Slavery among the Asar—Its early existence in the North—Contempt in which the slave was held—Nationalities of captives in war—Purchase of slaves—Daughters of foreign kings taken as slaves—Slaves considered chattels—Slaves could buy their freedom—Ceremonies attending the attainment of freedom—Relations between the freed slave and his former master—Freedom obtained through bravery in war—Masters empowered to kill slaves—Positions of trust given to slaves—Indemnity payable to masters for injury to slaves—Laws relating to slaves’ children—Price of slaves—Laws of purchase.

Slavery flourished with the Asar on the shores of the Black Sea, and their slaves seem to have been of foreign birth, as we see from the words of Skirnir, when he comes to ask Gerd in marriage for his master Frey. He thus speaks of himself:—

Slavery existed in the North from the earliest time, and was probably introduced by the followers of Odin.

Among thrall men, the thjon and bryti (steward) were the most prominent, and among the thrall women the seta and deigja, the latter being a kind of housekeeper or forewoman.

“Two are the best bondwomen of a man, seta and deigja, and two thralls, thjÓn and bryti” (Earlier Gulathing’s Law, 198).

Though serfdom, a modified form of slavery, existed afterwards in other parts of Europe, the land of the Swedes, Gautar, and Norwegians was never degraded by it; but, alas, it took root in Denmark, and showed there to what a miserable condition a free people can be gradually brought by not watching over their liberties.

There are in the Sagas numerous examples showing the contempt in which the thrall was held; his mark was closely cropped hair, and his dress was of white vadmal, to distinguish him from the free man.

“Thrand said he had two young thralls to sell him. Rafn answered that he would not buy them before he saw them. Thrand led forward the two boys; their hair was cropped, and they were in white coats (kulf)” (FlateyjarbÓk, i.).

“Almstein thrall had many children. ‘Now I think it is thy kin, Úlf, as Almstein was thy grandfather, but I am HÁlfdÁn’s grandson; thy family has got hold of the king’s property, as can be seen, by ale-service and other outfittings. Now take here the white kirtle which my grandfather HÁlfdÁn gave thy grandfather Almstein, and therewith take thy family name, and be a thrall henceforth; for it was decided at the Thing, when HÁlfdÁn got a king’s name, that thy grandfather should wear the kirtle, and the mother of his children came to the Thing, and all his children put on clothes of the same kind, and all their offspring had to do the same.’ Harald had a white kirtle carried before the eyes of Úlf, and sang:—

Captives in war formed the chief supply of slaves, who consequently came from many different countries whither expeditions were made, as Hunaland, Friesland, Valland (France), Britain, Ireland, Scotland, Spain, and other countries on the shores of the Mediterranean.

“When Egil went to Iceland from a journey to England, Norway, and Vermaland, the district (south-western part of Iceland) was all settled; the first settlers were dead, but their sons or grandsons dwelt there. Ketil Gufa had come to Iceland when the land was much settled; he was the first winter at Gufuskalar in Rosmhvalanes; he had come from Ireland across the sea, and had many Irish thralls with him” (Egil’s Saga, c. 80).

“Leif (IngÓlf’s foster-brother) went on warfare in the west; he made war in Ireland, and there found a large underground house; he went into it, and it was dark, until a sword which a man wore made it light. Leif slew him and took the sword and much property; then he was called HjÖrleif (Sword-Leif). HjÖrleif made war widely in Ireland, and got much booty; he took there ten thralls, Dufthak, GeirrÖd, SkjaldbjÖrn, HaldÓr, Drafdrit; the others are not named” (LandnÁma).

Purchases of slaves took place wherever the people traded.

“Thangbrand (a priest) bought a fair Irish maiden; he went home to Brimaborg (Bremen) with Bishop Albertus, and took the maiden with him” (Fornmanna SÖgur, i., 81).

