33. Whole Compositions.—You have now studied the combination of words into sentences and the combination of sentences into paragraphs. You must meanwhile have guessed that there is a still larger process of composition,—the combining of paragraphs into the essay or chapter or book. This process we must now examine briefly.

Read the following passage, which, to be sure, is not exactly a whole composition in itself, for it forms a part of a long essay on a visit to Shakspere's birthplace. It is sufficiently long, however, to show how paragraphs are combined.

I had come to Stratford on a poetical pilgrimage. My first visit was to the house where Shakspere was born, and where, according to tradition, he was brought up to his father's craft of wool-combing. It is a small, mean-looking edifice of wood and plaster, a true nestling place of genius, which seems to delight in hatching its offspring in by-corners. The walls of its squalid chambers are covered with names and inscriptions in every language, by pilgrims of all nations, ranks, and conditions, from the prince to the peasant; and present a simple, but striking instance of the spontaneous and universal homage of mankind to the great poet of nature.

The house is shown by a garrulous old lady, in a frosty red face, lighted up by a cold blue anxious eye, and garnished with artificial locks of flaxen hair, curling from under an exceedingly dirty cap. She was peculiarly assiduous in exhibiting the relics with which this, like all other celebrated shrines, abounds. There was the shattered stock of the very matchlock with which Shakspere shot the deer, on his poaching exploits. There, too, was his tobacco box; which proves that he was a rival smoker of Sir Walter Raleigh; the sword also with which he played Hamlet; and the identical lantern with which Friar Laurence discovered Romeo and Juliet at the tomb!

The most favorite object of curiosity, however, is Shakspere's chair. It stands in the chimney nook of a small gloomy chamber, just behind what was his father's shop. Here he may many a time have sat when a boy, watching the slowing revolving spit with all the longing of an urchin; or of an evening, listening to the cronies and gossips of Stratford, dealing forth churchyard tales and legendary anecdotes of the troublesome times of England. In this chair it is the custom of every one that visits the house to sit: whether this be done with the hope of imbibing any of the inspiration of the bard I am at a loss to say—I merely mention the fact; and mine hostess privately assured me, that, though built of solid oak, such was the fervent zeal of devotees, that the chair had to be new bottomed at least once in three years. It is worthy of notice also, in the history of this extraordinary chair, that it partakes something of the volatile nature of the Santa Casa of Loretto, or the flying chair of the Arabian enchanter; for though sold some few years since to a northern princess, yet, strange to tell, it has found its way back again to the old chimney.

I am always of easy faith in such matters, and am ever willing to be deceived, where the deceit is pleasant and costs nothing. I am therefore a ready believer in relics, legends, and local anecdotes of goblins and great men; and would advise all travelers who travel for their gratification to be the same. What is it to us, whether these stories be true or false, so long as we can persuade ourselves into the belief of them, and enjoy all the charms of the reality? There is nothing like resolute good-humored credulity in these matters; and on this occasion I went even so far as willingly to believe the claims of mine hostess to a lineal descent from the poet, when, unluckily for my faith, she put into my hands a play of her own composition, which set all belief in her consanguinity at defiance.—Washington Irving: Stratford-on-Avon.

You will notice that the opening sentences give you a hint of what is coming. You will also notice that the author has a separate thought for each paragraph:—

1. The house in general.
2. The relics exhibited by the housekeeper.
3. The most interesting relic; its history.
4. The author's "good-humored credulity."

These thoughts, when taken together, build up in the reader's mind a larger thought, just as the thoughts expressed in each sentence in a paragraph, when taken together, build up in the reader's mind a smaller idea.

Furthermore, you will notice how careful the writer has been to build up that idea in the reader's mind clearly and easily. He began with a thought that was easy to grasp and that gave you a hint of what was coming.

Here is another good instance of an author's skill in planning his work:—

Let us consider briefly the structure of the earth, studying first its crust, second its interior, third its atmosphere.

