The kitchen—The houseplace—Chimney and other ornaments—Classified arrangement.

A collection of metal-work representative of domestic utensils as they were fashioned in very early times, and as they were made in days so far forgotten as to render the common objects of daily use curios, is regarded, probably, as the most important branch of copper and brass, from a collector's standpoint. The collector may be content with gathering together a few examples of old domestic metal-work and using them as ornamental reminders of olden time, decorating his entrance hall or rooms furnished after the antique with the objects he gathers together, or he may arrange them as in a museum gallery. The display of curios is at all times a matter of taste, but it is one of some importance, especially in a branch of collecting so conspicuous as copper and brass. We can scarcely conceive of any real pleasure being derived from such a hobby, or of such specimens being appreciated by one's friends, when specimens so obviously out of place are shown in a modern dining-room or drawing-room furnished in nouvre art. The Keeper of the London Museum, now transferred to Stafford House from Kensington Palace, has very appropriately arranged the antiquities of London in their proper historical and chronological sequence, and has grouped them so that the reference they bear to contemporary surroundings can be understood by those who see them for the first time. The photograph which we reproduce in Fig. 23 represents a corner in a well made up seventeenth-century room, in which has been gathered together some beautiful old oak furniture of that period. It is panelled with oak which has been procured from old London houses of contemporary date; the doorway is a genuine antique from Bromley-by-Bow, adding to the appearance of the room, for its hinges and lock furniture are splendid examples of the brasswork of that period. Some pieces of Cromwellian armour, prominent among which are variously ornamented helmets and breastplates, are arranged round the upper portion of the room. Over an old oak chest is a beautiful brass skimmer, and on the wall a seventeenth-century brass bed-warmer, with engraved cover. On the sideboard is a huge key and a brass mortar. The lock furniture and the drop handle on the sideboard, which are of brass, are worthy of note. On the other side of the room there is a fine brass trivet standing in front of the hearth, on which are andirons, and logs ready for the firing; close by is a quaint old candlestick. Undoubtedly curios displayed in such a way interest and instruct those who see them, and a room so furnished enthuses collectors with the desire to secure other objects of an appropriate character; this in itself is an advantage in that a representative collection is of more general interest than one containing many objects of a similar character.

The Kitchen.

Kitchen utensils and domestic appliances which the housewife of olden time deemed necessary are of peculiar interest in that they help us to recall the habits and customs of former generations. It is not always easy to arrange a model kitchen in that there are many old utensils of copper and brass which must have been used side by side as periods overlapped, although some have a much older origin than others. It is said that the kitchens of well-stocked old family mansions still yield some curios when thoroughly examined, and that it is not at all an uncommon thing to find there utensils the object of which has almost been forgotten. They are relics of an older day, and utensils which a modern cook would not deign to use. Such discoveries, however, are few and far between, for the melting-pot and the cupidity of those anxious to clear unnecessary encumbrances and perhaps make a little towards refurnishing, has left but few objects of interest in the kitchen. It is, however, there and in the old houseplace that we may look for something of interest. Some will go on using old vessels long after newer utensils have taken their place in the more advanced households, and there are some cooks who use successfully saucepans and kettles of almost antique pattern which the student of the cook's art in the modern schools of cookery would find difficult to manipulate. They have been taught how to make tasty dishes with aluminium vessels and enamelled pans, whereas heavy and clumsy brass and copper utensils served their grandparents. The cook's art is appreciated to-day as it was in the past, and at all periods the domestic workshop has been surrounded with a halo of romance. Shakespeare has rendered the caldron of olden time memorable in "Macbeth." Of the caldron boiling in the dark cave he makes the witches cry:

