95. General Theory of Punctuation.—Punctuation is a way of showing by various signs (or points) which words in a written composition bear a close relation to one another. Read, for example, the following passage:—

As Pandora raised the lid, the cottage grew very dark and dismal; a black cloud had swept over the sun, and seemed to have buried it alive. But Pandora, heeding nothing of all this, lifted the lid nearly upright, and looked inside. It seemed as if suddenly a swarm of winged insects brushed past her, taking flight out of the box, while at the same instant she heard a voice. It was that of Epimetheus, as if he were in pain.

"Oh, I am stung!" cried he. "I am stung! Naughty Pandora! Why have you opened this wicked box?"

The period at the end of the first sentence shows that all the words preceding it are to be taken together. Notice the similar use of the other periods.

Notice the semicolon which is used to separate the two clauses of the first sentence. Each clause is complete in itself and might be taken separately; yet they are sufficiently related to be included in one sentence. The semicolon is therefore used to show a slighter separation between the thoughts than would be indicated by the use of the period.

The commas show a still slighter separation, being used to divide the lesser groups of words. Notice this use of the two commas in the first sentence. In the second sentence the commas before and after "heeding nothing of all this" show that these words belong together, and that "But Pandora" belongs to "lifted the lid," etc.

Notice the use of the interrogation point and the exclamation point in the last paragraph.

These various marks, then, are used to help the reader. They show the grammatical structure or grouping. Let us now study these marks in detail, beginning with those that indicate the close of the larger groups,—the period, the exclamation point, the interrogation point.

96. The Period.—The period marks the end of a declarative or imperative sentence.

The period is also used after an abbreviation. (For a list of common abbreviations, see p. 267.)

97. The Question Mark.—The question mark is placed at the end of every direct question. It is not used with an indirect question.

Shall I go?

I ask you, "Shall I go?"

I asked whether I should go.

98. The Exclamation Point.—The exclamation point is used after exclamatory words, phrases, and sentences. When an exclamatory sentence begins with an interjection, it is usually sufficient to place a comma after the interjection and to reserve the exclamation point until the end of the sentence. When an unemphatic interjection begins a declarative sentence, it is frequently possible to omit the exclamation point entirely. As a rule O is used only in direct address.

99. The Semicolon.—Semicolons have two uses:—

1. To separate the principal clauses in a compound sentence.

To our left we beheld the towers of the Alhambra beetling above us; to our right we were dominated by equal towers on a rocky eminence.

Some suppose them to have been built by the Romans; others, by the Phoenicians.

He received only ten guineas for this stately, vigorous poem; but the sale was rapid and the success complete.

There was now a sound behind me like a rushing blast; I heard the clatter of a thousand hoofs; and countless throngs overtook me.

When his men had thus indemnified themselves, in some degree, for their late reverses, Cortes called them again under their banners; and, after offering up a grateful acknowledgment to the Lord of Hosts for their miraculous preservation, they renewed their march across the now deserted valley.

The principal clauses in a compound sentence may also be separated by a comma, provided that a coÖrdinate conjunction is present.

It was a moonlight night, and the fresh north wind rustled solemnly in the palm trees.

We examined their sculptures by the aid of torches, and our Arab attendants kindled large fires of dry corn-stalks, which cast a strong red light on the walls.

The forehead and nose approach the Greek standard, but the mouth is more roundly and delicately carved, and the chin and cheeks are fuller.

When a coÖrdinate conjunction is not present, it is incorrect to separate such clauses by a comma. See § 6.

When a coÖrdinate conjunction is present, and the choice lies between a comma and a semicolon, the semicolon is to be used:—

(a) When the writer wishes the break or separation between the principal clauses to be emphatic.

(b) When the principal clauses are long and already divided into their parts by commas.

2. To separate clauses or phrases from each other in a series of similar phrases or subordinate clauses, when commas would not be sufficient to indicate clearly where each clause or phrase began and ended.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with inherent and inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundations on such principles and organizing its power in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their happiness.

Exercise 146.—(1) Find three sentences in which the principal clauses are separated by the semicolon. (2) Write three such sentences of your own composition. (3) Write three sentences in which the semicolon is used to separate similar phrases or subordinate clauses in a series. Let the sentences be of your own composition.

