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| PLAN OF AMIENS | PLAN OF NOTRE DAME |
| The Perfect Plan of French Gothic |
Both Plans Are Basilican and Have Double Aisles and ChevÊts. But in Amiens Note the Series of Apses and Their Complicated Vaulting. The Nave Vaulting of Notre Dame Has Six Divisions in Each Double Bay; That of Amiens Is Treated in a Single Bay with Four Divisions by Means of Groin Ribs and Pointed Arches. P. 281
INTERIOR OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL
Note the Increased Sense of Elasticity, Grace and Soaring. P. 281, ET SEQ.
SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS
Owing to the Size of the Windows, the Wall Spaces Are
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE
The Early French Gothic dates from about 1150 to 1275. It is the period in which most of the great cathedrals were created and in most instances with money contributed by the laity. Roughly speaking it begins with Notre Dame, in Paris, and ends with the Cathedral of Amiens.
Notre Dame, Paris, and Amiens.—The plan of Amiens is regarded as the typical example of French cathedrals. Comparing it with that of Notre Dame one observes that, while both are of the basilican type, the latter is distinguished by having double side aisles enclosing the entire nave, choir, and chevÊt. The only other example of this is the Cathedral of Bourges. In Notre Dame the transepts do not project beyond the aisles. Further, in the vaulting of the nave the system is still one of square bays, embracing two aisle bays, having six divisions in the vaulting. In Amiens, however, the groin rib and pointed arch have taken the place of the sexpartite plan and the bays are oblong. The elasticity of this later system simplified the vaulting of the curved aisle of the chevÊt, whereas in Notre Dame the awkwardness of the rhomboidal spaces was ingeniously evaded by dividing each into nearly equal triangles, which could easily be vaulted. Note in both plans the disposition of the buttresses in the outer walls. It is interesting to know that the area of Notre Dame is about equal to that of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak, while that of Amiens is smaller,
West Fronts.—In all French cathedrals a special feature of the exterior is the West Front, and a comparison of that of Notre Dame may well be made with the faÇade of Amiens, which marks the transition to the second style, the Rayonnant, and with that of Rheims, the upper part of which marks the transition to the third style, Flamboyant. The design of all three is constructively the same—a development of the Romanesque twin towers, connected by an arcade, while a rose or wheel window is placed above the central recessed door. The spires, which were intended to crown the towers, were never built. How they would have affected the appearance may be gathered from a comparison of the West Front of Cologne Cathedral—a cathedral that is “completely French in plan, uniting in one design the leading characteristics of the most notable French Churches.” (Hamlin.)
It is in the West Front of Notre Dame that the structural purport of the design is most definitely pronounced. When we study the vertical elements of the design, we note the division of the faÇade into three vertical masses corresponding with the interior divisions of nave and double aisles. The division is made by the buttresses which sustain the longitudinal strain of the interior arcades and the outer walls and insure the stability of the towers. And this stability is also associated with a suggestion of upward growth, due to the three setbacks in the profile of the buttresses; which setbacks, it is to be noted, correspond to the three main horizontal divisions of the faÇade.
The lowest is distinguished by massive simplicity; an effect of solid masonry, the thickness of which is empha
And if the contrast of these several divisions delights us, what is to be said of the balance that correlates these vertical and horizontal features, these various values of form, of plain and ornamental work, of light and shade, into a harmonious unity? It is the product of structural logic and grandeur of feeling; and compared with the reserve of its nobility the west front of Amiens, even the still finer one of Rheims, may seem less impressive. In these, it will be noted, the depth of the door recesses is increased by a pronounced offset in the lower story of the buttress, into which the sculptured jambs of the doorways merge, while the projection thus contrived is crowned with a canopy in the nature of a porch. How does the division at Amiens of the second story into two compare with the simple unity of the one in Notre Dame? Or how does the latter’s arcade compare with the corresponding band at Rheims of figures in arcaded niches, surmounted by ornate canopies?
The answer will depend on one’s individual temperament; perhaps also on one’s mood. It may seem to some that in Notre Dame the variety in unity is worked out with more consciousness of the principles to be applied,
So much for the exteriors of these cathedrals. It is, however, when we compare the interior of Notre Dame with that of Amiens, that we see in what direction French Gothic was travelling. In the case of Amiens, it is as if some power had pulled the older form upward into a slenderer, more elastic fabric; less massive, possibly less stately, but also less inert, infinitely alive in its inspiring growth, with grace of movement as well as dignity. Notre Dame is still, as it were, anchored to the comparative ponderousness of the Romanesque style. The round columns with capitals of the Corinthian type still follow the model, though not the proportions, of the Roman. Their effect of dumpiness is further increased by the projecting half-round pilaster column that supports the main member of the vaulting shaft. On the other hand, the clustered piers at Amiens are slender, loftier in proportion to width; while a simple logic of structural purpose is apparent in the three-quarter attached shafts which carry the arches and aisle-vaults, and the main shaft of the nave vaulting rises uninterruptedly from the ground. The pier, in fact, operates as an abutting support to the members, which actually sustain the arch and vaulting, and their relation to the pier is asserted by the continuous abacus which binds all lightly but firmly together. A corresponding logical simplicity distinguishes the four-part nave vaulting at Amiens, where the pressure is concentrated equally on all the columns in succession without the need of intermediate ones to carry the added transverse rib.