The cooking-pot is the sustainer of life, in that it gives strength to the weary and to the starving. To the poor dumb creatures, however, it is the end of life, and in savagery human life has been sacrificed to the gluttony of fellow-men. Wonderful stories are at times told of great feasts and of the magnificence of the kitchens of olden time, where the vessels and the cooking-pots were of extravagant size, making up, perhaps, for the fewer culinary utensils, for in early days the furnishings of the kitchen were few in number although massive and strong. Many of the baronial halls of the Middle Ages, and the homes of wealthy landowners in more recent days, have been the scene of great feasts. Merrie England rejoiced on such occasions when the roasting-jack and the spit contributed to the success of the feast, and the caldron or cooking-pot boiled upon the open hearth. In some old kitchens there are preserved ponderous bronze and copper pots, some so large that we can scarcely imagine that they were made for actual use. In the hall of Trinity Hospital at Leicester there is preserved a large caldron of bell metal, holding upwards of sixty gallons, which has been used as the cooking-pot of the institution from its foundation until quite recent times. This quaint old relic, now venerated as a curio, is locally called the Duke of Lancaster's porridge-pot, for it is said that it was made to the order of Henry, Duke of Lancaster, in 1331 (see Fig. 24). Not far removed from the corner where the old metal pot is shown to visitors there is a massive nutmeg-grater, a kitchen relic of olden time, which on the occasion of one of her visits to Leicester Queen Elizabeth presented to the hospital. Many old castles have relics of the feast to show visitors, and others no doubt could produce equally interesting examples of the coppersmiths' or the founders' art were they to search the vaults and cellars where disused metal-work was in years gone by stowed away. Visitors to Warwick Castle are familiar with "Guy's punchbowl," the remarkable metal caldron which is nearly twice the size of that attributed to the Duke of Lancaster, for it weighs, along with a fork said to have been used to handle the meat, 807 lb.

Most of these old vessels were cast, but some copper-work was hammered by hand, and those which have been preserved to us testify to the brawny arm of the smith and the strength of his blow when by hammer and hand he wrought them. Such copper caldrons were often made in two or more parts, and having been shaped on the block, were afterwards riveted together. It is puzzling at times to understand local and trade terms in that they frequently differ from the commonly accepted names of cooking vessels. Thus, these wrought caldrons or pots were frequently designated tripod kettles. A very fine example of such a wrought copper kettle was recovered a short time ago from Whittlesey Mere and is now in the Peterborough Museum. A century or more ago the Mere was famous in Huntingdonshire and many water parties were held there. The kettle recently found is thought to have been a relic of those events, and to have been used on the margin of the lake.

The fine caldron of cast brass illustrated in Fig. 27 was found during excavations in Water Lane, in London. It is peculiar in that it has two-eared handles and projecting feet. It is very substantial, and may be regarded as typical of the early metal caldrons, several of which have been found in London. Another cooking vessel, smaller in size, having a curved handle and being in good preservation, a domestic relic of the seventeenth century, which was dug up in Milton Street, Cripplegate, is illustrated in Fig. 28.

Reference has been made to the baronial halls, and to the numerous relics which have been lost to futurity. There are, however, some well-known castles where, although the kitchens have been replenished from time to time, the older forms of cooking vessels have been perpetuated. Until recent days the kitchen arrangements at Windsor Castle remained much as they had been for many years previous, and even now copper and brass retain a favoured position and are very much in evidence. Windsor has been the scene of much feasting, and many great State events have put a strain even upon the domestic resources of that famous Royal residence.

The great kitchen of the castle is supplemented by a vegetable kitchen, a green kitchen, and a scullery, and around these rooms there is a bright array of copper pans and cooking utensils, mostly bearing the monogram of George IV, for it was in his reign that many new culinary appointments were added. These vessels, large and small, were in constant use during the reign of Queen Victoria. Her late Majesty was averse to change. In her days oak out of Windsor Forest was burned in the grate, and the spits and roasting-jacks and other kitchen accessories were in keeping with the copper and brass pans and kettles. Great changes have been made since the accession of George V, for Queen Mary supervises the management of the Royal kitchens, and many modern cooking vessels have been substituted for older ones.

