The rules of French versification have not always been the same. The classical movement of the seventeenth century in its reforms proscribed certain things, like hiatus, overflow lines, mute e before the caesura, which had been current hitherto, and the Romanticists of this century have endeavored to give greater diversity and flexibility to verse-structure both by restoring some of these liberties and by introducing new ones. Especially have great innovations been advocated in the last few years by the youngest school of poets, but they have as yet found no general acceptance.

The unit of French versification is not a fixed number of long and short, or accented and unaccented, syllables in a certain definite arrangement, that is, a foot, but a line. A line is a certain number of syllables ending in a rhyme which binds it to one or more other lines. The lines found in lyric verse vary in length from one to thirteen syllables; but lines with an even number of syllables are much more used than those with an odd number.

In determining the number of syllables the general rules of syllabic division are followed, and each vowel or diphthong involves a syllable. But the following points are to be noted:

1. Mute e final or followed by s or nt is not counted at the end of the line.

2. Final mute e in the body of the line is not counted as a syllable before a word beginning with a vowel or mute h (elision).

3. Mute e in the termination of the third person plural, imperfect and conditional, of verbs is not counted; nor is it counted in the future and conditional of verbs of the first conjugation whose stem ends in a vowel (oublieront, also written in verse oublÎront; see p. 130, l. 14).

4. When two or more vowel sounds other than mute e come together within a word they are sometimes treated as a diphthong and make but one syllable, sometimes separated and counted as two. Usage is not altogether consistent in this particular; the same combination is in some words pronounced as two syllables (ni-ais, li-en, pri-Ère, pri-ons, jou-et), in others as one (biais, rien, bar-riÈre, ai-mions, fou-et); and even the same word is sometimes variable (ancien, hier, duel). In general such combinations are monosyllabic if they have developed from a single vowel in the Latin parent word.

5. Certain words allow a different spelling according to the demands of the verse (encore or encor, Charles or Charle).

Since the sixteenth century, hiatus has been forbidden by the rules of French versification. But, as we have just seen (under 4 above), two vowels are allowed to come together in the interior of a word. What the rule against hiatus does proscribe then is the use of a word ending in a vowel (except mute e, which is elided; cf. 2 above) before a word beginning with a vowel or mute h, and the use of words in which mute e not final follows a vowel in the interior of the word; e.g. tu as, et ont, livrÉe jolie; louent, allÉes. But hiatus is not regarded as existing when two vowels are brought together by the elision of a mute e; e.g. in Hugo's lines, the vie a in

L'ouragan de leur vie a pris toutes les pages (p. 108, l. 20),
and the joie et in
Sois ma force et ma joie et mon pilier d'airain (p. 130, l. 8).

Cf. also 1 and 3 above.

The rhythm of the line comes from the relation of its stressed to its unstressed syllables. All lines have a stress (lÈve) on the rhyme syllable, and if they have more than four syllables they have one or more other stresses. Lines that consist of more than eight syllables are usually broken by a caesural pause, which must follow a stressed syllable. In lines of ten syllables the pause comes generally after the fourth syllable, sometimes after the fifth; in lines of twelve syllables, after the sixth.

The line of twelve syllables is the most important and widely used of all and is known as the Alexandrine, from a poem of the twelfth century celebrating the exploits of Alexander the Great, which is one of the earliest examples of its use. It is almost without exception the measure of serious and dignified dramatic and narrative poetry, and even in lyric verse it is used more frequently than any other. From MALHERBE to VICTOR HUGO the accepted rule demanded a caesura after the sixth syllable and a pause at the end of the line; this divided the line into two equal portions and separated each line from its neighbors, preventing the overflow (enjambement) of one line into the next. The line thus constructed had two fixed stresses, one on the sixth syllable, before the caesura, which therefore had to be the final syllable of a word and could not have mute e for its vowel, and another on the final (twelfth) syllable. There are indeed in the poets of that period examples of lines in which, when naturally read, the most considerable pause falls in some other position; but the line always offers in the sixth place a syllable capable of a principal stress. There was also regularly one other stressed syllable in each half-line; it might be any one of the first five syllables, but is most frequently the third, second, or fourth, rarely the first or fifth; but the secondary stress might be wanting altogether; a third stressed syllable in the half-line sometimes occurs. The Romanticists introduced a somewhat greater flexibility into the Alexandrine line by permitting the displacement or suppression of the caesura and the overflow of one line into the next; the displacement of the caesura sometimes goes so far as to put in the sixth place in the line a syllable quite incapable of receiving a stress.

In the following stanza of Lamartine (see p. 60), which consists of Alexandrine lines of the classical type, the stressed syllables are indicated by italics and the caesura by a dash:

Sal_u_t, bois couronn_É_s—d'un r_e_ste de verd_u_re!
Feuill_a_ges jauniss_a_nts—sur les gaz_o_ns Ép_a_is!
Sal_u_t, derniers beaux j_ou_rs!—Le d_eu_il de la nat_u_re
Conv_ie_nt À la doul_eu_r—et pl_aÎ_t À mes reg_a_rds.

Cf. for examples of displaced caesura, Hugo's lines—

Je marcher_ai_—les yeux fix_É_s sur mes pens_É_es (p. 121,l. 25.)
Seul, inconn_u_,—le dos courb_É_,—les mains crois_É_es (p. 121,
l. 27.)