100. The Colon.—The colon indicates that what follows it is an explanation or specification of what precedes it. It is used:—

1. To introduce a list, a quotation, or an explanatory proposition. When the explanation begins a new paragraph, a dash is usually placed after the colon, as in the second sentence of this section.

He provided himself with the following books: Worcester's dictionary, a Latin grammar, an atlas, and a Bible.

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that, etc. [See example under § 99, 2 above.]

He read, on a marble tablet in the chapel wall opposite, this singular inscription: "Look not mournfully into the past."

2. In a compound sentence in which the principal clauses are not connected by a conjunction, to show that the following clause explains or illustrates the preceding clause.

I am no traveler: it is ten years since I have left my village.

The general refused to believe him: the risk was too great.

3. After such phrases of address as Dear Sir,[2] Ladies and Gentlemen, etc.

Exercise 147.—I. Write five examples of your own composition of (1); five of (2); and three of (3).

II. Explain the use of the semicolons and colons in the following:—

1. Sin has many tools; but a lie is the handle which fits them all.

2. In Bryant's To a Waterfowl, we find the following lines:—

"He who, from zone to one,
Guides through the boundless sky thy certain flight,
In the long way that I must tread alone,
Will lead my steps aright."

3. Speech is silver; silence is gold.

4. There are three great virtues: faith, hope, and charity.

101. The Comma.—As we have seen, the period is used to close a declarative sentence, and the semicolon and colon are used to mark off the greater divisions of a sentence. The office of the comma is to point off the smaller divisions of a sentence. It is used in the following ways:—

1. In a compound sentence, to separate the different clauses, when there is not a sufficient break in the thought to make the semicolon necessary. See above, §99, 1.

He rested himself in the Chancellor's room till the debate commenced, and then, leaning on his two relatives, he limped to his seat.

His exertions redeemed his own fame, but they effected little for his country.

2. To separate the different parts of a compound predicate, unless the connection between them is very close.

The slightest particulars of that day were remembered, and have been carefully recorded.

He lost the thread of his discourse, hesitated, repeated the same words several times, and was so confused that, in speaking of the Act of Settlement, he could not recall the name of the Electress Sophia.

I see and hear you.

3. In a complex sentence in which the dependent clause precedes, to separate the dependent clause from the principal clause. When the dependent clause follows, the comma is, as a rule, not needed.

4. To mark off an explanatory relative clause.

Note.—Relative clauses may be roughly divided into explanatory clauses and restrictive clauses. An explanatory relative clause describes or gives information about its antecedents. A restrictive relative clause narrows the meaning of its antecedent. An explanatory clause might usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause. A restrictive clause cannot usually be omitted without affecting the thought of the principal clause. No comma is used before a restrictive clause.

Examples. (a) Explanatory Clauses.—1. The twenty-four columns, each of which is sixty feet in height, are oppressive in their grandeur.

2. Beyond lay various other apartments, which receive no light from without.

3. This churchman rode upon a well-fed, ambling mule, whose bridle was ornamented with silver bells.

4. His companion, who was a man past forty, was tall and muscular.

(b) Restrictive Clauses.—1. The two who rode foremost were persons of importance.

2. This is not the book that I ordered.

3. There is no reason which can be urged in favor of such a bill.

4. Such was the appearance of the man who was about to receive into his hand the destinies of half the world.

5. We walked through the inner halls under the spell of a fascination which we had hardly power to break.

5. In general, to indicate the beginning and the end of a group of words, whether a phrase or a clause, which must be regarded as a unit, particularly if it occurs parenthetically.

Let us go together through the low gateway, with its battlemented top and small window in the center, into the inner road.

And now I wish that the reader, before I bring him into St. Mark's Place, would imagine himself in a little English town.

6. To separate similar words or phrases used, in a series, in the same construction, and not joined by conjunctions.

It was done quickly, neatly, artistically.

It was done quickly and neatly.

He was a big, hearty, happy fellow.

The horse was a quiet, sensible old beast. [Here quiet and sensible limit old beast, not beast alone.]

He was gay and jovial, gloomy and despondent, as the weather indicated.

If the members of the series are joined by conjunctions, commas are unnecessary. When, however, a conjunction joins the last two members of the series, the comma is employed.[3]

Bread and butter.

