  1. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences.—Composition means putting together or combining or grouping. The things that we combine are words. There are three simple ways in which, according to the customs or grammar of our language, words are combined:—
A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a subject and a predicate. Examples. On the way. In the morning. By the fire. Sailing over the sea. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause in which the words do not make complete sense is called a dependent or subordinate clause. Examples. If I could go. When the sun rose. While I was speaking. Which I saw. A sentence is a group of words containing at least one subject and one predicate and making complete sense. A sentence is thus a single clause or a group of clauses. Examples. He started at once. If I could, I should start at once. When the sun rose, the mist disappeared. While I was speaking, the rain fell heavily. Neither the phrase nor the dependent clause can be used by itself. Each is only a part of a sentence. The first rule of English composition is that we must group our words in sentences. Exception. Exclamatory words, phrases, or clauses, such as, Fudge! Silence in the ranks! If I could only go!
1. A little after noon. 2. I found the sea very calm. 3. If we had kept on board. 4. We should have been all safe. 5. Taking off my outer clothes. 6. When I came to the ship. 7. How to get on board. 8. I spied a small piece of rope. 9. By the help of that rope. 10. That all the ship's provisions were dry. 11. When this was done. 12. Putting them together in the form of a raft. 13. I filled the chests with provisions. 14. Toward the land. 15. My raft went very well. 16. In the mouth of a little river. 17. On the right shore of the creek. 18. I made a tent with the sail. 19. Near the sea. 20. Protected from the heat of the sun.
1. How late the chimney-swifts are abroad I cannot determine long after I failed to detect any in the air I could hear them in my chimney it was the same rustling sound I heard by day when I could see them coming and going and I know that these birds were leaving and returning when the night 2. Many years ago there was a cold rain-storm in June for comfort a fire was built on the open hearth instead of in the air-tight stove that stood before it all went well until the night was well advanced suddenly a struggle was heard and suppressed cries after a brief silence there was a shuffling of feet at the doorstep the men went out with a lantern but no one was to be seen the windows were then searched but there was nobody near them the matter was discussed in whispers again and again the noises were heard at last when everybody was roused to a high pitch of excitement the long stovepipe heated by the flames upon the hearth parted at a joint and out flew a sooty and bedraggled little owl no one was superstitious then but suppose the owl had made its way back to the chimney and by this way escaped would not every person present have had vague uncanny feelings would not the house from that time have been haunted
About noon—going toward my boat—on the sand—the print of a man's naked foot—as if I had seen a ghost—up to a rising ground—to look around—so frightened was I—behind me—every now and then—fancying every stump to be a man. 2. Simple, Complex, and Compound Sentences.—According to the custom or grammar of our language, we may group our words in sentences in three ways. Sentences are, from the point of grammar, of three kinds: simple, complex, and compound. A simple sentence consists of a single clause. Examples. The man fell. The birds sing most sweetly at morning and at evening. The subject or the predicate of a simple sentence, or both, may, however, consist of several parts. Examples. The man and the child fell. The man slipped and fell. The man and the child slipped and fell. A complex sentence contains one independent or principal clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses. Examples. It was nearly night when we heard the glad news. Before help could reach the city, it had been captured by the enemy. A compound sentence contains two or more independent or principal clauses, either with or without dependent or subordinate clauses. Examples. Every minute seemed a day; every hour was a year. Finally, I dropped into an exhausted slumber, but I was awakened by the sound of bells. The sun, which resembled a ball of fire, touched the horizon and passed beneath it, and the darkness of the tropical night came swiftly over us.