Other great examples of the thirteenth century are the cathedrals of Laon, Chartres, Rouen, Beauvais, Auxerre,
Sainte Chapelle.—The problem of concentration of strains was most triumphantly solved in the Sainte Chapelle (1242-1247) or Royal Chapel, in Paris, in which the Gothic system of construction may be said to have reached complete maturity. Here the vaulting is carried on buttress-piers, and the spaces between the latter are entirely filled with windows, 15 feet wide and 50 high. The structure below the vaulting is literally a framework, a lantern for the display of the stained glass; “a great translucent tabernacle merely ribbed and braced with stone.”
The influence of Sainte Chapelle affected French construction for half a century and was developed to its furthest possible point in S. Urban at Troyes, begun in 1260.
Second Period.—This cathedral represents the transition into the second period of French Gothic, which may be roughly placed at 1275 to 1375. The principles of construction could be carried no further and the style began to turn in on itself, the designers expending their invention on elaboration of ornament. This period is called in France the Rayonnant, from the raylike traceries that were introduced into the rose-windows and from the prevalence of circular forms in windows generally. The faÇade of Amiens is one of the best examples of the style.
Third Period.—By degrees the Rayonnant style passed into the so-called Flamboyant, which lasted until the introduction of the Renaissance style early in the sixteenth century. In it the principles of design were gradually
Secular Gothic.—Gothic architecture was not confined to cathedrals and churches. Monasteries, hospitals, civic buildings, houses, and castles were erected in profusion, especially during the fifteenth century, though few survive to the present day. But a strikingly picturesque monument is the monastery of Mont-St.-Michel, of thirteenth century design, which clusters around the base of the Abbey Church, which was built in the eleventh century and remodelled in the sixteenth. Among the hospitals is that of Chartres. Rouen possesses a fifteenth century example of civic architecture in the Palais de Justice. The home of a great merchant prince of the same century is preserved in the House of Jacques Coeur at Bourges, while the east wing of the ChÂteau de Blois represents military architecture at the commencement of the sixteenth century.
SALISBURY CATHEDRAL
Note the Four-Part Rib-Vaulting of the Nave, and the Liernes in the Vault at the Crossing. P. 294
NAVE OF NORWICH CATHEDRAL
Romanesque up to the Vaulting: the Latter an Example of Fan-Vaulting. P. 295
YORK MINSTER. WEST FAÇADE
The Finest in England. Lower Part Early Decorated; Upper Late Decorated; Towers, Perpendicular. P. 298
LINCOLN CATHEDRAL
Note Screen Effect of West FaÇade. Western Towers Are Romanesque up to Ridge of Roof; Perpendicular Above. P. 298
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND AND WALES
The three periods of the Gothic style in Great Britain, corresponding broadly to the Primary, Rayonnant, and Flamboyant, of France are the Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular.
While the two later phases are distinguished, as in France, by the character of the decorative details, they also involved in England a certain development of constructive principles, particularly in the matter of vaulting, and, as a result of this, in the shape of arched openings.
Periods.—The Early English style, also known as Lancet, First Pointed, Early Plantagenet, or Thirteenth Century, lasted approximately from 1189 to 1272, covering the reigns of Richard I, John, Henry III, and Edward I.
The Decorated, also known as Geometrical or Curvilinear, Middle Pointed, Later Plantagenet, or Fourteenth Century, comprises the reigns of Edward II, Edward III, 1307-1377.
The Perpendicular, also called Rectangular, Late Pointed, or Fifteenth Century, extends from 1377 to 1558, including the reigns of Richard III, Henry VII, and Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary. It continued, that is to say, through the period of the Reformation and Dissolution of Monasteries, until it gradually became mixed with elements borrowed from the Renaissance
Unlike the French cathedrals, which were mostly erected for the secular, that is to say non-monastic, clergy with funds provided by the laity, the English were frequently attached to a Benedictine or Augustine monastery. In consequence they retain some of the features of a monastic establishment, especially the cloisters and chapter-house, or room for the transaction of business by the bishop’s or abbot’s chapter (council).
According to the circumstances of their founding, the English cathedrals are divided into three classes.
Three Classes of Cathedrals.—I. Thirteen cathedrals of the Old Foundation, which being served by secular canons, underwent no change of control at the Reformation. Though not attached to monastic buildings they have chapter-houses and in some cases cloisters. They include: in England, Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield, Lincoln, S. Paul, London, Salisbury, Wells, York; and, in Wales, Bangor, Llandaff, St. Asaph’s, and St. David’s.