It has been found that what is called the earth's crust—that is, the outside of the earth, as the peel is the outside of an orange—is composed of various rocks of different kinds and ages, all of them, however, belonging to two great classes: stratified [that is, deposited in layers] rocks and igneous [made by fire] rocks. The stratified rocks have been deposited by water, principally by the sea. This is proved by two facts: first, in their formation they resemble the beds lying deposited by water at the present time; secondly, they nearly all contain remains of fishes and shell-fish. Such remains, being dug out of the earth, are called fossils, from the Latin fossilis, dug. The whole series of sedimentary rocks have been disturbed by eruptions of volcanic materials. Molten rock ejected from the interior of the earth and cooling form the igneous rocks we have spoken of. They are easily distinguished from the sedimentary rock, as they have no appearance of stratification and contain no fossils.

We have numerous proofs that the interior of the earth is at a high temperature at present, although its surface has cooled. Our deepest mines are so hot that, without a perpetual current of cold air it would be impossible for the miners to live in them. The water brought up in artesian wells is found to increase in temperature one degree for from fifty to fifty-five feet of depth. In the hot lava emitted from volcanoes we have further evidence of this internal heat. It has been calculated that the temperature of the earth increases as we descend at the rate of one degree Fahrenheit in a little over fifty feet. We shall therefore have a temperature of two thousand seven hundred degrees at a depth of twenty-eight miles. At this temperature everything which we are acquainted with would be in a state of fusion.

We now pass to the atmosphere, which may be likened to a great ocean, covering the earth to a height not yet exactly determined. This height is generally supposed to be forty-five or fifty miles, but there is evidence to show that we have an atmosphere of some kind at a height of four hundred or five hundred miles. The chemical composition by weight of one hundred parts of the atmosphere at present is as follows: nitrogen, seventy-seven parts; oxygen, twenty-three parts. Besides these two main constituents, we have carbonic acid, whose quantity varies with the locality; aqueous vapor, variable with the temperature and humidity; and a trace of ammonia.—Adapted from Lockyer's Astronomy.

Here, as before, you will notice that the author has a separate idea for each paragraph, as follows:—

1. The three parts of the earth.
2. The crust.
3. The interior.
4. The atmosphere.

He has also begun in this case with a paragraph that states precisely what plan he is going to follow; namely, that he will treat the subject under three heads.

34. Outlines.—A full outline of the selection would be as follows:—

I. Introduction.
A. Announces whole topic.
B. Names subdivisions—crust, interior, atmosphere.
II. Crust.
A. Composed of two kinds of rocks:—
1. Stratified.
2. Igneous.
III. Interior.
A. Heat (proofs).
B. Molten state.
IV. Atmosphere.
A. Height.
B. Chemical composition.

Now read the following composition:—

THE CUP OF WATER

No touch in the history of the minstrel-king David gives us a more warm and personal feeling toward him than his longing for the water at the well of Bethlehem. Standing as the incident does in the summary of the characters of his mighty men, it is apt to appear to us as if it had taken place in his latter days; but such is not the case. It befell while he was still under thirty, in the time of his persecution by Saul.

It was when the last attempt at reconciliation with the king had been made, when the affectionate parting with the generous and faithful Jonathan had taken place, when Saul was hunting him like a partridge on the mountains on the one side, and the Philistines had nearly taken his life on the other, that David, outlawed, yet loyal at the heart, sent his aged parents to the land of Moab for refuge, and himself took up his abode in the caves of the wild limestone hills that had become familiar to him when he was a shepherd. Brave captain and heaven-destined king as he was, his name attracted round him a motley group of those that were in distress, or in debt, or discontented, and among them were the "mighty men" whose brave deeds won them the foremost parts in that army with which David was to fulfill the ancient promises to his people. There were his three nephews, Joab, the ferocious and imperious, the chivalrous Abishai, and Asahel, the fleet of foot; there was the warlike Levite Benaiah, who slew lions and lionlike men, and others who, like David himself, had done battle with the gigantic sons of Anak. Yet even these valiant men, so wild and lawless, could be kept in check by the voice of their young captain; and outlaws as they were, they spoiled no peaceful villages, they lifted not their hands against the persecuting monarch, and the neighboring farms lost not one lamb through their violence. Some at least listened to the song of their warlike minstrel:—

"Come, ye children, and hearken to me:
I will teach you the fear of the Lord.
What man is he that lustest to live,
And would fain see good days?
Let him refrain his tongue from evil
And his lips that they speak no guile;
Let him eschew evil and do good;
Let him seek peace and ensue it."