1. It was now near the beginning of the month of June, and we had twelve weeks of bad weather before us. 2. Our rocky home was greatly improved by a wide 3. The weeks of imprisonment passed so rapidly that no one found time hanging heavy on his hands. 4. As the rainy season drew to a close, the weather for a while became milder. 5. Thunder roared, lightning blazed, torrents rushed toward the sea, which came in raging billows to meet them. 6. Nature resumed her smiling aspect of peaceful beauty; and soon all traces of the ravages of floods and storms disappeared beneath the luxuriant vegetation of the tropics. 7. The recent storms had stirred the ocean to its depths. 8. We crossed the river for a walk along the coast, and presently Fritz observed on a small island something which was long and rounded, resembling a boat bottom upward. 9. The island being steep and rocky, it was necessary to be careful; but we found a good landing place on the farther side. 10. The boys hurried by the nearest way to the beach where lay the great object, which proved to be a huge stranded whale. 11. Look at these glorious shells and coral branches! 12. Did you notice the extreme delicacy of the shells? 13. We were soon ready to return to the boat, but Ernest had a fancy for remaining alone on the island till we came back. 14. The more oil we could obtain the better, for a great deal was used in the large lantern which burnt day and night in the recesses of the cave. 15. It was unpleasant work to cut up blubber.
1. The early bird catches the worm. 2. We started before sunrise. 3. The faithful steward received a reward. 4. I do not doubt your prudence. 5. They lived in a rose-embowered cottage. 6. Santa Claus came at candle-lighting time. 7. We pity the friendless. 8. The prayer of a righteous man availeth much. 9. We should share the burdens of the heavy-laden. 10. She carried a dainty lace-trimmed handkerchief. 11. We lingered in the lilac-scented garden. 12. A kind-hearted man delights in the happiness of others. 13. The traveler wore a fur-lined coat. 14. I enjoy driving a spirited horse. 15. A solemn-looking servant opened the door.
1. We were stepping toward the west. 2. A shout of joy rang through the woods. 3. The song of the bluebird sounds from the elm. 4. Her wedding gown, which was made of silk, was very expensive. 5. Words of kindness cheer those who are unhappy. 6. We listened to his tales, which were often repeated. 7. His deeds of mercy made him beloved. 8. A look of sadness clouded the face of the leader. 9. The lawyer who is able secures many clients. 10. He visited the country, which had recently been discovered.
1. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 2. A friendly man will have friends. 3. He is said to be a good-natured man. 4. A beautiful child opened the garden-gate. 5. She wore a simple muslin frock. 6. The king wore his
1. The sun is in the west. Man ceases from labor. 2. The dew is falling. You must not walk in the garden. 3. The clock struck twelve. The door opened to admit Marley's ghost. 4. Mary has not written to me. She has been gone a month. 5. The bee is very industrious. It is always gathering honey. 6. I saw a little red owl. It lives in a hollow tree. 7. We pitched our tents on the shore. Then the sea winds blew. 8. We anchored in the bay. The water was calm. 9. They lived in a village. It was many miles from a railroad. 10. The poor suffered. The good man mourned.
1. The wind blew freshly from the shore. The uneasy billows tossed up and down. 2. Eustace sat under a tree. The children gathered round him. 3. Cowards are cruel. The brave love mercy. 4. Charms strike the sight. Merit wins the soul. 5. He invited his guests to remain longer. They wished to start before the heat of the day. 6. The heaven was above his head. The sand was beneath his feet. 7. The water trickled among the rocks. A pleasant breeze rustled in the dry branches. 8. The commander was badly wounded. His men were scattered. 9. It was half-past
1. He looked back. He saw a cloud of dust. 2. He sprang to his feet. He ran after the messenger. 3. He donned the white cockade. He fought for the exiled prince. 4. We climbed the mountain. The day was cool. 5. We started for home. The sun had set. 6. He lifted his eyes. He looked toward heaven. He thanked God. 7. It was early morning. He rowed across the lake. 8. He left early. He wished to catch the train. 9. He was very studious. He won the scholarship. 10. I went for a ramble. I took little Annie with me. 11. John is a blacksmith. He lives in the village. 12. He shoes horses. He does it skillfully. 13. The bluebird sings. He tells us spring is here. 14. We feared to start. The night was stormy. 15. The watchman was weary. He slept at his post.