For examples of enjambement, cf. Leconte de Lisle's Lines—

L'ecclÉsi_a_ste a d_i_t:—Un chien viv_a_nt vaut mi_eu_x
Qu'un lion m_o_rt (p. 201, l. 21).
O boucher_i_e!—Ô soif du m_eu_rtre!—acharnem_e_nt
Horr_i_ble! (p. 210, l. 21).

Unrhymed lines (blank verse) and lines of which only the alternate ones rhyme have been tried but discarded.

Rhyme is therefore an indispensable element of French verse, and is vastly more important as a poetic ornament than it is in English; so important that Sainte-Beuve calls it the sole harmony (l'unique harmonie) of verse. Rhyme may be either masculine, when it involves but one syllable (divinitÉ: majestÉ, toi: roi), or feminine, when it involves two syllables the second of which contains mute e (repose: rose, changÉes: ravagÉes); and lines are called masculine or feminine according to their rhymes. Masculine rhymes must constantly alternate with feminine rhymes; that is, two masculine or feminine lines of different rhymes may never come together; but the younger poets have sought a greater liberty here as elsewhere, and poems with but one kind of rhyme occur (see p. 208). Rhyme to be perfect must satisfy the eye as well as the ear; masculine rhymes must have identity of vowel sound and the final consonants must be the same or such as would have the same sound if pronounced (granit: nid, hÉros: bourreaux; not diffÉrent: tyran); but silent consonants between the vowel and the final consonant do not count (essaims: saints, corps: morts). Feminine rhymes must have identity of rhyming vowels and of following consonant sounds if there be any; and the final consonants must be the same (fidÈles: citadelles, jolie: crie; not nuages: louage). Variations from ordinary spelling are sometimes used to make words satisfy this rule of rhyming for the eye (je vien, je voi), but they are hardly approved. The ear seems even sometimes to play the subordinate rÔle in the rhyme, for words are found in rhyme which satisfy the eye but not the ear (VÉnus: nus). Rhyme as above described is called sufficient (suffisante); if it also involve identity of the consonant preceding the rhyming vowel (consonne d'appui) it is called rich (riche); (examples: Étoiles: toiles, bandit;

The French ear is unlike the English in considering rime riche an additional beauty; the Romanticists especially have cultivated it, and there are whole poems where simply sufficient rhyme is the exception. A word may not rhyme with itself, but words identical in form but different in meaning may rhyme with each other (cf. first, fifth, and eleventh stanzas of les Djinns, p. 95.

By the use of lines of different length and especially by the arrangement of the rhymes a great variety of stanza forms has been created, as well as certain definite forms for complete short compositions, known as fixed forms. The most common are the ballade, rondel, rondeau, and triolet, developed especially in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and revived in our own, and the sonnet, introduced from Italy during the Renaissance.

The ballade consists of three stanzas, of eight or ten lines each, that repeat exactly the same rhyme arrangement, and of a shorter stanza of four or five lines, called the envoy, which repeats the rhyme arrangement of the second part of the other stanzas. The line of the ballade has generally eight syllables, but may have ten or twelve (see pp. 1, 4, 5, 235).

The rondel, as usually printed, consists of three parts, the first of four lines, the second of four, the last two of which are the first two of the first part, and the third of five, the last one of which is the first one of the first part; there are but two rhymes throughout. The lines of the rondel have usually eight syllables. This form was practically superseded by the rondeau (see pp. 2 and 3).

The rondeau also consists of three parts; the first has five lines, the second three, and the third five, and the first word or words of the first line, usually the first half of the line, are repeated at the end of the second and third parts; there are but two rhymes. The lines of the rondeau have also usually eight syllables (see p. 6).

The triolet consists of eight lines, usually octosyllabic. The first line is twice repeated, in the fourth and seventh places, and the second line is repeated once, making the final one. There are but two rhymes (see p. 298).

The sonnet has fourteen lines, usually Alexandrines, and is made up of two parts, one of eight lines, called the octave, and one of six, called the sestet; the rule allows but two rhymes to the octave and three others to the sestet; the arrangement of the rhymes is inflexible for the strict Petrarchan type (see below), but considerable variations from it are common. For sonnets of the strict type see pp. 257, 263, 280; for others showing variations see pp. 8, 13, 14, 199.

The rhyme arrangement of these various forms is most clearly shown by letters as follows, capital letters indicating lines that are repeated. Ballade: eight lines, ababbcbC, ababbcbC, ababbcbC, bcbC; ten lines, ababbccdcD, ababbccdcD, ababbccdcD, ccdcD. Rondel: ABba, abAB, abbaA. Rondeau: aabba, aab refrain, aabba refrain. Triolet: ABaAabAB. Sonnet: abba abba ccdede.

For reference: Th. de Banville, Petit traitÉ de poÉsie franÇaise, 1872; F. de Gramont, les Vers franÇais et leur prosodie, 1875; Becq de FouquiÈres, TraitÉ gÉnÉral de versification franÇaise, 1879; A. Tobler,

Vom franzÖsischen Versbau alter und neuer Zeit, Berlin, 1880, 3d edition, 1894,French translation with excellent preface by Gaston Paris, 1885; Clair Tisseur, Modestes observations sur l'art de versifier, Lyon, 1893; A. Bibesco, la Question du vers franÇais et la tentative des poÈtes dÉcadents, 1893, 2d edition, with preface by Sully Prudhomme, 1896.