II. Cathedrals of monastic or New Foundation; so called because they were originally attached to monasteries and at the dissolution of the latter by Henry VIII were re-established under chapters of dean and canons. They include seven, originally attached to Benedictine Houses—Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Norwich, Rochester, Winchester, Worcester, and one Augustine foundation—Carlisle. Further, they comprise the following churches, converted into cathedrals by Henry VIII—(Benedictine): Chester, Gloucester, Peterborough; (Augustine): Bristol and Oxford.
III. Cathedrals of Modern Foundation, converted
Comparison with French.—The study of English cathedrals is more complicated than that of French, owing to the long period over which their construction extended. Additions were made as funds permitted and to meet the growing needs of the community, or restorations replaced earlier buildings that had collapsed, as some did, or had been destroyed by fire. Accordingly, each example is more or less an epitome of all the phases of the Gothic style; often combined with Norman (Romanesque) and also with fragments of Anglo-Saxon architecture. They are in a very full sense an expression of the nation’s growth.
English cathedrals differ from the French in being lower, longer, and narrower. The extreme length of the plan is in France seldom more than four times the width, whereas in England it sometimes reaches six times. The square east end is characteristic; the transepts project further; these are seldom double aisled and have few side chapels; the plan is inclined to cruciform, and a prominent feature is a central tower over the crossing, sometimes surmounted by a spire. The choir is proportionately longer and occasionally projects into the crossing or even a little way into the nave. At the east end of it is the presbytery or sanctuary; beyond which is a retrochoir, containing an ambulatory or procession passage, one or more chapels to saints and a Lady Chapel, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. The arcading is more closely spaced than in French Cathedrals and generally the relation of the parts is less large in char
The doorways are often placed on the north and south sides and provided with porches. The windows, in the Early English Period, are either of simple lancet form, used singly or grouped in pairs or threes, united over the top by tracery; or the lights terminate at the top in trefoils or cinquefoils, a heading rare in France known as cusps. Plate tracery is comparatively rare in England, and the tracery of the Decorated Period is of a geometric character. Gradually the tracery becomes more flowing, including lines of double curvature, which somewhat resembles the French Flamboyant. Finally in the Perpendicular Period, the pointed arch of the window becomes flattened until it reaches the slight curve of the so-called four-centre arch. The window is divided up into many lights (nine in King’s College Chapel, Cambridge) by vertical mullions, which in the larger examples are reinforced by horizontal transoms, thus producing parallel rows of cusped lights, surmounted in the heading by small replicas of the latter in several tiers—an arrangement somewhat rigid and monotonous.
The mouldings are generally richer and more varied than in French cathedrals, and, owing to their being nearer to the eye, are wrought to a greater refinement of finish.
Ornament.—The characteristic ornament of the Early period is the “dog-tooth” used profusely in hollow mouldings. The foliage is conventionalised, crisply carved in bold curving and curling masses, known as
In the Decorated Period the characteristic ornament of hollow mouldings is the “ball-flower”; but the “four-leaf flower” is frequently used. By degrees other motives of ornament were drawn from ivy, oak, and vine leaves; and the treatment grew more and more naturalistic.
In the Tudor period the special ornament is the Tudor rose, two concentric layers of five petals, symbolising the union of the Houses of York and Lancaster. Other frequent motives are the portcullis and, in reference to the continued claim of the English kings to the throne of France, the fleur-de-lys. The traceries of the windows were repeated in the panelling of the walls and in the elaborate choir and chancel screens, which were a special feature of the period.
Stained Glass.—Stained glass played a very important part in the embellishment of cathedrals and churches. York Minster presents an opportunity of studying the progress of the art through some four centuries, as it was practised, not only in England, but throughout Europe.
The early examples show the influence of the Byzantine enamellers. The windows are filled with jewel-like patterns composed of small pieces of glass, enclosed with lead-lines, like the “cloisons” in cloisonnÉ enamels. Gradually the figure subject becomes more pronounced; at first in comparatively small medallions set in a frame of tracery, then increasing in size until they become the
It is interesting to note that until the sixteenth century no use was made of painted glass. The material was what is known as “pot-metal”; that is to say, glass dyed with colour while in a condition of flux. The quality of these pieces of glass was translucent, permitting the passage of light, though not transparent. However, the deep red of ruby was so dense that the practice was adopted of fusing a layer of ruby on a layer of colourless glass and then of grinding away portions of the ruby, so as to brighten the mass by the contrast of white. In time this method of “flashing,” as it was called, was extended to other colours. Further, about the beginning of the fourteenth century it was discovered that a solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the firing impart to it a “yellow stain.” Thus it was possible to infuse a yellow into the whole or parts of the colourless glass, and to introduce yellow into the “flashed” parts of blue and ruby, while the stain applied to greyish blue produced delicate tones of green.