The collector of copper and brass culinary utensils has seldom an opportunity of adding the large bronze caldrons and relics of Royal kitchens to his collection. He has to be content with exploring lesser domains, and securing wherever possible the smaller cooking vessels of days gone by. These are frequently quite as interesting as those of larger size, and there is a wealth of copper still lying dormant in antique shops, and in some instances in the scrap-heaps of the old metal dealer. Without going any further back the saucepans of the seventeenth century well reward the discoverer of such relics. That century was a time when pious mottoes were carved upon the lintel beam and when old coffers and other pieces of massive oak were decorated with such sentiments. The brassfounders followed suit and ornamented pots and pans, and enriched them with mottoes just as they cast such inscriptions on bells and mortars. Two very interesting seventeenth-century vessels are illustrated on p. 165. One of these, Fig. 25, was discovered some years ago in Fetter Lane, and is now in the Guildhall Museum. The other, Fig. 26, is a tripod pot, the handle of which has a loop near the bowl. It is probably of early seventeenth or late sixteenth-century workmanship. The brass skillet of seventeenth-century make, illustrated in Fig. 29, may be seen by the curious in the British Museum. There is no uncertainty about its date, for it is marked 1684, and along the handle is the quaint motto "Pitty the Pore." Collectors may be reminded that inscriptions are sometimes stamped; at others engraved, and they are frequently met with on quite unimportant vessels. The metal used for such utensils was chiefly of brass, but often of latten, an alloy in which there was an admixture of zinc, or of tin in what was known as white latten. As it has been stated already, brass came into vogue late in the sixteenth century, and soon became popular for kitchen utensils; latten, however, was a favourite alloy for spoons and the smaller objects, especially for porringers for mulling wine. Concurrent with the use of copper and its modern alloys bronze appears to have been used in this country even as late as the beginning of the seventeenth century, the cooking vessels illustrated in Figs. 30 and 31 being bronze of this late type.

The skillet, which continued a favourite vessel, commonly called a saucepan, originally had three short-curved feet, and the handle was curved, too. It was a development of a still earlier cooking vessel; its prototype of the sixteenth century having a globular body with short-curved feet, and frequently two handles.

The twentieth-century collector, accustomed as he is to machine-and factory-made goods of uniform finish and of regular shapes, is apt to be a little bit disappointed with the copper curios roughly made and badly formed. It would appear as if most of the collectable copper goods were made after the days when the old guilds so carefully controlled the making of copper and latten in Lothbury. When their power of control waned, craftsmen who had been employed by guild members worked for themselves, and there was but little supervision over the metal wares made by the coppersmith, who was often a retailer of his own wares. When the hardware dealer or copper man became an established trader in the eighteenth century he would employ a journeyman coppersmith in his little workshop, who would fashion the utensils with a hammer on a wooden block, and afterwards planish them by hand as he thought fit. In the making of such goods there was great irregularity, and the dealer and his customer, too, were dependent upon the whim of the craftsman. That was before the days of machine-made goods. Instead of the brass or copper being pressed and stamped by machinery and carefully finished the utensils were made in a rough and ready way on the wooden block, and simply hammered in the rounded cavities which had been made in it. Saucepans, stewpans, and jelly moulds were beaten into shape, and then hollowed and dished. It is said it was a healthful trade, for many of the old coppersmiths had passed their threescore years and ten shaping kettles and deftly fashioning from a sheet of brass even quite ornamental domestic articles of utility; they would decorate by hand a brass chestnut roaster with no other tools but a small hammer and a punch, and with the same simple instruments they would work a fancy pattern on the lid of a warming-pan. Some coppersmiths won fame in the fashioning of furnace-pans, better known as washing coppers, and others would undertake the roofing of houses and churches. One notable firm in London, whose copper saucepans and cooking-pots had been sold for a hundred years or more, achieved the zenith of their fame when they produced that enormous piece of copper-work, the ball and cross of St. Paul's Cathedral, which is referred to and illustrated in another chapter.

