillars of Hercules; for the erection of magnificent temples, and for the transportation of people from Europe into Asia and from Asia into Europe. Alexander’s generals put these projects aside, as too vast for any one but Alexander himself.

885 Cf. Curtius, x. 31.

886 The Greeks reckoned according to the lunar months, and therefore they talked of ten months instead of nine as the period of gestation. Cf. Herodotus, vi. 63; Aristophanes (Thesmoph. 742); Menander (Plocion, fragment 3); Plautus (Cistell. i. 3, 15); Terence (Adelphi, iii. 4, 29).

887 For this expression, cf. Dion Cassius, xlii. 57; Homer (Iliad, 23, 538); Pausanias, vii. 10, 2; Herodotus, viii. 104.

888 Here there is a gap in the manuscripts of Arrian, which probably contained an account of the flight of Harpalus, the viceroy of Babylon, with the treasures committed to his care, and also a description of the dispute between Hephaestion and Eumenes. See Photius (codex 92).

889 Cf. Plutarch (Eumenes, 2).

890 The march was from Opis to Media, as we see from the next chapter.

891 Cf. Herodotus (iii. 106; vii. 40); Strabo, xi. 7 and 14; Diodor. xvii. 110; Ammianus, xxiii. 6. Sir Henry Rawlinson says: “With Herodotus, who was most imperfectly acquainted with the geography of Media, originated the error of transferring to that province the Nisea (NesÁ) of Khorassan, and all later writers either copied or confounded his statement. Strabo alone has escaped from the general confusion. In his description we recognise the great grazing plains of Khawah, Alishtar, Huru, Silakhur, Burburud, Japalak, and Feridun, which thus stretch in a continuous line from one point to another along the southern frontiers of Media.” Alexander probably visited the westernmost of these pastures which stretch from BehistÛn to Ispahan along the mountain range. The form d?a?pa???a? is used only by the later writers for d?a?pas???a?.

892 Cf. Strabo, xi. 5; Diodorus, xvii. 77; Curtius, vi. 19; Justin, xii. 3; Arrian, iv. 15; Homer (Iliad, iii. 189); Aesch?lus (Eumenides, 655); Hippocrates (De Aere, Aquis, et Locis, p. 553).

893 The queen is called Thalestris by Diodorus and Curtius.

894 This is a mistake, for Xenophon does mention the Amazons in the Anabasis (iv. 4, 16). For Trapezus and the Phasians see his Anabasis (iv. 8, 22; v. 6, 36.)

895 See Diodorus, iv. 16. This was one of the twelve labours of Hercules.

896 See Plutarch (Theseus, 26).

897 “The Battle of the Amazons” was a celebrated painting in the Stoa Poecile at Athens, executed by Micon, son of Phanichus, a contemporary of Polygnotus about B.C. 460. Cf. Aristophanes (Lysistrata, 678): “Look at the Amazons whom Micon painted on horseback fighting with the men.” See also Pausanias (i. 15; viii. 11).

898 Cf. Herodotus, iv. 110-117; ix. 27.

899 See Isocrates (Panegyricus, 19); Lysias (Oratio Funebris, near the beginning).

900 Strabo (xi. 5) declined to believe in the existence of the Amazons altogether. However, even Julius CÆsar spoke of them as having once ruled over a large part of Asia. See Suetonius (Life of Julius CÆsar, 22). Eustathius, on Dionysius Periegetes, p. 110, derives the name Amazones from ?, not, and ??a, barley-bread:—d?? ?a? ?a???e? ??a????t? ??a ? ??a?? ???? ???as? ?????? ?p?st?ef?e?a?. This is not the usual derivation of the word.

901 Cf. Plutarch (Alex. 72); Diodorus (xvii. 110).

902 Plutarch makes this statement.

903 See Homer (Iliad, xxiii. 141, 152); Arrian (i. 12).

904 See Herodotus (vii. 35). Xerxes means the venerable king. Cf. Herod., vi. 98. See Donaldson’s New Cratylus, sections 161, 479.

905 Epidaurus in Argolis was celebrated as the chief seat of the worship of Aesculapius.

906 This is an Homeric expression, meaning myself.

907 Equal to £2,300,000. Plutarch (Alex. 72) agrees with Arrian. Diodorus (xvii. 115) and Justin (xii. 12) say 12,000 talents.

908 Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, vii. 8); Diodorus (xvii. 114, 115); Plutarch (Alex. 72, 75; Eumenes, 2; Pelopidas, 34).

