87. General Principle.—There is probably no form of expression with which you are more practically acquainted than argumentation, both from using it yourself and from having it employed on you. If you go to college, you will study the theory of it in connection with logic and you will have a great many hard names to learn and a complicated system to understand; but, as a matter of fact, you find now that if you greatly care to have something done or not done, you will instinctively find reasons for supporting your views. You did this even as a little child, when you wished to do something your parents did not think advisable, or to be excused from doing something they desired you to do. Although this may be the first time you have consciously thought of argument as a form of composition, you must have had a great deal of practical experience in it.

It has been pointed out several times in this book that the very first thing to consider in any form of expression is the reader to whom you address yourself. Owing to the frequent practical use you have made of argument in conversation, this will be easy for you to remember when you now come to write it. That is, you are so used to making your arguments suit the persons you are trying to persuade, that you do it instinctively. Even a little child puts forth different reasons for action when trying to persuade his mother from those which he would put forth when trying to persuade a playfellow; and you feel, without the necessity of stopping to think at all, that you should use different arguments with your mother from those which would be likely to convince your teacher.

But the next step in composing, which has been mentioned throughout the book, is more necessary in argumentation than in any other form of expression. You must not only have an outline in mind for what you are about to say, but that outline should be written, and almost as much time and thought should be given to it as to the composition itself; for clear thought is the great essential in argumentation, and a carefully prepared outline is the greatest help to clear thought.

88. The Introduction.—There are three parts to every outline for a discussion or argument. First comes the introduction, or statement of the subject. To write this clearly, you need to remember the principles of exposition, because often the introduction to an argument is merely a clear exposition of the subject. It is very necessary to be perfectly clear in this introduction, so that your reader may have a definite idea of what it is you are about to discuss. Sometimes people discuss at great length, only to find that from neglect to state the subject clearly they have been arguing about quite different questions. For instance, suppose that the following subject is selected for a discussion: Pupils under fifteen years of age should not be taken out of school to earn money for their families. The statement and full exposition of the subject in the introduction to the argument should exclude cases where there is no other possible source of income for the family; otherwise you and your opponent may be discussing a question about which you really agree.

In your introduction, therefore, give first a perfectly plain statement of your subject,—what are the generally admitted facts about it (facts which even your opponent must admit), and what it is you wish to prove.

Exercise 136.—In the following subjects for discussion, see if you can pick out the place where the statement is indefinite and might lead to misunderstanding. Write one paragraph on each, defining, limiting, and making clear the subject as you see it, and another on the generally admitted facts in the case as distinct from the points which are debatable.

1. Animals in captivity are better off than in their natural state.

What kind of captivity? What kind of animals? What do you mean by being "better off"—merely "healthier" or "happier" or "more secure"?

2. A boy's club should not study history.

What kind of boys? What kind of history? Is history taught in the schools? Do these boys go to school?

3. All girls should learn to be housekeepers.

What do you mean by "housekeeper"? Do you mean that they should learn nothing else?

4. It is not harmful for children to read fairy tales.

How about nervous, excitable children who cannot sleep after a fairy story? How about dreadful tales of witches and hobgoblins that make the healthiest child afraid of the dark?

5. It is wrong to kill animals.

Do you include noxious and dangerous ones? Or animals used for food?

89. The Reasons.—The second part of your argument consists of the statement of the various proofs and reasons you advance to make people think and feel as you do about your subject. It is well to divide your subject into several main divisions or points, and take these up one by one; also to set down separately your main arguments. These should be arranged in what is called "climactic order,"—that is, the more unimportant reasons first and the better and stronger ones after, leading up to the argument which you think is your strongest one. There are two main divisions of argument as reasons in favor of something. First, there are the proofs directly for your side of the question, and then there are the proofs against your opponent's argument. The first is called direct proof; the second is called refutation.

Suppose now that you wish to persuade the principal of your school to grant a holiday on Washington's Birthday. Your introduction states the subject very briefly, since in the nature of things there can be almost no possibility of misunderstanding. It might be well to mention here that nobody doubts the value of vacations in school life if wisely selected, and that what you wish to prove is that it would be a wise selection to give the school a holiday on the twenty-second of February.