Another process was developed; namely, the use of enamel paint. A pigment composed of powdered coloured glass, mixed with some such binder as glue, was applied with a brush, after which the glass was subjected to a comparatively low degree of heat, sufficient to flux the pigment and fuse it into the body of the material. At first the only colour employed was brown, which being opaque in the firing was used for the line of the drawing. It was even used for shading, the paint being spread in gradations of thickness and, when dry, scraped off in
Finally, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, enamel paints of other colours were employed, and painting upon glass marks the last stage in the European technique of window glass. While the colours, unlike the opaque brown, were translucent, they lacked the brilliance and purity as well as the richness and depth of pot metal. But by this time, as in other kinds of decoration, the designers were absorbed with details. A favourite task enforced upon them was the insertion of heraldic insignia in the windows, and brushwork was the only method that could reproduce the complicated devices of “quartering” the coats of arms. Window decoration, in fact, had ceased to be an art of glass work and become confused with the art of painting. The end of glass decoration was completed when the window was filled with rectangular panes of white glass, on which the painter depicted figures of saints or symbolical nymphs, as Sir Joshua Reynolds, for example, did in the windows of the ante-chapel of New College, Oxford. This masterpiece of the trivial is popular, but represents a debased taste, founded upon a complete ignorance of the glass-technique, for Sir Joshua called in to his assistance a china painter!
Vaulting.—The treatment of the roofing displays more variety in English Gothic than in French. Wooden ceilings, which we will return to presently, often replaced the vaulting and the latter also became distinguished by
Tiercerons.—In England, during the thirteenth century, as in France, the plain four-part ribbed vault was used, as in the naves of Salisbury and Gloucester, and the aisles of Peterborough. Toward the end of the century, however, came in the use of subordinate ribs, called tiercerons. These were introduced between the transverse and diagonal ribs, as may be seen in the nave vaulting of Westminster Abbey. Their purpose was to decrease the pressure on the main ribs, and for their own further security a ridge rib was employed for them to abut on at the top.
Liernes.—During the Decorated Period of the fourteenth century a new set of ribs were introduced, which were known as Liernes—holding or binding ribs. The name was applied to any rib, other than the ridge rib, that did not spring from an abacus. They were ornamental rather than constructional and were freely employed to form a network of geometric pattern over the vaulting. Meanwhile, although they increase the apparent complexity of the vaulting, the actual constructive plan of the latter is not affected and may be simply four part. Such multiplication of ribs reduced the size of the intervening spaces or panels, whence this kind of vaulting is sometimes called rib and panel. It is also named stellar vaulting from the star-shaped pat
Fan Vaulting.—The development of the Perpendicular Period or Fifteenth Century is that of Fan Vaulting, examples of which occur in Henry VII’s Chapel, Westminster; Divinity Schools, Oxford; King’s College Chapel, Cambridge; the retro-choir, Peterborough; Gloucester Cathedral, and St. George’s Chapel, Windsor. In this type of vaulting the ribs are all of equal curvature, and separated from one another by equal angles, terminating at the top in a circular ridge, which leaves a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces.
Pendant Vaulting.—A further development, often used in connection with “Fan Vaulting,” as in Oxford Cathedral and Henry VII’s Chapel, is the device known as Pendant vaulting. It was at first adopted to sustain the flat spaces of the vaulting and consisted of a stone support suspended from an arch concealed above the vaulting. It was, in effect, a prolonged keystone, and its lowest part formed a base from which to build up. For by this time the old method of constructing ribs and laying panels upon them had been abandoned, and the vaulting was constructed of parts, interlocking like a Chinese puzzle.
A beautiful feature of English vaulting occurs in the polygonal Chapter Houses, in which the ribs radiate from a central column to the sides and angles of the polygon. “If these vaults are less majestic than domes of the same diameter, they are far more decorative and picturesque, while the Chapter Houses themselves were the most striking and original products of English Gothic.
Open Wood Roofs.—The Saxon use of timber construction survived as a tradition and was developed by the Gothic builders, in the interior roofs that sheathed the vaulting and with specially fine effect in the ceiling-roofs of churches and halls. The simplest principle of it is the so-called tie-beam roof. In this, a succession of rafters slope up to each side of a ridge beam and are prevented from spreading by beams that tie them together at the foot. If the pitch of the roof were high, the construction would be strengthened by a post supported on the centre of the tie-beam, which is called a King-post. Instead of or in addition to this, two posts might be erected between the centre and the ends of the beams, known as Queen-posts. Each complete section of this arrangement is called a truss. It might be further stiffened by struts, that is to say cross pieces which, instead of tying the parts, keep them from being drawn together.
The next principle is the trussed-rafter or single-framed roof. Since the transverse beam might interfere with the vaulting, it was replaced by one or more cross-beams near the upper angle of the roof known as collars. These might be further stiffened by braces, fixed diagonally from the under side of the beam to the rafter. Further, short struts or upright posts might be added near the lower angles, connecting the rafters with short,
The further development was the hammer-beam roof, which came into general use in the fifteenth century. The hammer-beam resulted from the lengthening and thickening of the sole-piece and was supported by a curved brace, connecting its under side with a vertical piece, attached to the wall and hence called the wallpiece. The combination of this construction with struts, collars, and curved braces produced the magnificent effects to be seen in the roofs, for example, of Westminster Hall and the Hall of the Middle Temple.