She was good and true and beautiful.

They visited Rome, Florence, and Venice.

7. To indicate the omission of words logically necessary to the construction.

One was tall; the other, short.

Admission, twenty-five cents.

8. To mark off phrases when they open a sentence or are not closely connected with the context. Phrases occurring in their usual places and closely connected with the context are, however, not marked off by commas.

Following the dim path, we proceeded slowly.

On his arrival in England, he found himself an object of general interest and admiration.

With rare delicacy, he refused to receive this token of gratitude.

The case was heard, according to the usage of the time, before a committee of the whole house.

From a child he hated the English.

He refused with emphasis this token of gratitude.

9. To mark off adverbs and adverb phrases which have a connective force. Notice the difference between (a) "you will see, then, that you have been misled," and (b) "you will then see that you have been misled."

This, on the other hand, was his purpose.

My mission, too, is one of peace.

He recalled, however, his motive.

10. To mark off words or phrases (a) in direct address or (b) in apposition. Notice, however, that in expressions like "the Emperor William," William is rather a noun limited by Emperor than a noun in apposition with Emperor.

(a) I do not understand you, sir.

I apologize, ladies and gentlemen, for my apparent discourtesy.

(b) His romantic novel, the Castle of Otranto, is now unread.

He is like me in this, that he cannot resist entreaty.

11. Before a direct quotation. See the more formal use of the colon, § 100, 1.

He kept crying, "On! on!"

As he fell, he heard some one say, "There goes another."

12. In dates, addresses, as in the following examples:—

Jan. 1, 1899.
Dr. C. H. Smith, Salem, Essex County, Mass.[4]

13. To prevent ambiguity or to make a sentence more easily understood.

Exercise 148.—I. Write two sentences (of your own composition) illustrating each of the uses described in the preceding section.

II. Give reasons for the marks of punctuation used in the following:—

One day, when he was looking for wild flowers, of which he was very fond, he heard a rustling in some thick bushes near by, and saw that some animal was moving among them. He took his gun and fired, and, going to the place, found that he had shot a lion's cub.

When his colored gun-bearer saw this, he screamed with terror, and ran away shouting, "Run, Benana! run!" Almost at the same instant, Bishop Hannington heard a fearful roar; turning, he saw a huge lion and a lioness rushing furiously towards him.

III. Supply commas where needed, giving reasons.

In Holland children have very few playthings. The shoes are shaped very much like the canal-boats of the country. The children recognize this fact and have a custom of sailing them on the water. This is fine sport except when the little craft is loaded with too many stones causing it to sink and insuring them punishment from their parents.

I was told of a small lad who going out one morning to sail his wooden shoe put into it his knife a small brass cannon a top and some marbles that had been given him on the previous Christmas.

His tiny vessel which had a paper sail ran firmly until an old man came down to the canal to dip up a pail of water. This made such waves that the heavily laden shoe was overwhelmed and sank suddenly before the knife or cannon or marbles could be rescued.

102. Parentheses and Brackets.—Parentheses are to inclose explanatory matter which is independent of the grammatical construction of the sentence. Brackets have the same general office, but are generally used only to inclose corrections, explanations, or similar matter, introduced by the author into the statement of some one else.

Prescott (1796-1859) was a brilliant historian.

It is said (and I can believe that it is true) that many still believe in witches.

It was at that moment [10 A.M.], the colonel goes on to say, that his superior officer [General Smith] met him.

103. The Dash.—The dash is used to indicate a sudden change in thought or construction. Two dashes have the general effect of parentheses.

104. The Apostrophe.—The apostrophe is used (1) to indicate the omission of a letter or letters, (2) in forming the possessive case, and (3) in forming the plurals of letters and figures.

Don't, shan't, o'er, John's, horses', his abc's.

105. Quotation Marks.—Double inverted commas indicate that the inclosed matter is a quotation. Single inverted commas indicate a quotation within a quotation. Double quotation marks are also sometimes used to indicate the title of a book, magazine, or newspaper, or the name of a ship. See also § 106.

A direct quotation is one in which the exact words of a speaker or writer are repeated. When a direct quotation is broken by words of the author, each part of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.