“It happened in the beginning of the summer that King HÁkon the good went with a ship-host eastward to Brenneyjar to make peace (renew treaties) on behalf of his country according to the laws. This meeting between chiefs (hÖfdingi)^[495] was to take place every third summer, and matters on which the kings (of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden) had to decide were settled there. It was thought a pleasant journey to go to this meeting, for men came there from almost all lands of which we have tidings. HÖskuld (an Icelander) launched his ship; he also wanted to go there, for he had not seen the king during the winter, and a fair was held there at the same time. This meeting was very large; there was a great deal of amusement, drinking, and games, and all kinds of merriment. Nothing remarkable happened there. HÖskuld met with many of his kinsmen who lived in Denmark. One day when HÖskuld walked with some others to amuse himself he saw a splendid tent far from the other booths. He walked there and entered the tent, in which sat a man in clothes of gudvef (a costly stuff), with a Gardariki hat on his head. HÖskuld asked for his name. He called himself Gilli, from Gardariki. HÖskuld said he had often heard his name mentioned, and that he was the richest of all traders. HÖskuld said: ‘Thou art likely to have things to sell us which we want to buy.’ Gilli asked what they wanted to buy. The followers of HÖskuld said that he wanted to buy a bondmaid, if he had any to sell. Gilli said: ‘You mean to get me into difficulty, when you demand for purchase things which you think I have not got; but it is not sure that I have them not.’ HÖskuld saw that there was a curtain hanging across the booth; this Gilli lifted, and HÖskuld saw twelve women sitting inside. Gilli told HÖskuld to go to them and see if he liked to buy any of these women. HÖskuld did so. They sat all together from wall to wall in the booth. HÖskuld looked carefully at them; he saw that one poorly dressed sat next to the edge of the tent; he thought she was beautiful of face as far as he could see. He asked: ‘How dear will that woman be, if I want to buy her?’ Gilli said: ‘Thou must pay for her three marks of silver.’ HÖskuld said: ‘I think thou valuest this bondmaid rather high, for this is the price of three.’ Gilli said: ‘Thou art right; I value her higher than the others; choose any of those eleven, and pay for her a mark of silver, and let this one be my property.’ HÖskuld said: ‘First I will see how much silver there is in my money-bag (sjÓd), which I have at my belt.’ He asked Gilli to take the scales. Then Gilli said: ‘This matter shall be without guile from my side; the woman had a great defect, and I want thee to know it, HÖskuld, before we make this bargain.’ HÖskuld asked what it was. Gilli said: ‘She is dumb; I have tried to get her to talk in many ways, but I have never got a word from her; it is certainly my belief that this woman cannot speak.’ Then HÖskuld said: ‘Come with the scales and let us see how much the money-bag which I have here weighs.’ Gilli did so; he weighed the silver, and it was three marks. Then HÖskuld said: ‘Now it has happened that this will be our bargain; take thou this silver, and I will take this woman; I think that thou hast shown thyself generous in this matter, for surely thou didst not want to cheat me.’ Then HÖskuld went home to his booth. Next morning when people dressed HÖskuld said: ‘Little liberality is seen on the dress which Gilli the Wealthy has given to thee; it is also true that it was more difficult for him to dress twelve than it is to dress one.’ HÖskuld then opened a chest and took up a fine woman’s dress and gave it her; and all people said that fine clothes suited her. When the chiefs had settled matters according to law, the feast and the meeting ended. Then HÖskuld went to find King HÁkon, and greeted him honourably, as was fit. The King looked at him and said: ‘We should have accepted thy greeting, HÖskuld, even hadst thou greeted us a little earlier; but still we will do it now.’

“It occurred one morning when HÖskuld went out to look over his farm (boer), and the weather was fine, and the sun shone and was low above the horizon, that he heard some talking; he went to where a brook flowed in front of the slope of the tun (grass-plot). He there saw two people, and recognised them; it was his son Olaf and his mother (the bondwoman); then he saw that she was not dumb, for she talked much to the boy. Then HÖskuld went to them and asked for her name, and told her it would not do to conceal it longer. She said she would not. They sat down on the slope; then she said: ‘If thou wantest to know my name, it is Melkorka.’ HÖskuld asked her to tell more about her kin. She said: ‘My father is named Myrkjartan; he is king in Ireland, and I was taken captive thence fifteen winters old.’ HÖskuld said she had too long been silent about such good kin. Then HÖskuld went in and told Jorun (his wife) about what had happened on his walk. Jorun said she knew not whether she told the truth, and that she did not like uncouth people, and then they left off speaking; Jorun was not friendlier to her than before, but HÖskuld somewhat more. A little later, when Jorun went to bed, Melkorka pulled off her shoe-clothes (skÓklÆdi = shoes and stockings) and laid them on the floor. Jorun took the stockings and struck her head with them. Melkorka got angry and struck Jorun’s nose with her fist so that blood spurted out. HÖskuld came and parted them. Thereafter HÖskuld let Melkorka go away, and gave her a boer in LaxÁrdal; it has since been called Melkorkustadir, and is now waste; it is south of the LaxÁ (a river). Melkorka had a household there, to which HÖskuld gave all that was needed, and Olaf their son went with her; it was soon seen in Olaf, when he grew up, that he would surpass other men in beauty and good manners” (LaxdÆla, c. 12, 13).