With such strains as these, sung to his harp, the warrior gained the hearts of his men to enthusiastic love, and gathered followers on all sides, among them eleven fierce men of Gad, with faces like lions and feet swift as roes, who swam the Jordan in time of flood, and fought their way to him, putting all enemies in the valleys to flight.

But the Eastern sun burnt on the bare rocks. A huge fissure, opening in the mountain ridge, encumbered at the bottom with broken rocks, with precipitous banks scarcely affording a footing for the wild goats,—such is the spot where, upon a cleft on the steep precipice, still remains the foundations of the "hold," or tower, believed to have been David's retreat; and near at hand is the low-browed entrance of the galleried cave, alternating between narrow passages and spacious halls, but all oppressively hot and close. Waste and wild, without a bush or a tree, in the feverish atmosphere of Palestine, it was a desolate region, and at length the wanderer's heart fainted in him, as he thought of his own home, with its rich and lovely terraced slopes, green with wheat, trellised with vines, and clouded with gray olive, and of the cool cisterns of living waters by the gate of which he loved to sing,—

"He shall feed me in a green pasture,
And lead me forth beside the waters of comfort."

His parched longing lips gave utterance to the sigh, "O that one would give me to drink of the water of the well of Bethlehem that is by the gate!"

Three of his brave men, apparently Abishai, Benaiah, and Eleazar, heard the wish. Between their mountain fastness and the dearly-loved spring lay the host of the Philistines; but their love for their leader feared no enemies. It was not only water that he longed for, but the water from the fountain which he had loved in his childhood. They descended from their chasm, broke through the midst of the enemy's army, and drew the water from the favorite spring, bearing it back, once again through the foe, to the tower upon the rock! Deeply moved was their chief at this act of self-devotion,—so much moved that the water seemed to him too sacred to be put to his own use. "May God forbid it me that I should do this thing. Shall I drink the blood of these men that have put their lives in jeopardy, for with the jeopardy of their lives they brought it?" And as a hallowed and precious gift, he poured out unto the Lord the water obtained at the price of such peril to his followers.—Charlotte Yonge: A Book of Golden Deeds.

Notice the arrangement of the paragraphs in The Cup of Water, and study the way in which they are connected. Thus, in ¶ 1, the persecution of David by Saul is spoken of. ¶ 2 carries on the thought by speaking of David's attempt at reconciliation with Saul and ends with a song of David. ¶ 3 opens with a reference to this song—"with such strains as these," etc. ¶ 4 is connected with ¶ 3 by but and ends with the expression of David's longing. ¶ 5 opens with direct reference to the wish.

The following is an outline of the composition:—

I. Introduction.
A. The incident gives us a warm feeling for him.
B. It occurred when he was still a young man.
II. Situation.
A. David in hiding.
B. His valiant followers.
C. David's influence over them.
III. The devotion of his followers.
IV. What led David to wish for the water.
A. The heat.
B. The barren region.
C. His memories of the cool spring at Bethlehem.
V. The wish fulfilled.
A. Expedition of the three valiant men.
B. Their return.
C. David's noble deed.

Exercise 75.—Prepare outlines of passages indicated by the teacher.

35. Essentials in a Whole Composition.—Your study of the preceding models and your practice in making outlines must have shown you some of the things a long composition should have. Let us now gather up these points.

You have learned that both the sentence and the paragraph must have unity. The longer composition must also have unity. As in the paragraph everything must relate to one topic, so in the long composition everything must relate to one larger topic. Suppose that your subject is "Benjamin Franklin the Statesman"; you would then omit facts about Franklin's boyhood, also those about his discoveries in science, since, important and interesting as these facts are, they do not bear directly on the topic.