1. We heard the roll of ponderous wheels. They roused us from our slumbers. 2. Travelers are surprised at the beauty of the spot. They occasionally come upon it by accident. 3. Our throats are choked with the dust. It lies thick along the road. 4. He drank a cup of cold water. This
1. They had been friends in youth, —— whispering tongues can poison truth. 2. The waves beside them danced, ---- they outdid the sparkling waves in glee. 3. The sun sank to rest; —— we lingered. 4. I came, I saw, —— I conquered. 5. He wanted to live, —— he wanted to work. 6. The owl has a backbone; —— it is a vertebrate. 7. Our forest life was rough; —— dangers closed us round. 8. Knowledge comes; —— wisdom lingers. 9. 'Tis winter now, —— spring will blossom soon. 10. We had guns; ---- we had an abundance of ammunition. 11. I go, ---- I return. 12. All the rivers run into the sea; —— the sea is not full. 13. It is storming; —— we will not go.
1. The sun was hot, and we rested in the shade. 2. We visited Stratford, and here Shakspere lived. 3. The poor man was bent with age, and he staggered under the heavy load. 4. The old woman lived in a little cottage, and it stood on the edge of the woods. 5. I was walking along the country roads, and I saw some wild strawberries. 6. The little boy carried a bundle, and it seemed very heavy. 7. The night was chilly, and we built a fire in the grate. 8. I wished to pass away the time, and I read a newspaper. 9. He was very ambitious, and he wished to become President. 10. She struck a match, and it burned with a feeble light. 3. Variety in the Use of Sentences:—All your sentences must be simple, or complex, or compound; but there is no reason why you should use one of the three kinds in preference to another. If you examine a passage which you think interesting, you will be quite likely to find that some sentences are simple, some complex, and some compound. The variety is pleasing. If all the sentences had been of one kind, the result would have been decidedly monotonous. Pupils sometimes ask whether they should use long sentences or short sentences. This question is really answered in the preceding paragraph, for a simple sentence is usually shorter than a complex or a compound sentence. The fact is that what we like is variety. Until you are more experienced in composition, it will be well for you, in general, to use comparatively short sentences,—that is, sentences of not more than twenty-five or thirty words. You should feel at liberty, however, to follow your own taste in such matters, provided that your sentences are not regularly of about the same length and about the same form, so that your writing is lacking in variety. Be particularly careful, moreover, to avoid the sentence which is so long as not to be easily understood, such as the following:—
See how much this passage is improved when the long sentence is broken up into shorter sentences:—
I explored an old cellar. I noticed a slight break in the wall. The neck of a bottle projected from it. I drew it from its resting place. It proved to be a quaint green glass bottle. It bore a label. The label read "Currant Wine, 1802." I smacked my lips. I handed the bottle to my companion to open. He pulled the cork out with his teeth. We filled two tumblers. I thanked him. I raised the glass to my lips. I took a deep draught. Instantly I bounded to my feet. My bound would have done credit to an athlete. I made for the spring-house. "Seems to me," remarked the old tenant of the house,—"seems to me that was horse liniment. I know the smell."
Once upon a time there were two princes who were twins and they lived in the pleasant vale of Argos, far away in Hellas, where they had fruitful meadows and vineyards, sheep and oxen, and great herds of horses and all that men could need to make them blest, and yet they were wretched, because they were jealous of each other, and from the moment they were born began to quarrel.