“Astrid, Olaf Tryggvason’s mother, went with her son, who was then three winters old, on board a trading-ship bound to Gardariki; her brother Sigurd was with King Valdimar there.

“On their voyage eastward Vikings met them; they were Eistr (Esthonians); they took the property and the people and killed some of them, while they divided the others among themselves as slaves. Olaf was parted from his mother, and Klerkon, an Esthonian, took him and ThÓrÓlf and Thorgils (two of Astrid’s followers). Klerkon thought ThÓrÓlf too old for a thrall and unfit for work, and killed him; but took the boys with him and sold them to a man called Klerk, and got for them a very good he-goat. Another man bought Olaf for a good rain-cloak; his name was Reas, that of his wife Rekon, of his son, Rekoni. Olaf stayed there long, and was well kept and liked by the bÓndi, and remained six winters in Eistland in this outlawry” (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 5).

Lodin, a Norwegian trader, once was at a market in Eistland.

“There he saw a woman who had been sold as thrall, and when he looked at her he recognised in her Astrid, Eirik’s daughter, the widow of King Tryggvi, and then she was unlike what she had been the last time he saw her. She was pale and lean, and badly dressed. He went to her and asked how it was with her. She answered: ‘Heavy is it to tell that. I have been sold into slavery and taken hither for sale.’ Then they knew each other, and Astrid also him. She asked him to buy her and take her home to her kinsmen. ‘I will,’ answered he, ‘take thee to Norway if thou wilt marry me.’ And because she was then hardly situated, and knew that Lodin was a man of great kin, brave and wealthy, she promised him this to get away. Then Lodin bought Astrid and took her home to Norway, and married her there with the consent of her kinsmen” (Olaf Tryggvason’s Saga, Heimskringla, c. 58).

Sigurd, Astrid’s brother, came to Eistland to gather taxes for the King of HÓlmgard.

“He saw on a market-place a very fine boy, who seemed to him a foreigner, and asked for his name and family. He said he was called Olaf, and his father Tryggvi Olafsson, and his mother Astrid, daughter of Eirik BjÓdaskalli. Sigurd recognised in him his sister’s son, and asked why he was here. Olaf told him what had happened. Sigurd took him to Reas’ bÓndi and bought the boys Olaf and Thorgils, and took them to HÓlmgard”^[496] (Olaf Tryggvason, c. 6).

“One day Olaf was in the market-place, which was crowded. There he recognised Klerkon, who had slain his foster-father ThÓrÓlf LÚsaskegg; he had a small axe in his hand, and went up to Klerkon and cut his head down to the brains. Thereupon he at once ran home and told his kinsman Sigurd. Sigurd took him to the room of Queen Allogia (Olga, which is a corruption of the Northern name Helga) with these tidings, and asked her to help the boy. She looked at him, and said, ‘Such a handsome boy must not be slain;’ and ordered all her men to come thither fully armed. In HÓlmgard there was such great fridhelgi (peace-holiness), that the law bade that any one who slew another, not condemned, should himself be slain. Therefore the people rushed forward according to their custom and laws to search for Olaf and take his life, as the law bad. It was said that he was in the queen’s house, and that there was a fully armed host to defend him. When the king heard this he quickly went thither with his hird, and as he did not want them to fight, first procured a truce, and then a settlement. He adjudged a fine for the murder, which was paid by the queen. It was the law in Gardariki that there should be no king-born men except with the king’s permission. Therefore Sigurd told the queen of what family Olaf was, and also why he had come thither, that he could not remain in his own country on account of the hostility (and persecution) of his enemies. Sigurd asked her to tell this to the king, and beg him to help this king’s son, who had been so ill-treated. She did so, and he assented to her request. He therefore took Olaf under his protection, and treated him well, as befitted a king’s son. Olaf remained in Gardariki nine winters (years) with King Valdimar. He was handsome, larger and stronger than most others, and in idrottir superior to all other Northern men of whom the Sagas tell” (Olaf Tryggvason, Fornmanna SÖgur, i., p. 81).