909 See p. 392, note 888.

910 Cossaea was a district on the north-east of Susiana, which the Persian kings never subdued, but purchased the quiet of the inhabitants by paying them tribute. It is supposed to be the Cush of the Old Testament. Diodorus (xvii. 111) says that Alexander completed his conquest of the Cossaeans in forty days. Plutarch (Alex. 72) says he called the massacre of the Cossaeans his offering to the manes of Hephaestion.

911 Cf. Livy, vii. 37, 38; Pliny, xxii. 4; Justin, xii. 13.

912 The Romans called these people Etruscans.

913 Justin (xxi. 6) says that the Carthaginians sent Hamilcar to learn Alexander’s real designs against them, under the pretence of being an exile offering his services.

914 Cf. Diodorus, xvii. 113.

915 Aristus was a man of Salamis in Cyprus. Neither his work nor that of Asclepiades is extant. Aristus is mentioned by AthenÆus (x. 10) and Strabo (lib. xv.).

916 Livy (ix. 18) says he does not think the contemporary Romans even knew Alexander by report.

917 These are what Hirtius (Bell. Alex. 11) calls “naves apertas et constratas.”

918 See p. 155, note 392.

919 See p. 199, note 499. Strabo (xi. 7) says that Aristobulus declared the Oxus to be the largest river which he had seen except those in India.

920 See p. 198, note 498. The Oxus and Jaxartes really flow into the Sea of Aral, or the Palus Oxiana, which was first noticed by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiii. 6, 59) in the 4th century A.D. Ptolemy, however, mentions it as a small lake, and not as the recipient of these rivers. Cf. Pliny, vi. 18.

921 The Araxes, or Aras, joins the Cyrus, or Kour, and falls into the Caspian Sea. It is now called Kizil-Ozan, or Red River. Its Hebrew name is Chabor (2 Kings xvii. 6). Pontem indignatus Araxes (Vergil, Aeneid, viii. 728). See Aesch?lus (Prometheus, 736), Dr. Paley’s note.

922 As to the Chaldaeans, see Cicero (De Div., i. 1) and Diod. (ii. 29-31).

923 This is a verse from one of the lost tragedies of Euripides. It is also quoted by Cicero (De Divin., ii. 5): Est quidam Graecus vulgaris in hanc sententiam versus; bene qui conjiciet, vatem hunc perhibebo optimum.

924 See Herodotus (i. 32); Plutarch (Solon, 27).

925 See p. 171, note 430. Herodotus (i. 181) gives a description of this temple, which he says existed in his time. Strabo (xvi. 1) agrees with Arrian that it was said to have been destroyed by Xerxes. He also says that Alexander employed 10,000 men in clearing away the rubbish of the ruins. Professor Sayce and others adduce this passage of Arrian to prove that Herodotus is not to be trusted even when he says he had seen the places and things which he describes. The words of Herodotus are ?? ?? t??t? ?t? ???, meaning, not that he had himself seen the temple, but that it existed till his time. In chap. 183 he expressly states that he did not see other things which he is describing, but that he derived his information from the Chaldaeans. He was about twenty years of age when Xerxes was assassinated. It must not be forgotten that Strabo and Arrian lived five or six hundred years after Xerxes. The veracity of Strabo is never doubted; yet in his description of Babylon this author speaks of the walls and hanging gardens as if they were still in existence, though not expressly saying so.

926 Cf. Arrian, iii. 16 supra.

927 See Arrian, iii. 16 supra.

928 Cf. Philostratus (Life of Apollonius, viii. 7, 5).

929 Perdiccas was killed by his own troops at Memphis, B.C. 321. See Diodorus, xviii. 36.

930 The battle of Ipsus was fought B.C. 301. See Plutarch (Demetrius, 29).

931 Diodorus (xvii. 113) says that embassies came from the Carthaginians, Liby-Phoenicians, Greeks, Macedonians, Illyrians, Thracians, and Gauls.

932 Cf. Arrian, iii. 16 supra.

933 The name Athens is said to have been derived from the worship of Athena. See Euripides (Ion, 8): ????? t?? ???s??????? ?a???d?? ?e??????. Attica is ?tt??? or ??t??? ??, the “promontory land.”

934 Clazomenae was an Ionian city on the Gulf of Smyrna, celebrated as the birthplace of Anaxagoras. It is now called Kelisman.

935 About £1,200,000.

936 The Hebrew name for Arabia is Arab (wilderness). In Gen. xxv. 6 it is called the “East country,” and in Gen. xxix. 1 the “Land of the Sons of the East.”