Exteriors.—Unlike the French cathedral, which is apt to be crowded upon by other buildings, the English usually stands amid smooth lawns and shade trees—a secluded spot known as the “close,” around which are the houses and gardens of the dean and canons. Cloisters also frequently add to the spirit of quiet. Durham is superbly set upon a steep bluff above the River Wear. In harmony with the charm of the setting a noble picturesqueness characterises the English cathedral. Flying buttresses, it is true, are little in evidence, owing to the comparative lowness of the structure and to the fact that they are often concealed in the aisles, but the
On the other hand, the west fronts have not the special splendour of the French cathedrals. Yet there are a few exceptions. That of York Minster, for example, with its immense window and twin towers, is in respect of size, decorativeness, and proportion a magnificent faÇade. Those, again, of Lichfield and Wells are grand and beautiful, while the west fronts of Lincoln and Peterborough are strikingly imposing and picturesque.
Both the latter are virtually screens pierced with deeply recessed openings that include windows above doors. The designs are arresting and boldly picturesque, but arbitrary in invention. For the faÇades, being applied to the building and not growing out of its internal purpose, lack the dignity of logical arrangement and, moreover, are deficient in proportion of parts and harmonious unity.
Interiors.—Grand picturesqueness, also, rather than ordered grandeur, characterises the English interiors. Lower and narrower than the French, and longer, they have not their stately unity and sublime simplicity. But their very length and the closer intercolumniation of the pillars and the ampler size of the transepts present a greater variety of vistas. And the picturesqueness is also increased by the variety and superior elaboration of the vaulting and the profusion of decorative features,
Secular Examples.—The interest of English Gothic extends beyond cathedrals to the profusion of edifices—chapels, churches, colleges, hospitals, and almshouses—that stud the country. Oxford presents a mine of study; Cambridge has its splendid examples; there are Royal Chapels of magnificence, such as St. George’s Chapel, Windsor; and town churches of extraordinary beauty, while scarce a village, however tiny and remote, but has an architectural treasure in its little church, sheltering the graves of its quiet “God’s Acre.”
The homes of the nobles, during the Norman Period, had been frankly armed castles, including an outer “bailey” or court, an inner bailey, and a donjon or keep, surrounded by a moat and ramparts. In the fifteenth century the idea of domesticity increased, other buildings for various uses clustered round the main ones and the hall became the centre of the life of the inmates. At first there was a central fireplace, where the logs were piled on dogs, the smoke escaping through a flue or opening in the ceiling. The need of protecting this led gradually to the erection on the roof of a lantern-like turret, technically known as a louver, which became a characteristic feature of the exterior of a hall, even after the central fireplace had been moved to one of the walls and
By degrees, however, as ideas of comfort and privacy increased, this habit was abandoned. Withdrawing rooms or bowers opened from the dais of the hall for the private use of the lord and lady, and bedroom accommodation was improved. And the progress toward greater domesticity was assisted by the discovery of gunpowder, which rendered the old system of fortification useless for defensive purposes, so that the idea of a castle was gradually superseded by that of a mansion.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN
In Germany the Romanesque style had been developed on lines so monumental that the architects were slow to abandon it for the Gothic. Accordingly, while the French and English worked out the constructive principles that produced a new style, the Germans were content to borrow its features, especially as represented in the French cathedrals. They were drawn to this imitation through the commercial relations which existed by way of Burgundy between the cities of Germany and Northern France. For at the commencement of the thirteenth century the cities played a most important rÔle in the political as well as the economic life of Germany.
Kings and emperors, recognising the value of their support, had conferred special privileges upon them, which in times of confusion they had themselves increased until they were practically self-governing. Their power rivalled that of the duchies, countships, and other governments which made up the fluctuating aggregation of authorities comprised in the empire. Moreover, the cities had increased their power by combinations. The most important of these were the Rhenish Confederation and the Hanseatic League of German merchants, the latter extending its activities to points outside of Germany, as far distant as London and Novgorod.
Another phase of the prominence of cities lay in the
The examples of German Gothic cathedrals are few as compared with those in France and England. Of the three finest—Strasburg, Ratisbon, Cologne—the last is the most magnificent and is also the largest of all MediÆval cathedrals after Seville and Milan. Its plan is derived from Amiens, while the edifice embraces the chief features of many French cathedrals and is, in fact, an epitomised imitation of French Gothic.
Cologne.—Meanwhile, there is a German legend of the origin of the design, which is interesting for the light it throws on the MediÆval spirit. While the architect, bidden by the archbishop to build the noblest shrine in Christendom, sat beside the river pondering, an old man approached him and, having traced in the sand a plan, immediately obliterated it. But the architect had seen
Time, however, discounted the Devil’s curse, for the cathedral was completed during the nineteenth century. It had been begun in 1270 and in all the additions subsequently made the original design was adhered to. Hence Cologne presents a very remarkable example of structural unity; and, by the same token, a rather chill precision, product of imitation, instead of a growth which reflects the changing style of successive centuries.