Daughters of foreign kings and other beautiful women who were often prisoners of war were generally made concubines, and called kings’ thrall-women, and became bones of contention in the household circle.

“Olaf, King of Sweden, son of Eirik, had a concubine Edla, a daughter of the Jarl of Vindland, who had been taken in war, and was therefore called the king’s thrall-woman” (St. Olaf, c. 72).

“Ketil Thrym, a settler (in Iceland), went abroad and was with Vedorm, the son of Vemund the old. He bought from Vedorm, Arneid, daughter of Jarl AsbjÖrn Skerjablesi, whom HÓlmfast, son of Vedorm, had captured when he and Grim, the nephew of Vedorm, killed AsbjÖrn Jarl in Sudreyjar (Hebrides). Ketil Thrym bought Arneid two parts dearer than Vedorm valued her at first; when the bargain was made he married her” (LandnÁma, iv., c. 2).

Thralls, who were considered chattels, and had no personal rett,^[497] being regarded as the exclusive property of the master and classed among his kvikfÉ or live goods, could not acquire anything for themselves unless allowed by their owner; but this permission seems to have often been granted, as they generally had property, and even seem to have possessed weapons, of which the master had not the right to arbitrarily deprive them.^[498]

“If cattle damages cattle, horn or hoof or thrall, it shall be paid at half value” (Bjarkey Law, 140).

Those who belonged to rich masters were allowed to work for themselves, and thus acquire means to buy their freedom, and it was more usual for a slave to buy his freedom than to be made free. He either paid the full sum and became a free man at once, or paid part of the sum down and the rest by work for his master.

After this he had personal rett, but had to work one year for his master, without whose consent he could not marry or make bargains; but when he had paid the sum and wished to become free, he made his freedom-ale—a feast with a certain measure of ale—to which he had to invite his master and his wife, and seat them in the high-seat.

On the first evening of the feast he had to pay the price of his freedom, namely 6 aurar, to the master, which he could give up or not. Then he became leysingi (freedman) and could marry and make bargains not exceeding a certain amount.

Even after the freedom-ale there was a special relation between the freedman and his former master and his descendants, which was called, on the side of the master, vÖrn (defence), on that of the freedman thyrmsl (obligation, dependence); these terms meant that the master protected the freedman, and that the latter was dependent on the former. The freedman was not by birth a member of any family that could help him, so “his former master had to do that duty.”

The master had to take care of his freedman if he became a pauper; if the latter went against his former master in anything, whether in law or in enmity, he became his thrall again.

The master and his descendant took the inheritance after their freedman or his descendant, if he had no free kinsmen within a certain degree. This custom varied in different parts of the country; according to the Frostathing’s Law, it was the fourth degree.^[499]

“The family of a leysingi is four men in thyrmsl, but the fifth (degree) is no more in it, though not bought free” (Frostath., ix. 11).

“If a man wishes to buy himself off thyrmsl and dependence, rather than make his freedom-ale, it shall be so if his master will pledge his faith in granting it, and then it shall never be broken” (Frostath., ix. 16)

“If a leysingi wishes to have the power of bargains and marriage, he shall make his freedom-ale, with at least 3 sÁld (measures) of ale, and invite his master to it, with witnesses, and seat him in the Öndvegi, and lay 6 aurar in balances the first evening, and offer him the sum of a leysingi.^[500] If he receives it, it is well; if he gives it up, it is as if it were paid” (Gulathing’s Law, 62).