The body of your argument comes next, and you might begin by stating that a holiday would be beneficial to school work. Support the statement by pointing out, first, that the twenty-second of February comes in the midst of a long stretch of uninterrupted school, just at the time when both pupils and teachers are tired and would do better work after a rest; second, that the weather is apt to be brisk and bracing, and such as would tempt every one to be out of doors.

Your next general argument might be a statement of the value of honoring in every way possible the great men of the nation, and of not allowing them to be forgotten. Three good reasons as proofs of this statement are, first, that we owe them great gratitude for what they have done for us; second, that they furnish the best examples for our own action; third, that they make us patriotic by making us proud of our country.

Having established the desirability of honoring our great men, your next need is to show that granting a holiday to school children does honor them. To prove this, you might make a word picture of the great importance which a holiday has in a school; how every one looks forward to it, plans for it, enjoys it, and remembers it,—so that it is felt that the occasion of a holiday must be a very notable man. Show how even the little children are impressed with the greatness of Washington's name (because of the holiday) before they know much about him, so that they are all prepared to realize instinctively how prominent he was in our history when they come to study about him. See if you cannot show how much more valuable is an instinctive feeling like this than any amount of mere knowledge of what we owe to him, illustrating by the affection a child feels for a relative—a cousin or an aunt—whom he has always known, compared with his affection for a relative whom he learns to know after he has grown up.

A second reason to prove the advisability of granting a holiday to honor the memory of a great man is based on one of the most universally acceptable of proofs. It is good to do a thing when other people do it and always have done it. This is usually one of the first proofs which come into your mind, as is shown by the fact that the average child, on being refused something, says immediately, "Why, all the other boys have it!" So your second reason is that in our own country and abroad no better way has been found to celebrate an anniversary than to grant a holiday on that date. Cite Christmas, the Fourth of July, the Fourteenth of July in France, etc., collecting as many instances as you can, from all sources. This is a very important form of proof, although it should rarely be placed first in your argument.

Now, having shown that great men should be honored, and that holidays are a good form of honoring them, you need to prove that Washington should be specially selected from among our great men for such honors. There are various reasons you might cite here, a few of which are that he was the greatest of the founders of our nation; that his private character was noble and dignified; that he was the first American to receive world-wide recognition; that we might not be a nation without him; that, at the present day, we need more than ever to look back to his integrity and devotion to the patriotic cause, etc.

You have now given enough proofs to make up the main body of your discussion. The end of an argument is called the conclusion, and sums up in a brief way, but as forcibly as possible, the main proofs, and the way in which they lead to the conclusion you desire.

90. The Outline.—The outline of the argument which has just been sketched for you would be set down in a form something like this.

A holiday should be granted to this school on Washington's Birthday.

A. Introduction.
It is taken for granted that holidays are desirable at times;
we are to prove in this case that the twenty-second of February
is a good time for a holiday.
B. Proof.
I. It would be beneficial to school work,
1. because the day comes at a time when a break in the
routine is needed;
2. because it comes usually in good winter weather, when
outdoor life is possible.
II. It is desirable to honor the great men of a nation,
1. because of our gratitude to them;
2. because they set a good example to us;
3. because they help us to be patriotic.
III. A holiday is a suitable means for honoring the memory
of a great man,
1. because it is an important occasion for all pupils,
and fixes their attention on the reason for granting it;
2. because all over the world holidays are given and
always have been given as the best way of making a
day memorable.
IV. Washington should be selected for this honor,
1. because he was the founder of the nation;
2. because he was the first well-known American;
3. because he was the first president, etc.
C. Conclusion.
I. Summing up of the arguments.
II. Statement of the conclusion.

91. The Plea.—This is an outline of that form of argument which is sometimes called a plea; an argument, that is, which aims to induce somebody to take action.

Exercise 137.—Make out similar outlines, and write pleas, addressed to the school authorities, on the following subjects. Take the side that appeals to you.