937 Cf. Arrian, v. 26; vii. 1 and 15 supra.

938 Cf. Herodotus, iii. 8.

939 Cf. Herodotus, ii. 40, 86; iii. 110-112; Strabo, xvi. 4; Pliny (Nat. Hist. xii.).

940 About 17 miles.

941 One of the Sporades, west of Samos, now called Nikaria. Cf. Horace (Carm., iv. 2, 2) and Ovid (Fasti, iv. 28).

942 Called Tyrus by Strabo (xvi. 3). It is now called Bahrein, and is celebrated for pearl fisheries.

943 A fragment of the work of Androsthenes descriptive of his voyage is preserved by AthenÆus (iii. p. 936).

944 Probably Ramses. Its ruins are at Abu-Kesheb.

945 Probably the projection now called Ras-al-Had.

946 Cf. Arrian (Indica, 32).

947 About 90 miles. This canal fell into the Persian Gulf at Teredon. No trace of it now remains.

948 The Hebrew name for Armenia is Ararat (2 Kings xix. 37; Isa. xxxvii. 38; Jer. li. 27).

949 The country called Assyria by the Greeks is called Asshur (level) in Hebrew. In Gen. x. 11 the foundation of the Assyrian kingdom is ascribed to Nimrod; for the verse ought to be translated: “He went forth from that land into Asshur.” Hence in Micah v. 6, Assyria is called the “land of Nimrod.”

950 The Hebrew name for Babylon is Babel, i.e. Bab-Bel, court of Bel: porta vel aula, civitas Beli (Winer). In Jer. xxv. 26; li. 41, it is called Sheshach, which Jewish commentators, followed by Jerome, explain by the Canon Atbash, i.e. after the alphabet put in an inverted order. According to this rule the word Babel, which is the Hebrew name of Babylon, would be written Sheshach. Sir Henry Rawlinson, however, says it was the name of a god after whom the city was named; and the word has been found among the Assyrian inscriptions representing a deity.

951 The perfect passive ded??a? is equivalent to the Epic and Ionic form d?d?a?.

952 s?e???a?. See p. 268, note 629.

953 t?? t?? ?a?t??. This position of t?? is an imitation of the usage in Ionic prose. Cf. Herod. i. 85; t?? t?? ?e?s???. See Liddell and Scott, sub voce t??. Cf. Arrian, ii. 26, 4; vi. 9, 3; vii. 3, 4; 22, 5; 24, 2.

954 Cf. Arrian v. 13 supra.

955 Cf. Arrian, iii. 6; iv. 18.

956 The Macedonian stater was worth about £1 3s. 6d.

957 Cf. Arrian (Tactics, 12, 11).

958 Cf. Arrian, p. 379, note 853.

959 We read in the speech of Demosthenes against Dionysiodorus (1285), that Cleomenes and his partisans enriched themselves by monopolizing the exportation of corn from Egypt. Cf. Arrian, iii. 5 supra.

960 This island is mentioned by Homer (Odyssey, iv. 355). Alexander constructed a mole seven stades long from the coast to the island, thus forming the two harbours of Alexandria. See Strabo, xvii. 1. The island is chiefly famous for the lofty tower built upon it by Ptolemy Philadelphus, for a lighthouse. Cf. CÆsar (De Bello Civili, iii. 112); Ammianus, xxii. 16.

961 Consult Lucian (Calumniae non temere credendum, 17).

962 After Alexander’s death Cleomenes was executed by Ptolemy, who received Egypt as his share of the great king’s dominions.

963 I.e. the Mediterranean.

964 Diodorus (xvii. 116) and Plutarch (Alex., 73) say that he was a bound prisoner. The latter says his name was Dionysius, and that he was a Messenian.

965 Plutarch (Alex., 75) and Justin (xii. 13) say that he gave a banquet to Nearchus the admiral, and that, as he was leaving it, he was invited to the revel by Medius the Thessalian. Cf. Diodorus, xvii. 117.

966 We learn from AthenÆus (x. p. 434 B) that this Court Journal was kept by the royal secretary, Eumenes, afterwards so famous, and by the historian, Diodotus of Erythrae. As to the last days of Alexander, cf. Plutarch (Alex., 76, 77).

967 Cf. Curtius, ix. 23: Mos erat principibus amicorum et custodibus corporis excubare ante praetorium, quotiens adversa regi valetudo incidisset.

968 Serapis, or more correctly Sarapis, was an Egyptian deity, whose worship was introduced into Greece in the time of the Ptolemies. His worship was introduced into Rome, with that of Isis, in the time of Sulla. Strabo (xvii. 1) gives an account of his cultus in the celebrated temple at Canobus. The Serapeum at Alexandria, which contained the famous library, is described by Ammianus, xxii. 16.