“If a thrall gets land or lives (for himself), he shall make his freedom-ale with 9 moelirs (measures) of ale, and kill a ram, and a family-born man^[501] shall cut off its head, and his master shall take the neck-band^[502] from his neck. If his master allows him to make his freedom-ale, he shall ask his leave to make it with two witnesses, and invite him, with four others, to the feast which is his freedom-ale” (Frostathing’s Law, ix. 12).

Though a slave had been made free, he could not leave the fylki without permission.

“If a freedman leaves the fylki without the permission of his master, and obtains for himself property, his lord should go after him with witnesses. If he is willing to return, all is well; if not, his lord may by the witnesses prove that he is his freedman, and bring him back to his old place, bound or not, as he chooses, and seat him where he sat before” (Gulathing’s Law, 67).

“When a thrall or bondmaid pays his sum of redemption they shall be taken to the church, a book laid on their heads, and freedom given to them. They shall work a twelvemonth (xii manad) for their master” (Gulath., 61).

Slaves and freedmen who had made their freedom-ale were limited in their bargains.

“A pauper must not make or have power over any bargain. Nor must a thrall, except only about his knife. Also a freedman who has not made his freedom-ale must not make a bargain higher than an ‘ortug’” (Gulath., 56).

A thrall who proved that he had for twenty years lived and acted as a free man without any one during that time having made any objection thereto, was, according to law, a free man, even if no freedom-ale or formal liberation had taken place.

“If a thrall goes about like a free man for 20 winters or more and no one hurts him or his bargains or his marriage out of the fylki or in the fylki, then he is free if he wants to be called free” (Gulath., 61).

In order to replenish the waste of war, we find that thralls were allowed to follow their masters on expeditions, and that they could win their liberty by bravery.

“If they meet a host and fight, and a thrall slays a man, then he is free, though he was a thrall before” (Gulathing’s Law, 312).

“A bondi is not allowed to send his paid servant into a levy instead of himself, unless the steersman (of the ship) consents to it; for, if a servant comes from the harbour for the bondi, he shall redeem himself from flogging. If a thrall comes in a levy instead of his master, the king may take him if he wants to, or pronounce him free in relation to every man” (Jutland Law, iii. 2).

Sometimes thralls were rewarded by their masters for meritorious actions. VebjÖrn and his brothers went to Iceland, but in a heavy storm their ship was wrecked on some rocks, and they got ashore.

“There they were entertained during the winter by Atli, Geirmund Heljarskinn’s thrall. When his master got the news of this, he asked why he had taken care of VebjÖrn and his companions. The thrall replied: ‘I wanted to show thus what a great and splendid chief the man was who owned a thrall that dared to undertake such things.’ Geirmund thanked him for his deed, and as a reward gave him his liberty, and land to settle on” (Sturlunga, Part i., ch. 3).

“Every man who is free and able shall own shield, spear, and cutting weapons. Only in cases of extreme necessity, where a general rising of the people takes place, the thrall goes out armed like the free men” (Gulathing’s Law, ch. 312).

Any one who captured a runaway slave and brought him back to his master could ask a reward according to the distance at which the slave was found or captured.

“If a man’s thrall runs away and another gets hold of him inside the fylki and outside the quarter (of the fylki), he shall have one eyrir. If he capture him outside the fylki but inside our law district, he shall get two aurar. If he captures him in the country and out of our law district, he gets half a mark. If he brings him home in chains the owner has to redeem him, but not otherwise” (Gulath., 68).

Without being held responsible, a master could kill or maim his thrall; only in the former case he had to publicly announce the slaying on the day it was done.

“If a man beats his thrall to death, he shall tell it to men the same day. Then he is not answerable to any one but God. But if he does not this, he is a murderer”^[503] (Earlier Frostathing’s Law, v. 20).

The slaying of another man’s thrall was paid for by an indemnity of twelve aurar.

“It was the law at that time that if a man slew the thrall of another, the slayer should carry home indemnity therefor to the owner, before the third rising of the sun after the deed. This indemnity was twelve aurar of silver; and if it was paid according to this law, no suit could be commenced for the slaying of the thrall”^[504] (Eyrbyggja Saga, c. 43).