In a good composition, one paragraph leads up to or suggests another. Look again at the passage on page 88. In ¶ 1 the house itself is described. In ¶ 2 we are taken inside by the housekeeper, who exhibits the relics. ¶ 3 gives a more detailed account of one relic in particular (Shakspere's chair). Doubts of its authenticity naturally lead to the author's little talk on relics in general, which you find in ¶ 4. Very often, although not always, you will find paragraphs joined by connecting words; but there should always be connection in thought.

In the chapter on Condensation you are directed to decide carefully as to the relative importance of the different points treated, and to treat the most important points at the greatest length.

Remember, then, that everything in your composition should treat of one theme; that the paragraphs should follow each other in an orderly way, each one carrying on the thought suggested by the preceding paragraph; and that the most important points should be treated at the greatest length.

36. How to Plan an Essay.—Let us suppose that you take as your subject for a composition The Cotton Gin. Read all you can find on the subject, jotting down points of interest, such as the following:—

Boyhood of Whitney. His visit to the South. He becomes interested in problem of cleaning seeds from cotton wool. The method of removing seeds before the invention. Condition of cotton industry in the South. Description of cotton gin. Eli Whitney's attempts to make a machine. His success. Result of invention as to cotton raising. Whitney's character. Relation between slavery and the cotton gin. Effect of invention as to manufacturing at North. Amount of cotton exported after invention. Price of cotton before invention; after invention.

From this mass of material you must choose the important facts. Keep only the facts that bear upon your topic. Reject everything else. The result would be somewhat as follows:—

Accepted:—

Condition of cotton industry before invention of cotton gin.

Method of removing seeds before invention of cotton gin.

Price of cotton.

Whitney becomes interested in problem.

His first attempt to make a machine.

His success.

Price of cotton after invention of cotton gin.

Description of Whitney's cotton gin.

Result of invention as to cotton raising.

Relation between slavery and the cotton gin.

Amount of cotton exported after the invention.

Effect of invention on manufacturing at the North.

Rejected:—

Boyhood of Whitney.

Visit to South.

Whitney's character.

These points are rejected because they do not bear directly upon the main theme, although suggested by it.

Close attention to the selection of material in this way will give your composition unity.

After selecting your facts, the next point is to arrange them in an orderly way, so that one paragraph will lead naturally to the next. You would then have some such arrangement as this:—

I. Condition of cotton industry before invention of cotton gin.
A. Method of removing seeds before invention of cotton gin.
B. Price of cotton.
II. Whitney's solution of the problem.
A. His first attempt to make a machine.
B. His success.
C. Description of Whitney's cotton gin.
III. Result of invention.
A. Price of cotton after invention of cotton gin.
B. Amount of cotton exported after the invention.
C. Effect of invention on manufacturing at the North.
D. Relation between slavery and the cotton gin.

Here, for further illustration, is a similar outline for a composition on cotton.

I. Description of plant.
A. Root.
B. Stem.
C. Leaves.
D. Flowers.
E. Cotton boll.
F. Seeds.
II. Where grown.
A. Of what country a native.
B. Where grown most extensively.
III. Preparation.
A. Picking.
B. Ginning.
C. Packing.
IV. Manufacturing.
A. Articles manufactured.
V. History of Plant.
A. Discovery.
B. In America before invention of cotton gin.
C. In America after invention of cotton gin.
D. Value to-day.

Exercise 76.—I. Make outlines for composition on such topics as the teacher indicates.

Suggested topics:—

1. Our Fourth-of-July Celebration.
2. The Lost Child.
3. Tobacco.
4. The Battle of Bull Run.

II. Write compositions, using the outlines you have made. Be sure you reject everything, no matter how interesting, that does not relate to your subject. Arrange your paragraphs carefully, using connecting words when possible. Treat the most important facts at greatest length.