A sleep fell upon the whole castle. The beautiful princess slept in her chamber. The king and the queen were in the great hall. They fell fast asleep. The horses slept in their stalls. The dogs slept in the yard. The pigeons slept on the roof. The very fire on the hearth slept like the rest. The meat on the spit ceased roasting. The wind ceased. Not a leaf fell from the trees about the castle. Around about that place grew a hedge of thorns. At last the whole castle was hidden from view. Nothing could be seen but the vane on the roof. Years after a king's son came into that country. He heard about the enchanted castle. He came near the hedge of thorns. It changed into a hedge of beautiful flowers. He passed through into the castle yard. He saw the horses and the hunting dogs lying asleep. On the roof, the pigeons were sitting with their heads under their wings. He entered the kitchen. The flies on the wall were asleep. The cook had her hand uplifted to strike the scullion. The kitchen maid had a fowl in her lap ready to pluck. He mounted higher. He saw the whole court asleep. The king and the queen were asleep on their thrones. At last he came to the tower. He went up the winding stair. He opened the door. He entered the room of the princess. He stooped and kissed the princess. She opened her eyes and looked kindly at him. She rose. They went forth together. Then the king and queen and whole court waked up. The horses rose and shook themselves. The hounds sprang up and wagged their tails. The pigeons flew into the field. The kitchen fire leaped up and cooked the meat. The cook gave the scullion a box on the ear. He roared out. The maid went on plucking the fowl. The wedding of the prince and princess was celebrated with great splendor. They lived happily ever after. 4. Periodic Sentences.—We have now discussed sentences with regard to their grammatical structure and with regard to their length. There is one more way in which they may be looked at; that is, the degree to which the sense is suspended. This will require a little explanation. In each of the following sentences two vertical lines are placed at the spot where the words first make complete sense. 1. Whenever he comes, he is warmly welcomed."" 2. He is warmly welcomed"" whenever he comes. 3. When Absalom died, David mourned."" 4. David mourned"" when Absalom died. 5. As the President passed, the soldiers saluted."" 6. The soldiers saluted"" as the President passed. 7. While there is life, there is hope."" 8. The sun shines"" on the just and the unjust. 9. The steam tug had long since let slip her hawsers,"" and gone panting away with a derisive scream. 10. The ship seemed quite proud"" of being left to take care of itself, and, with its huge white sails bulged out, strutted off like a vain turkey. When the words in a sentence are so arranged that the sense is not immediately complete, the sense is said to be suspended. A sentence in which the sense is suspended until the end, or near the end, is called a periodic sentence. A sentence in which the sense is not suspended until the end, or near the end, is called a loose sentence. A periodic sentence, unless it is long and clumsy, often stimulates the attention. You cannot understand it at all until you get near the close, and this very fact keeps your interest alive and leads your mind on. In the following passage the sentences are periodic:—
Here is the same paragraph, so written that none of the sentences is periodic. Does not the paragraph seem a little flat?
The point here, as in the other similar matters we have discussed, is that the mind likes variety in expression. You need not worry yourself by thinking much about the form of your sentences; but you should, if possible, get into the habit of varying them from time to time. Let them be sometimes short and sometimes long; sometimes simple, and sometimes complex or compound. And above all, when you are revising what you have written, try to make sure that in some cases the sense is sufficiently suspended to make your sentences interesting.
1. The child slept. 2. They eagerly searched. 3. The prisoner escaped. 4. We explored the creek. 5. The boys laughed. 6. The people rejoiced. 7. We despaired. 8. The girl fainted. 9. He blithely sang. 10. She succeeded. 11. He failed. 12. He received his diploma. 13. The soldiers retreated. 14. Mary turned.
1. They landed. 2. I am happy. 3. We watched. 4. The coward fled. 5. The raven croaked. 6. The flag will float. 7. The child died. 8. The poor suffered. 9. Our president died. 10. The slaves were free. 11. We quietly left. 12. They fled. 13. She returned. 14. We received the message. 15. He encouraged us.
1. —— the village smithy stands. 2. —— he runs. 3. —— lay the little village. 4. —— to grandmother's house we go. 5. The moonlight —— flooded the room. 6. —— there was a honeysuckle arbor. 7. —— he reached home. 8. —— yet I trust him. 9. —— I will help you. 10. —— Washington —— took command. 11. —— rode the six hundred. 12. —— a youth —— passed by. 13. A traveler —— was found. 14. —— he still grasped a banner. 15. The prisoner —— made a confession.
1. Far away in the forest ——. 2. Out in the country ——. 3. A city that is set on a hill ——. 4. With a look of delighted surprise ——. 5. This young lad, hard as the world had knocked him about, ——. 6. Yet, through all his fun, ——. 7. Though they spake little ——. 8. Without any discussion, ——. 9. Looking about her uneasily, ——. 10. Late that night, as I sat up pondering over all that had happened, ——.