“Steinar summoned Thorstein for thrall-killing, and claimed that the slaying of each be punishable by fjorbaugsgard (lesser outlawry); this was the law if a man’s thralls were killed, and the indemnity was not paid up before the third sunrise after. Two cases of lesser outlawry^[505] were to count the same as one of full outlawry” (Egil’s Saga, c. 85).

Thralls were given duties and positions of trust. King Ann’s thrall, Tunni, as we have seen, became the King’s adviser, and became so powerful that he rebelled against his own master.

“Erling SkjÁlgsson said to King Olaf: ‘To this I will quickly reply, that I deny reproaching Aslak or others for being in your service; but I acknowledge that now, as heretofore, each one of us kinsmen wants to be above the others. I will also confess that I willingly submit to thee, King Olaf, but it will be hard for me to bow before Selthorir, who is thrall-born in all his kindred,^[506] though he is now your Árman (tax-gatherer)”^[507] (St. Olaf’s, c. 122).

The chief Thorolf Skjalg was a great friend of the wife of the bondi Lodin. Lodin was slain at night, it was not known by whom, and Thorolf took the widow home.

“He wanted to make the sons of Lodin thralls, and succeeded in making a thrall of RÖgnvald, but not of Ulf, who was sold as a thrall into far-off countries.... Thorolf had RÖgnvald among his thralls, and when he was grown up he placed him over other thralls to command them and keep them at work” (Fornmanna SÖgur, c. 145).

If any harm was done to thralls, the master took payment in the same manner as he did for harm done to his cattle, horse, &c. In two cases only did the thrall himself take payment—when offended by another thrall, or when at the Thing, church, or feast with his master; in the first case taking all the payment, in the last one-twelfth.

“A hauld shall get 3 aurar (as rett) on the behalf of his bryti and thjon, and deigja and seta; and 2 aurar for all other slaves. A thrall’s rett shall be two-thirds less than his master’s. If a thrall beats another thrall this shall be paid, but the master owns it not” (Frostath., xi. 21).

“If a man’s thrall follows him to church, or to a feast, or to a Thing, then he is holy where the ships land or stand. If a man beats him in either place, a fine in silver shall be paid to the king” (Frostath., 61).

The child of a free woman by a thrall was free, and belonged to the family of the mother.

The child of a thrall woman by a free man was a slave, and belonged to the master of the mother, unless the father publicly declared it to be his own, and it gained liberty before it was three nights old.^[508]

The price of thralls varied somewhat, and in Egil’s Saga we have mention of a thrall for whom three marks in silver were paid, or twice as much as the average; they were generally sold at two and three marks; a common thrall woman being usually sold for one mark. The Swedes and Danes considered three marks as the average value of a thrall.^[509]

“Steinar saw a thrall called Thrand, one of the strongest of men. Steinar wished to purchase him and offered a high price; but his owner charged three marks of silver for him, and valued him twice as much as a common thrall. And that was their bargain” (Egil’s Saga, c. 84).

“The wergild of a Gotlandman is three marks of gold if he is slain. The wergild of every other man is ten marks of silver, except that of a thrall, which is 4½ marks of penning (money)” (Gotland Law, i. 15).

A thrall could not be sold out of the country unless he was a criminal.

“No man is allowed to sell a thrall or thrall-woman out of the country, unless he is known to be a criminal; but if he does so, he must pay the king three marks” (Earlier Frostathing’s Law, 20).

When a slave was sold the seller had to tell the defects, if any, in regard to his body or health.

“If a man buys a thrall from another, the seller shall be answerable as to stitches^[510] and epilepsy for the nine next years” (Frostath., v. 3).

Thralls were used to do the killing for their masters—in a word, to commit murder for them—and to expose children.^[511]

“KÁri in Iceland quarrelled with Karli about an ox. KÁri thereupon persuaded his thrall to slay Karli. The thrall feigned to have gone mad, and ran south across Hraun. Karli sat on his threshold. The thrall struck him a death-blow. KÁri killed the thrall” (LandnÁma, ii.).

Even with thraldom a master had his retinue of fixed male and female free servants in his household. These were called house-folk. Workmen and labouring men were also engaged on estates.