A short informal quotation, if it constitutes a sentence, is preceded by a comma or a comma and a dash. If a quotation is long, or if it is desired to give it with a little more formality, it may be preceded by a colon. If the quotation begins a paragraph, it is preceded by a colon and a dash. See § 100, 1.

An indirect quotation repeats the thought of some speaker or writer without giving his exact words. Quotation marks are not used to indicate indirect quotations.

[Direct quotation] "Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be the judge."

[Indirect quotation] Mr. Webster told his boys that he would be the judge.

Exercise 149.—Rewrite the following story, Daniel Webster's First Case, changing the direct quotations to indirect and the indirect quotations to direct:—

The father of Daniel Webster was a farmer. His garden had suffered somewhat from the visits of a woodchuck that lived in a hole close by. One day Daniel and his brother Ezekiel set a steel trap for the trespasser, and caught him alive. And now the great question was, "What shall be done with the rogue?"

"Kill him," said Ezekiel.

"Let him go," said Daniel, looking with pity into the eyes of the dumb captive.

"No, no!" replied Ezekiel, "he'll be at his old tricks again."

The boys could not agree; so they appealed to their father to decide the case.

"Well, my boys," said Mr. Webster, "I will be judge. There is the prisoner, and you shall be counsel, Daniel for him and Ezekiel against him. It rests with you whether the woodchuck shall live or die."

Ezekiel opened the case. The woodchuck, he said, was a thief by nature. He had already done much harm, and would do more, if he were set free. It had cost a great deal of labor to catch him. It would be harder to catch him a second time; for he would have gained in cunning. It was better on every account to put him to death. His skin would be worth something, although it would not half repay the damage he had done.

The father looked with pride upon his son, little dreaming, however, that he was then showing signs of that power that made him so sound a jurist in his manhood.

"Now, Daniel, it is your turn. I'll hear what you have to say."

Daniel saw that the argument of his brother had sensibly moved his father the judge. The boy's large, black eyes looked upon the timid woodchuck, and, as he saw the poor thing trembling with fear, his heart swelled with pity.

God, he said, had made the woodchuck. He made him to live, to enjoy the air and sunshine, the free fields and woods. The woodchuck had as much right to live as any other thing that breathes. God did not make him or anything in vain. He was not a destructive animal like the wolf or the fox. He ate a few common things, to be sure; but they had plenty of them, and could well spare a part. And he destroyed nothing except the little food needed to sustain his humble life. That little food was as sweet to him, and as necessary to his existence, as was the food on their mother's table to them.

God gave them their food. Would they not spare a little for the dumb creature that really had as much right to his small share of God's bounty as they themselves to theirs? Yea, more; the animal had never broken the laws of his nature or the laws of God, as man often did, but had strictly lived up to the simple instincts that had been given him by the good Creator of all things. Created by God's hands, he had a right from God to his life and his liberty, and they had no right to deprive him of either.

The young orator then alluded to the mute but earnest entreaties of the animal for his life, as sweet, as dear to him, as their own was to them; and to the just penalty they might expect, if, in selfish cruelty, they took the life they could not restore,—the life that God Himself had given.

During this appeal for mercy tears had started to the father's eyes, and were fast running down his sunburnt cheeks. Every feeling of his manly heart was stirred within him,—gratitude for the gift of so eloquent and noble a boy, pity for the helpless and anxious prisoner at the bar.

The strain was more than he could bear. While Daniel was yet speaking, without thinking that he had won his case, his father sprang from his chair, and, in entire forgetfulness of his character as judge, exclaimed to his elder son, "Zeke! Zeke! let that woodchuck go!"

Sometimes you may wish to quote, not a whole sentence, but a word or two. Such a partial quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks, but you should not begin it with a capital or place a comma before it, unless the comma is needed there for some other reason.

She was "born to blush unseen."

We listened with pity to this tale of "man's inhumanity to man."

Exercise 150.—Construct sentences using the following partial quotations:—

"Waste her sweetness on the desert air," "simple and heart-felt lay," of "night's candles," "lowly thatched cottage," "sweet bells out of tune."

Exercise 151.—Rewrite the following so that you will have in each instance a quotation within a quotation. You will be obliged to make introductions using the name of the author.