The plan, as at Amiens, includes double side-aisles and a chevÊt of seven apses and an ambulatory, but its transepts are extended by an extra bay and one bay of the nave is included in the western entrance. Here the German fondness for towers and spires, already noted in their Romanesque architecture, finds expression in twin towers, crowned with spires of openwork tracery. This last feature is a characteristic of German Gothic. The transition from the tower to the spire is admirably arranged so as to enforce the function and beauty of each;
S. Stephen is an example of the so-called “Hall Church,” in which the nave and aisles are of equal height. This typically German feature, seen also in S. Lambert, Hildesheim, S. Quentin, Mainz, and S. Elizabeth, Marburg, abolishes the clerestory and triforium and thus dispenses with flying buttresses. It reduces the importance of the nave and, while giving the interior an impression of superior spaciousness, minimises the variety and picturesqueness of the vistas. The nave and aisles are covered on the exterior by a single roof of high pitch.
The German builders made up for their lack of originality by extreme skill of handicraft, which tended to over-elaboration and a merely mechanical excellence. This was displayed in the increasing intricacy of the window traceries, which were more regarded than the proportions of the window openings. Thus, an excessive height was given to the clerestory windows and in many cases the opening is too narrow for its height. A characteristic which often appears is the double tracery; that is to say, the employment of tracery on both the outer and the inner wall surfaces.
Piers usually take the place of columns and are treated as lofty posts for the support of the vaulting, their surfaces being frequently indented with niches bearing statues. The vaultings are quite often distinguished by complicated ribs, which, however, are not employed so constructively as in England, but rather as decorative
While the stained glass is good, the iron-work is a special characteristic of German ornamentation. Another typical feature is the Tabernacle for enshrining the Host. It is a structure of stone or wood, standing independent of the altar, rising to a considerable height in the form of a tower and spire, richly decorated.
In the north, as at LÜbeck and neighbouring cities in the valley of the Elbe, the lack of stone led to the use of brick, and the substitution of moulded and coloured brickwork for sculptured ornament.
Secular Buildings.—The most famous of the Gothic castles is Marienburg in Prussia, including the chapel and chapter house and the Great Hall of the Order of the German Knights. Other examples are Heilsberg, in East Prussia and the Albrechtsburg at Meissen in Saxony. Among the finest of the Town Halls are those of Ratisbon, Brunswick, Halberstadt, Hildesheim, and Munster, and the brick examples of Breslau and LÜbeck. In domestic architecture the roofs were carried to a remarkable
NETHERLANDISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
The Gothic architecture of the Netherlands appears at its finest in Belgium, where it is distinguished by a mingling of French and German influence. The latter is to be accounted for chiefly by the trade relations which existed between the great commercial cities of Germany by way of the Rhine, with such centres of commerce as Louvain, Brussels, Ghent, Antwerp, Mechlin (Malines), Ypres, and Bruges. On the other hand, the province of Flanders came under the French influence through the marriage of Margaret of Flanders with the first Duke of the French royal house of Valois, whose successors gradually brought the whole of Belgium under their rule. Further, the Abbey of Noyon early established close relations with that of Tournai, and in this way the religious architecture of France penetrated Belgium. Owing to their pre-eminence in weaving the Netherlandish cities became the most prosperous of the period and this is reflected in the florid decoration of the later ecclesiastical building, as well as in the magnificent Town, Trade, and Guild Halls, which are the special distinction of Netherlandish architecture.
Guild Halls.—They present a general similarity of character. The faÇades mount in several stories, which are defined by bands of ornament or string-courses and
The oldest of these beautiful edifices is the Cloth Hall of Ypres, erected in 1304, while other notable examples are those of Louvain, Mechlin, Ghent. The earliest of the Town Halls is the imposing one of Brussels (1377), distinguished by its graceful tower and spire. The right to attach a belfry or beffroi to a town hall was a special privilege, granted by charter, and the bell-towers of Netherlandish cities are among their most picturesque features. That of Bruges, which forms the theme of one of Longfellow’s poems, is famous in the annals of the city. It surmounts the central mass of a faÇade plainer than those described above, offering more wall spaces and representing another type of Gothic faÇade peculiar to the Netherlands.
Ecclesiastical Buildings.—The earliest example of Gothic work in ecclesiastical buildings is said to be the choir of the Cathedral of S. Gudule in Brussels. Tournai Cathedral, erected between 1146 and 1338, illustrates three successive periods. The nave is Romanesque; the apse-ended transepts mark the transition stage, and the choir, with its complete chevÊt, the fully developed
SPANISH GOTHIC
It was in the north of Spain, following the gradual destruction of the Moorish rule and the replacing of the Crescent with the Cross, that Gothic art took root. The time is the thirteenth century, when Ferdinand (1217-1252), canonised as saint, united the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, and James, called the Conqueror (1213-1276), carried the conquest through to the east so that only Granada remained in the grip of the Infidel.