There is yet another reason given why so many of the old copper pots and pans are irregular in shape and are often fitted with apparently unsuitable handles. It is that most of these old vessels at one time or another have undergone repairs, and were frequently treated by unskilled workmen. Among the street cries of London one of the oldest was: "Any pots or pans to mend?" The travelling tinker was a repairing coppersmith, too, and much of his time was occupied in mending the copper and brass cooking utensils used at the farmhouses and in the villages through which he passed. His methods of dealing with the vessels entrusted to him for repairs were not always the best, as museum relics testify.

Drinking cups, tankards, and flagons constitute another very important section of collectable curios. They were, however, chiefly made of pewter in the days before glass and earthenware became general. Some were undoubtedly of copper. This metal, however, was chiefly used for large jugs in which water and other liquids were carried. Water vessels vary in shape, although certain characteristics are frequently noticeable. The typical English-made jug and water vessel, such as those shown in Figs. 32, 33, 34, and 35, are very graceful in shape, the handles being light and very suitable. They make remarkably welcome additions to a collection of metal, and are appropriate ornaments on an old oak sideboard.

The Houseplace.

It is not a far remove from the kitchen to the houseplace, and it is there that some of the more decorative brasswork of eighteenth-century workmanship is chiefly to be found. Just as copper and brass formed a prominent feature in the equipment of the kitchen, so in the old houseplace they were considered the best for ornamental purposes. The polishing of the metal-work throughout the house in the good old days must have been a considerable item in the duties of domestic servants, but no doubt it well repaid the labour, for from the old ornaments and usable curios of the houseplace which have come into the hands of collectors, especially when housed in a reconstructed eighteenth-century room, the effect is excellent. The metal-work of the best parlour was not so extensive, although there were many beautifully polished coal-vases and fender frets. Indeed, in both rooms mentioned the chief attraction would appear to have centred on the fireplace.

The story of the evolution of the grate and the hearth and its appointments is of extreme interest. The grate itself was at times ornate with polished brass beads and canopies. The older type of fireplace was mostly fitted with iron appointments, but even when andirons were upon the hearth and logs of timber crackled as they blazed up the wide old chimney, the dogs or chief ornaments of the hearth were often of brass or bronze. When hob-grates and registers came in fashion, ormolu and brass ornament contrasted with polished steel. A typical parlour hob-grate of the eighteenth century would be ornate with brasses on the hobs, a pierced brass fender on the stone slab, and a polished brass ashes pan in front of the bars to hide the cinders. The trivet or revolving stool, small or large, was in the fender or on the hearth, and massive fire brasses (not irons) filled the empty spaces.

The brass trivet, revived in modern times, was originally a three-legged stool made of metal, on which a kettle or similar vessel could be placed near to the fire. The convenience of being able to put the trivet stool quite close up to the bars suggested to the maker of such things the addition of hooks by which the trivet could be hung upon the bar, thereby bringing it nearer to the heat. In later years the trivet developed a handle for the convenience of moving it about, and especially of hanging it upon the bars, and in the latest completed form with turned wood handle, iron legs, and brass fretted top, the trivet was regarded as an essential accompaniment to the fire-grate. From the three-legged stool with hooks or handle there came a minor development in the form of a light portable trivet without legs, which could only be used when hung on the bars. These varieties presented the worker in brass with an excellent opportunity of showing his decorative skill, and brass trivet tops soon became very ornamental. Fig. 36 represents a finely-pierced brass trivet, with tall legs and pointed feet and a turned wood handle. On the top of a baluster-shaped device, supported by dolphins, Atlas is represented bearing on his shoulders the globe. The date of the trivet is 1668, and on the top is also engraved the owner's monogram. Another very interesting example comes from Derbyshire, and is shown in Fig. 38. Yet another example is given in Fig. 37, this being a more elaborate design. In the centre of the plate an eagle is represented with outstretched wings. The construction of this trivet is somewhat unusual in that it is strengthened with a cross-bar; the feet are of spear-head shape. All three examples are to be seen at South Kensington.