969 I.e. the most valiant.

970 To decide who was to succeed to his power. Cf. Curtius, x. 14; Diodorus, xvii. 117; Justin, xii. 15.

971 Cf. Curtius, x. 31; Diodorus, xvii. 117, 118; Justin, xii. 13. Plutarch (Alex., 77) asserts that nothing was said about Alexander’s being poisoned, until six years after, when Olympias, the enemy of Antipater, set the charge afloat.

972 See Arrian, iv. 10 supra.

973 Cassander was afterwards king of Macedonia and Greece. He put Olympias, Roxana, and her son Alexander Aegus to death, and bribed Polysperchon to put Barsine and her son Hercules to death. He died of dropsy, B.C. 297.

974 Cf. Pausanias, xviii. 4; Curtius, x. 31; Plutarch (Alex., 77). The ancients called the poison, “the water of Styx”; it was obtained from Nonacris in the north of Arcadia, near which the river Styx took its origin. Justin (xii. 14) says: Cujus veneni tanta vis fuit, ut non aere, non ferro, non testa contineretur, nec aliter ferri nisi in ungula equi potuerit. Pliny (Hist. Nat., xxx. 53) says: Ungulas tantum mularum repertas, neque aliam ullam materiam quae non perroderetur a veneno Stygis aquae, cum id dandum Alexandro magno Antipater mitteret, dignum memoria est, magna Aristotelis infamia excogitatum.

975 Diodorus (xvii. 117) states that after drinking freely, Alexander swallowed the contents of a large goblet, called the cup of Heracles, and was immediately seized with violent pain. This statement, however, is contradicted by Plutarch. It seems from the last injunction of Calanus, the Indian philosopher, that it was considered the right thing to drink to intoxication at the funeral of a friend. See Plutarch (Alex., 69).

976 June, 323 B.C.

977 Ptolemy took the embalmed body of Alexander to Egypt, and placed it in Memphis, but removed it a few years after to Alexandria. See Curtius, x. 31. Cf. Aelian (Varia Historia, xii. 64; xiii. 29).

978 Cf. Diodorus, xvii. 4; ? ???t?? t?? ?ea??s???.

979 Cf. Curtius, x. 18: Gloriae laudisque, ut justo major cupido, ita ut juveni et in tantis admittenda rebus.

980 Plutarch (Alex., 28) attributes the same motive to Alexander in representing himself to be the son of Zeus. Livy (ix. 18) says: Referre in tanto rege piget superbam mutationem vestis et desideratas humi jacentium adulationes, etiam victis Macedonibus graves, nedum victoribus; et foeda supplicia, et inter vinum et epula, caedes amicorum et vanitatem ementiendae stirpis. Consult the whole of the interesting passage in Livy, ix. 17-19. See also Aelian (Varia Historia, ii. 19; v. 12; ix. 37).

981 Cf. Herodotus, vii. 41; Arrian, iii. 11 supra.

982 Xenophon (Cyropaedia, vii. 5, 85) says that the Persian Equals-in-Honour, or Peers, spent their time about the Court.

983 Cf. Arrian, iv. 14 supra; Justin, ix. 8; AthenÆus, x. p. 434 B; Aelian (Varia Historia, iii. 23; ix. 3; xii. 26).

984 Europe and Asia. Arrian reckoned Libya, or Africa, as a part of Asia. See iii. 30; v. 26; vii. 1.

985 Dr. Leonhard Schmitz says:—“Arrian is in this work one of the most excellent writers of his time, above which he is raised by his simplicity and his unbiassed judgment. Great as his merits thus are as an historian, they are yet surpassed by his excellence as an historical critic. His Anabasis is based upon the most trustworthy historians among the contemporaries of Alexander, such as Ptolemy, Aristobulus, which two he chiefly followed, Diodotus of Erythrae, Eumenes of Cardia, Nearchus of Crete, and Megasthenes; and his sound judgment as to who deserved credit, justly led him to reject such authors as Onesicritus, Callisthenes, and others. No one at all acquainted with this work of Arrian’s can refuse his assent to the opinion of Photius (p. 73; comp. Lucian, Alex., 2), that Arrian was the best among the numerous historians of Alexander. One of the great merits of the work, independent of those already mentioned, is the clearness and distinctness with which he describes all military movements and operations, the drawing up of the armies for battle, and the conduct of battles and sieges. In all these respects the Anabasis is a masterly production, and Arrian shows that he himself possessed a thorough practical knowledge of military affairs. He seldom introduces speeches, but wherever he does he shows a profound knowledge of man; and the speech of Alexander to his rebellious soldiers, and the reply of Coenus, as well as some other speeches, are masterly specimens of oratory. Everything, moreover, which is not necessary to make his narrative clear is carefully avoided.” See Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           

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