While it is supposed that Moorish workmen were employed in the cathedrals, the designs were derived from French examples, with certain borrowings from the German. Thus the original of Leon Cathedral was Amiens, from which, however, it differs in the larger area of its window spaces; while Notre Dame was the model for the Cathedrals of Toledo and Barcelona; and the west front of Burgos, with its openwork spires, recalls Cologne.
Among the characteristic features of Spanish cathedrals are: the occasional use of cloisters; the excess of width in proportion to the length; the use of a cimborio
The largest cathedral in Spain, the largest, indeed, of all mediÆval cathedrals, is Seville, which was erected on the site of a mosque. It has four side aisles, each of which corresponds in height and width to the nave of Westminster Abbey, yet the length of its nave is little more than that of the latter’s. Toledo, again, has four aisles and a nave, recalling the plan of Bourges, which it follows in length, though it is wider by fifty feet.
Retablos, Rejas.—Among the distinctive features of the interior decorations of a Spanish cathedral are the retablo and reja. The former, a reredos, erected behind the great altar, reaches immense dimensions, often occupying the full width of the nave and rising as high as the vaulting, embellished with sculpture. This is apt to be grossly naturalistic and violently dramatic or sensational, representing colossal figures, sprawling amid marble clouds and sunrays of gilded metal. Far more beautiful are the rejas or lofty grill-screens, upon which the skill of Moorish metal-workers or the skill derived from their traditions, is lavished with extraordinary fertility of design; a special device being the enrichment of the vertical bars by the insertion of canopied figures.
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY
We have already noted that the rib-vault, which made possible the development of Gothic architecture in the Ile de France, originated in Lombardy. But the Italian builders used the rib solely as a structural convenience, not recognising either its further structural or its Æsthetic possibilities. Accordingly, when the Gothic style appeared in Italy, it was imported thither by northern, usually German, architects.
General Character.—Nor did the style, as employed in Italy, preserve the grandeur or purity of the northern type. The sunny climate did not invite the large openings that had become a distinction of the true Gothic. The windows were small, with little tracery, while the walls, being in consequence more solid, did not need the same enforcement with buttresses. Structurally, therefore, the walls are uninteresting, and are regarded as surfaces to be made attractive by applied decoration. Further, the Italian builder was everywhere influenced by the classic tradition. He clung to the round arch, even while he employed the pointed; frequently resorted to the Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital as decorative features; felt his columns as columns rather than as piers logically connected by the shafting to the vaulting, and in the vaulting confined his design to the main ribs, instead of enriching it with minor ones. In fact, he used the style without the structural logic and adventurous
SIENA CATHEDRAL
Note Half Columns Attached to the Piers. Sexagoxal Dome over the Crossing; Pulpit by the Pisani—Marble Pavement with Graffito Designs.
WEST FAÇADE ORVIETO CATHEDRAL
Marble Veneer, Mosaics and Sculpture Form Superb Polychrome Decoration. P. 311
SIENA CATHEDRAL, CAMPANILE ATTACHED
FaÇade Red, Black and White Marble, Richly Sculptured; Mosaics Modern. P. 311
MILAN CATHEDRAL
Note How the FaÇade Suggests the German Use of Including Nave and Aisles Under a Single High-Pitched Roof. P. 313
enthusiasm of the truly Gothic architect. He treated the edifice as a shell to be enriched with decoration.
In the interior, the walls and vaultings offered surfaces for painting. When this was accomplished as, for example, in the frescoes by Cimabue, Giotto, and others in the Church of S. Francis in Assisi, by Giotto in the Arena Chapel, Padua, and the chapels of the Perozzi and Bardi in S. Croce, Florence, and in S. Maria Novella, possibly by Taddeo Gaddi, or at any rate by some painter of the school of Giotto, the effect is incomparably resplendent. Where, however, as in the Cathedral of Florence, frescoes are missing, the appearance is cold and barren; redeemed somewhat, it is true, in this case by the colossal dimensions and sense of spaciousness.
For the exteriors reliance was placed upon applied embellishments. The side walls, for example, of Florence are veneered with marble; those of Siena and Orvieto with horizontal stripes of black and white masonry. But this colour decoration is a poor substitute for the structural enrichments, the traceried windows, flying buttresses, and mounting roofs of the true Gothic.
The Italians concentrated chief ornateness on the west faÇade; the most celebrated examples being those of Siena (1243-1284) and Orvieto (1290). They present elaborate compositions of vari-coloured marble, charmingly diversified, nicely balanced, sumptuously elegant and graceful. But compare, for example, Siena with, say, Rheims or Amiens, and how it sinks into insignificance!
In the French examples the pointed door-arches start an upward movement which is continued to the top in the organic relations of the parts to one another and to the interior arrangement. But in the Siena faÇade, the
Campanile.—The campanile is usually attached to the building. In place of string courses and mouldings are alternate courses of black and white masonry; the sole contrast being supplied by the rectangular window openings, which, possibly to offset the diminishing effect of perspective, increase in number upwards. The low spire is typically Italian Romanesque.