1. The night wind swept by with a desolate moan. 2. The old shutters swung to and fro, screaming upon their hinges. 3. The village preacher's modest mansion rose near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled. 4. The noble six hundred rode into the jaws of death. 5. A sound came from the land between the fitful gusts of wind. 6. The silvery rain comes aslant like a long line of spears brightly burnished. 7. The snow arrives, announced by all the trumpets of the sky. 8. Great burdocks grew from the wall down to the water, so high that little children could stand upright under the loftiest of them. 9. The loveliest children ran about on the roads, playing with the gay butterflies. 10. The clear sun shone warm on the first day of spring in a little court yard. 11. An old castle looms over the narrow road. 12. The ivy grows thickly over the crumbling red walls, leaf by leaf, up to the balcony, and a beautiful girl stands there. 13. She glances up the road as she bends over the balustrade. 14. The lighthouse of Inverkaldy stood on a little rocky island, quite a distance from the mainland. 15. He rowed across the water with a cheerful heart. 5. Bad Sentences.—Good sentences, then, are sentences that have some variety in form and in length, and, in particular, that are frequently periodic. You will soon learn to give to your writing the little touch of grace or beauty that comes in this way. But what are bad sentences? What sorts of sentences should you try not to make? There are really only three kinds of sentences which are positively bad. The first is the "comma sentence." 6. The "Comma Sentence."—This name is sometimes given to sentences in which two or more independent clauses, not connected by conjunctions, are separated only by commas. You should guard carefully against this fault. If two independent clauses be placed in a single sentence, they should be connected by a conjunction or separated by a semicolon. When independent clauses in the same sentence are connected by a conjunction, it is proper to use either a semicolon or comma. When they are not connected by a conjunction, only the semicolon can be used.
1. Everything has its time to flourish, everything passes away. 2. It was late at night, the moon shone through the windows. 3. We are in a rich, a happy house, all are cheerful and full of joy, 4. The door opened and the maid came in, they all stood still, not one stirred. 5. I was right, we were not of the smallest importance to her. 6. I'm glad they are gone, now we can be comfortable. 7. The frost had broken up, a soft plentiful rain had melted the snowdrifts. 8. The window was a grand advantage, out of it one could crawl on to the roof, and from the roof was the
1. I left Salem House upon the morrow afternoon, I little thought then that I left it, never to return, we traveled very slowly all night, and did not get into Yarmouth before nine or ten o'clock in the morning, I looked out for Mr. Barkis, but he was not there; and instead of him a fat, merry-looking little old man in black, with rusty little bunches of ribbons at the knees of his breeches, came puffing up to the coach window, and said, "Master Copperfield?" 2. The conflict had raged for an hour, it grew more furious, from deck to deck the combatants rushed madly, fighting like demons, the Richard and her crew suffered terribly, yet they fought on, she had been pierced by several eighteen-pound balls below water, she leaked badly, but she would not surrender.
7. Sentences without Unity.—We put into a sentence thoughts that belong together. Indeed, a good sentence is a group of words representing thoughts that have a close relationship in the speaker's or writer's mind. A sentence thus constructed is said to have unity; that is, "one-ness." A sentence in which the words represent facts or thoughts that do not have such a relationship is said to lack unity. Examples. 1. The owl, which is a nocturnal bird, has round, staring eyes, and superstitious people dislike to hear it hoot. [Two thoughts not closely related.] 2. Columbus was assisted by Queen Isabella of Spain, and sailing across the Atlantic Ocean with a fleet of three vessels, he discovered a new world. [Two thoughts not closely related.] 3. Columbus was assisted by Queen Isabella, who pawned her jewels and used the money thus procured in fitting out for him a fleet of three vessels. [Thoughts closely related.] 4. William Penn settled Pennsylvania and made a treaty with the Indians under a large elm, which is one of the most graceful of our trees. [Thoughts not closely related.] 5. William Penn, who was himself a Quaker, founded Pennsylvania as a place of refuge for the persecuted Quakers. [Thoughts closely related.]