1. The weekly holiday should be on Monday instead of Saturday. (Or "should not be," according to your convictions.)

2. The summer vacation should be shorter, in order that the winter vacation might be longer.

3. Gymnasium work, or participation in outdoor sports, should be compulsory for boys and girls alike.

4. Music should not be taught in the schools.

5. One foreign language should be compulsory in American public schools.

6. All pupils, even those who have no natural taste for it, should be made to study good literature.

7. Every one in the class should be forced to join a debating society.

8. There should be a common school library, rather than a collection of books in each class room.

9. It is better to have one long school session with a short recess than two shorter sessions with an hour or more for lunch.

92. Other Forms.—There are a number of arguments which can scarcely be treated like pleas, since their object is not to induce somebody else to take some action, but to support the truth or justice of some statement.

Exercise 138.—In treating the subjects given below, write as though you were defending the statement against an opponent. Or the subjects may be taken as topics for debate by the class, one half taking one side, and the other half attacking their position.

1. Tennis is a better game than golf. (Define what you mean by "better." Better for whom; or for what results?) 2. City life is better than country life. 3. Summer (autumn, winter, spring) is the best time of the year. 4. The best method to prepare for a hard examination is to study hard up to the last minute before you take it. 5. Children of foreigners in this country should learn only English and not their parent language. 6. It is better to live near the sea than in the mountains. 7. It is easier to do school work at home than in the class room. 8. Swimming is the best form of exercise. 9. Little children should not be taught to believe in Santa Claus, in fairies, or in giants. 10. Novel reading has a bad influence. 11. Every one should be forced to learn to dance, to swim, to sail a boat, to skate, to ride, to learn a trade, etc. 12. Bonfires should be allowed in the street on the evenings of festival days of various kinds. 13. Pupils should report the wrong-doings of others to the teacher. 14. Books should be furnished free by public schools. 15. Composition is a more important study than arithmetic. 16. Alms should never be given to beggars. 17. No examination should be over an hour in length. 18. A city library is as important as city schools. 19. The climate of our part of the country is more conducive to good health than the climate of the tropics.

Another form of argument or persuasion consists in finding reasons and stating them eloquently, in support of a personal taste or opinion. The same general outline is used as in the plea, but the argument is apt to be less impersonal.

Exercise 139.—Arrange your reasons in their logical order and write most at length upon those which are most important. Construct your argument as though in answer to the remark, "Why do you feel that way? I don't agree with you at all."

1. I had rather be a doctor (lawyer, merchant, cook, teacher, musician, farmer, etc.) than anything else. 2. I had rather be a sailor than a soldier. 3. If I were not an American, I had rather be English (French, German, Italian, Norwegian, Cuban, etc.) than anything else. 4. If I did not live here, I had rather live in —— than in any other state; in —— than in any other city. 5. If I could always remain a certain age, I should prefer to be —— years old. 6. Of all my studies I think —— is the most valuable. 7. If I were not myself, I should prefer to be ——. 8. Of all the historical characters I have studied I should prefer to be ——. 9. The best book I ever read is ——. 10. I like poetry better than prose. 11. Unlike most people, I like a rainy day (a windy day, foggy weather) better than a fair day. 12. I had rather have a cat (a dog, a horse, a rabbit, etc.) than any other pet.

Many of the above subjects can be treated in letter forms as pleas. This is a very good exercise in writing easily and familiarly upon a careful and well-constructed outline. For instance, you might take the abstract subject that every one should learn to swim. Make it personal and write a letter to your parents, asking to be allowed to learn to swim. Draw up your outline with no less care for a familiar letter than for a formal argument. Take pains to try to imagine the arguments which would be used on the other side and bring to bear all the counterproof you can think of. Your parents would naturally be anxious about the danger involved in your learning to swim. Oppose to this the ability to save yourself in the water all the rest of your life after you have learned. They may maintain that you will never have any occasion to swim, since you do not live near the water. You can oppose to this the great frequency of journeys taken on or partly on water. They might think it would take too much time and strength from your studies. Oppose to this the fact that you must have exercise of some sort, that you work better after you have been in the water, and that your general health will be better, etc.