1. Had it not been the season when "no spirit dares stir abroad," I should have been half tempted to steal from my room at midnight.—Washington Irving.

2. The story-teller paused for a moment and said, "There is no situation in life but has its advantages and pleasures."

—Diedrich Knickerbocker.

3. We are in that part of the year which I like best—the Rainy or Hurricane Season. "When it is good, it is very, very good; and when it is bad, it is horrid."

—Robert Louis Stevenson.

106. Italics.—The term "italics" refers to a special kind of type used in printing; thus, italics. Ordinary type is referred to as "roman." In writing, a single line drawn underneath a word is understood to be the equivalent of italics. Italics are used for (1) words especially emphasized, for (2) words from a foreign language, and, sometimes, as in this volume, for (3) names of books, newspapers, magazines, and ships. See § 105, ¶ 1.

107. The Hyphen.—The hyphen is used as follows:—

1. Between the parts of some compound words, son-in-law, simple-hearted, vice-president. With regard to many words, usage varies. The tendency is to omit the hyphen and write the words as one, e.g. football, horsecar. According to some authorities, compound numerals and fractions retain the hyphen, e.g. twenty-nine, one hundred and thirty-first, two-thirds.

2. To separate two vowels which are not pronounced together, e.g. pre-eminent, co-operation. The diÆresis is frequently used for the same purpose, e.g. preËminent.

3. To mark the division of a word at the end of a line. Usage varies as to the way in which many words shall be divided. The subject can be best studied by noticing the practice of good printers. The pupil may bear in mind, however, (a) that he should not divide words of only one syllable; (b) that he should be guided by pronunciation; (c) that syllables should begin, if possible, with a consonant. For example, photog-raphy, Napo-leon, litera-ture.

Exercise 152.—Make up three illustrations each of proper uses of the question mark, the exclamation point, parentheses, brackets, the dash, the apostrophe, double quotation marks, single quotation marks, italics, the hyphen.

108. Capitals.—The pronoun I and the interjection O are written with capital letters. Capital letters are used at the beginning of words as follows:—

1. The first word of a sentence, a line of poetry, and a direct quotation.

"Making his rustic reed of song
A weapon in the war with wrong."

His last words were: "Mother is coming."

"Run," he said, "there is still time."

2. Names and titles of the Deity and personal pronouns referring to Him, e.g. the Almighty, the Holy Spirit, I pray that He will aid me.

3. Proper nouns and adjectives, including names of streets, the months, the days, races, sects, parties, nations, and parts of the country. For example, John Smith, Broadway, New York City, February, Sunday, Christmas, Indian, Episcopalian, Democrat, English, the South. Notice that negro and gypsy are not begun with capital letters.

Personal titles, whenever they are equivalent to proper nouns. In compound titles, each part begins with a capital.

The President and the Governor of Rhode Island are here.
The Attorney-General of the United States.

4. The first word in the title of a book, article, or composition and every noun and adjective in the title, but not other words. When a verb or adverb is an important or prominent word in the title, it may also be begun with a capital.

The Spy; a Tale of the Neutral Ground.
Under the Red Robe.
Sketches, New and Old.
Teaching Requires Knowledge and Skill.

5. Personified nouns, and names of great events or bodies of men.

"While sallow Autumn fills thy lap with leaves."
It was a cold day in autumn.[5]
At the beginning of the Revolutionary War.
While the Legislature is sitting.

Exercise 153.—I. Construct sentences containing in all twenty words that should begin with capital letters.

II. Which words in the following sentences should begin with capitals? Why?

1. He added, with a look of curiosity, "you must be a stranger." 2. "I like," said he, "to lie down upon the grass." 3. In 1827 he entered the senate, serving there until the president appointed him secretary of state. 4. At length I reached fourth street. 5. It was easter morning. 6. He has always voted the republican ticket. 7. There are more negroes in the south than in the west. 8. No one imagined that he would make a good emperor. 9. The king died on tuesday. 10. I shall see you this summer.