1. The wild strawberry has a delicious flavor, and we enjoy picking the berries, which belong to the rose family. 2. Mary has a new beaver muff which her father bought for her in Montreal, the largest city in Canada. 3. Sir Walter Raleigh was a favorite of Queen Elizabeth, called the Virgin Queen, and he introduced tobacco into England. 4. We visited the Metropolitan Museum of Art, where we saw the picture called "The Horse Fair," and met Mary, who is certainly the most discontented girl I know. 5. Once, a long time ago, in a little cottage beside a dark wood, lived a naughty little boy, and his mother told him repeatedly that the old witch that lived in the wood would get him. 8. The Formless Sentence.—There is still one other sort of sentence to be avoided; that is the ugly, shapeless sentence that results from placing together a number of complete statements loosely connected by and, but, or so. Sometimes this is called the and sentence or the so sentence, because these two connectives are so frequently used by inexperienced writers. Let us call it the formless sentence, meaning thereby a sentence which is deficient in form, or the form of which is ugly or distasteful to the trained eye and ear. You will have to acquire your sense or taste for form in sentences by practice and experience; but you will be helped by studying the sentences given below. Those in the left-hand column are well-written; those in the right-hand column are formless.
You will see, then, that there is certain "knack" which you must acquire of giving a sentence a pleasing form. With a little patience, you will soon learn it, and you will gain it all the more easily by remembering that the ugly formless sentence, which you are to avoid, is simply a long loose sentence (see § 4).
1. There once reigned a queen, and in her garden were found the most glorious flowers of all seasons and from all lands, but she loved best the roses, and so she had the most 2. Many years ago there lived an emperor, and he cared enormously for new clothes, and he wanted to be very fine, so he spent all his money for clothes, and he did not care about his soldiers, but only liked to drive out and show his new clothes, and he had a coat for every hour of the day, and just as they say of a king, "He is in council," they said of him, "The emperor is in his wardrobe." 3. Napoleon's marshals came to him once in the midst of a battle and said, "We have lost the day and are being cut to pieces," but the great soldier drew out his watch, unmoved, and said, "It is only two o'clock in the afternoon, and though you have lost the battle you have time to win another," so they charged again and won a victory, and we should enter our battle-fields of difficulty with the same unconquerable spirit. 4. The highest courage is sustained courage, for the power of continuance adds to all other powers, and to face danger, appreciate the full demand and meet it to the end, is the height of brave living, for most young hearts can respond to a sudden demand for courage, but the long stretch finds them lacking. 5. A New York woman called on Emerson one morning and found the philosopher reading in his study, while near him on a plate there lay a little heap of cherry stones, and the visitor slipped one of these stones into her glove. Some months later she met Emerson again at a reception in Boston and recalled her visit to him and then she pointed to the brooch she wore, a brooch of gold and brilliants with the cherry stone set in the center and she said, "I took this 6. John was a boy who wanted to be a ventriloquist, and one day he visited an old engineer in a factory and after a little conversation he imitated the squeak of badly oiled machinery, and the old engineer trotted to a certain valve and oiled it, so John let a few minutes pass and then emitted another series of squeaks and the engineer again oiled his machinery, and the third time John squeaked the engineer saw through the joke and, walking up quietly behind John, squirted a half-pint of oil down the back of his neck, saying, "There! There'll be no more squeaking to-day." Exercise 27.—Reconstruct the following sentences, putting the underlined phrases in their proper places. 1. The musician was playing a sonata with long hair. 2. I saw at once that he was a villain with half an eye. 3. A woman desires a home for her dog going abroad for the summer. 4. The kind old gentleman lifted the trembling child with a gold-headed cane. 5. A wreath was made by a little girl of roses. 6. The house was painted brown with the tall flag-pole. 7. We saw a magnificent cedar tree entering the woods. 8. We found some golden-rod walking along the dusty road. 9. We saw the lakes climbing a tree. 10. The old lady gave alms to a young beggar with the white hair. |
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