Fine examples of the period are to be found in Verona, Mantua, and Pistoia, while the most beautiful is that of Florence, designed and begun by Giotto and completed after his death by Andrea Pisano. It is distinguished from other bell-towers of the Italian Gothic by the projections which mark its four stories and the bold cornice with machicolated ornament. The surface is further varied with geometric designs, composed of coloured marbles; while the windows are embellished with tracery of an elementary design, corresponding to that of the adjoining Cathedral windows. The sides of the lowest story, broken only by a small light, are enriched with statues and bas-reliefs, some of which were designed by Giotto and executed partly by him and partly by Andrea Pisano, others being added later by Luca della Robbia. In character of subjects they correspond to the selections at Amiens from the EncyclopÆdia of Vincent of Beauvais. Ruskin says of this building that it is the only one
Suggestive of the persistence of the Romanesque style during the Gothic period the most notable instance is the Certosa, or Church of the Carthusian Order, in Pavia. The faÇade and lantern over the crossing are Renaissance additions; otherwise this splendid edifice, constructed of brick and terra-cotta, is, except for the Gothic refinement of the rib-vaulting, purely Romanesque. A gift to the monastery by Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti, it was begun in 1396, nine years after this patron of art and letters had begun to build Milan Cathedral, the most important example in Italy of the Gothic style.
Yet Milan involves peculiarities that may be due to the dissensions of the Italian architects with the German and French who were called in at various times to collaborate in the work. So strong a German influence is perceptible in both the character and details, that the main design has been attributed to Heinrich of Grund. Constructed entirely of white marble, the exterior is distinguished not so much by structural grandeur as by decorative richness. The windows, said to be the largest in any Gothic Cathedral, have intricate and lace-like
And in the interior, also, organic relation is sacrificed to imposing display and delight in embellishment. The dominating feature is the avenue of nave columns, nine on each side. They are 12 feet in diameter, over 100 feet high, and crowned above their capitals with a cluster of canopied niches, containing statues—a German feature. The columns isolate themselves in the design; count only as an avenue of columns, while their immense size dwarfs the height of the vaulting, the more so that the height of the side aisles made a triforium impossible, and reduced the clerestory to insignificant proportions, with mean small windows. And the impression of squatness in the vaulting is increased by the rupture which the canopied niches make between the pier shafts and vault ribs. Upward growth is arrested; organic relation violated by a merely decorative intrusion. To realise fully the diminution of structural impressiveness thereby produced, one may compare the Milan interior with that of Amiens or St. Ouen in Rouen.
Secular Gothic.—It was in their secular architecture that the Italians used the Gothic with the greatest freedom. The official buildings of this period, when the government of the cities and communes still preserved a popular form, comprised the city hall or podesta and the council hall, which was variously known as the palazzo publico, palazzo communale or palazzo del consiglio.
The most important example of a podesta is the
The finest examples of Gothic domestic architecture are to be found in the northern cities, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Bologna, and particularly in Venice, where the immunity from social disorder and outside attack, combined with commercial prosperity, encouraged a more luxurious mode of living. We shall refer to the Ca d’Oro as a type of the Gothic Venetian palace of a merchant prince, in the chapter on the Early Renaissance (p. 360). Here let us study the Ducal or Doge’s Palace, which adjoins St. Mark’s, the two buildings, one civil and the other religious, representing in visible union, the mind and the soul of Venice.
Doge’s Palace.—Instead of preserving the suggestion of a mediÆval fortress as the Palazzo Vecchio does, the centre of Venetian authority is a palace, designed to represent the grandeur of the city’s destiny and to provide a setting for sumptuous civil functions and the ceremonial entertainment of ambassadors and other distinguished guests. The building, since it was founded in 800, thirty years before the founding of St. Mark’s, has undergone many vicissitudes; five times destroyed by fire and on
The Gothic is chiefly represented in the magnificent loggia, which comprises two open arcades, ranging along two fronts, facing, respectively, the Piazzetta and the Lagune. The lower arcade consists of pointed arches, resting on circular columns, the shafts of which are of stumpy proportions and rise directly from the pavement without bases. The capitals, carved with foliage, figures, and animals, combine to an unusual degree richness of design with delicacy of execution, while that of the corner column, which is surmounted by a group of Adam and Eve, is described by Ruskin in his “Stones of Venice” as being, in respect of workmanship and the grouping of the foliage, the finest he knows in Europe. The upper arcade is composed of twice the number of columns, which again have circular shafts without bases, but are proportionately taller and more graceful. They support trefoiled arches, whose ogee curves slide up into a series of circles pierced with quatrefoils—a combination of tracery characteristically Venetian; as indeed, is the mingled massiveness and elegance of the whole design.
This double arcade must have presented a still finer effect in the original design when it stood clear of the main faÇade. For the advancing of the upper part to the arcade line, which dates from a restoration after a fire in the fifteenth century, produces an effect of top-heaviness. Moreover, its direct juxtaposition with the elaborateness of the arcade accentuates the contrast, presented by the severe simplicity of the surface, patterned with red, white, and black marbles, and meagrely pierced with windows.