Exercise 154. (Review).—Insert in the following sentences the proper marks of punctuation:—

1. It was a dull dark gloomy day. 2. He was a rosy faced smiling and cheerful young gentleman. 3. Some of us were disappointed others overjoyed. 4. A pretty little white dog came running up to me. 5. Samuel the youngest of the three was by far the tallest. 6. My letters have brought no response consequently I have ceased writing. 7. Well Philip I am glad to see you again. 8. With hearty thanks for your kindness to me a stranger I am my dear sir your obedient servant John Smith. 9. Now Wegg said Mr. Boffin hugging his stick closer I want to make an offer to you. 10. The champion moving onward ascended the platform.

11. At the flourish of clarions and trumpets they started out at full galop. 12. The lake greatly to my surprise seemed as far off as before. 13. Terrible as was his anger he still spoke calmly. 14. To make a long story short I could never find a trace of him again. 15. His expressions too were frequently incorrect. 16. After the fourth encounter however there was a considerable pause. 17. However strong you may be you must not waste your strength. 18. My friend who is called Sir Roger came at once to see me. 19. The person who comes last must start first. 20. He that read loudest was to have a half-penny.

21. None was so dissatisfied as Cedric who regarded the whole scene with scorn. 22. The message which I wished to send is simply this. 23. I will never do not interrupt me I will never consent to such a plan. 24. As often as he came and he came very often he stood long at the gate before entering. 25. Though they dwelt in such a solitude these people were not lonely. 26. If you insist I will speak frankly.

27. At ten o'clock the great war chief with his treacherous followers reached the fort and the gateway was thronged with their savage faces. 28. Some were crested with hawk eagle or raven plumes others had shaved their heads leaving only the fluttering scalp-lock on the crown while others again wore their long black hair flowing loosely at their backs or wildly hanging about their brows like a lion's mane. 29. Their bold yet crafty features their cheeks besmeared with ocher and vermilion white lead and soot their keen deep-set eyes gleaming in their sockets like those of rattlesnakes gave them an aspect grim uncouth and horrible. 30. For the most part they were tall strong men and all had a gait and bearing of peculiar stateliness.

109. List of Common Abbreviations.—The following is a list of common abbreviations, particularly those of foreign words or phrases. Abbreviations of names of states and other very familiar abbreviations are omitted.

A.B. or B.A. (Latin, Artium Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Arts.
A.D. (Latin, anno domini), in the year of our Lord.
A.M. or M.A. (Latin, Artium Magister), Master of Arts.
a.m. (Latin, ante meridiem), before noon.
anon., anonymous.
B.C., before Christ.
Bp., Bishop.
Capt., Captain.
cf. (Latin, confer), compare.
C.O.D., collect on delivery.
Col., Colonel.
cor. sec., corresponding secretary.
D.D., Doctor of Divinity.
e.g. (Latin, exempli gratia), for example.
Esq., Esquire.
etc. (Latin, et cetera), and so forth.
F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit (thermometer).
F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society.
Gov., Governor.
H.R.H., His Royal Highness.
Hon., Honorable.
ibid. (Latin, ibidem, "in the same place"), a term used in footnotes, in reference to a book just mentioned.
i.e. (Latin, id est), that is.
inst. (Latin, mense instante), the present month.
jr. or jun., junior.
Lieut., Lieutenant.
LL.D., Doctor of Laws.
M. (Latin, meridies), noon.
M. (French, Monsieur), Mr.
Maj., Major.
M.C., Member of Congress.
M.D. (Latin, MedicinÆ Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.
Mlle. (French, Mademoiselle), Miss.
MM. (French, Messieurs), used as the plural of M.
Mme. (French, Madame), Mrs.
MS., manuscript.
MSS., manuscripts.
N.B. (Latin, nota bene), mark well.
p., page.
per cent. (Latin, per centum), by the hundred.
p.m. (Latin, post meridiem), after noon.
pp., pages.
Prof., Professor.
pro tem. (Latin, pro tempore), for the time being.
prox. (Latin, proximo), next month.
P.S. (Latin, post scriptum), postscript.
Q.E.D. (Latin, quod erat demonstrandum), which was to be proved.
Rev., Reverend.
R.R., Railroad.
Rt. Rev., Right Reverend.
sr. or sen., senior.
Supt., Superintendent.
ult. (Latin, ultimo), last month.
U.S.A., United States army.
U.S.M., United States mail.
U.S.N., United States navy.
vid. (Latin, vide), see.
viz. (Latin, videlicet), to wit, namely.

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