There have been many modern replicas of the beautiful old brass helmet-shaped coal-boxes so common half a century ago. The earlier types varied somewhat in shape, but always preserved their helmet-like form, as illustrated in the example shown in Fig. 39. In the days when these coal-boxes were fashionable, miniature pipkins were sold for drawing-room use, and a little later oblong and oval boxes of polished brass and copper were in common use; in some places the brass log boxes taking their place, especially where wood was plentiful.

It is probable no domestic utensil or appliance has gained greater notoriety than the copper and brass warming-pan, which so long held an honoured place in the chimney corner. It was used nightly in winter for warming beds in the often large and chilly rooms, both in the homes of the wealthy and of the middle classes. One of these pans is represented in Fig. 23 on the wall of the seventeenth-century room already mentioned as being on view in the London Museum. Another very handsome warming-pan, which is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is very exceptional in style. Many of the earlier examples are dated, and sometimes engraved or embossed with pious or loyal sentiments, as was the custom of the times. The Royal Albert Memorial Museum at Exeter contains several interesting warming-pans; one, which is dated on the lid 1622, is engraved: "I.R. GOD SAVE KING JAMES"; another, with an iron handle, is of still earlier date, being stamped 1616 on the lid.

Brass foot-warmers were at one time in regular use; a very fine example, shown in Fig. 40, is of octagonal shape, covered with repoussÉ decoration, and fitted with a folding bail handle, facilitating its removal from place to place. There have been many copper foot-warmers, carriage warmers, and the like used in days before modern heating arrangements were known. Some years ago little copper muff-warmers were sold in the shops; but they were of no great novelty, for as far back as the seventeenth century what were known as warming boxes were made for keeping the hands warm on journeys when travelling by the very cold and draughty stage coaches. These curious little boxes of brass or copper were heated with a removable mass of iron, which could be lifted out of the box, which hinged in the centre, by means of an iron hook; just in the same way the old box irons were operated. In Figs. 41 and 42 one of these early boxes, which may be seen in the Guildhall Museum, is illustrated. Thus in olden time the comfort of travellers was attained. The old inns were welcome retreats after a stormy journey by road, and the older inns of the coaching days often contain many interesting relics of the days when the copper and brass objects we now call curious and old were new. Those objects referred to in the previous paragraphs by no means exhaust the list of houseplace curios in metal, but they may serve to point out the great interest which attaches to even common objects of everyday use when a few years have passed by and changes have been brought about in everyday usages.

Chimney and other Ornaments.

As it has been intimated already, the fireplace was a centre of attraction in all old houses. It was customary on a winter's night to draw up close to the fire, and in so doing it was only natural that the chimney piece and those objects which rested thereon would be constantly looked at. This probably gave makers the cue when designing ornamental brasswork which could be used as household decoration. The ornaments of those days were substantial, and the chimney ornaments solid and lasting. It was a common thing to see a row of brass figures or pairs of brass ornaments on the chimney-piece. Such designs as those shown in Figs. 43 and 44 were popular. Our illustrations represent one only of each fashion; the pairs, however, were usually designed opposite hands, looking to right and left. Such ornaments were seen on the kitchen mantelpieces of the well-to-do and on the hob-grates of the houseplaces of the middle classes. This was the prevailing custom from fifty to seventy years ago, and still earlier similar ornaments, cruder in design, evidently modelled after the style of the Bow pottery figures, were in use. In Lancashire and in the manufacturing districts of the Black Country brass ornaments of similar and more modern types have always been favoured, and they are still sold as ornaments to well-to-do artisans and mechanics. The modern castings are rougher and not so decorative or beautifully designed as the tooled castings of earlier days. The peacock was a favourite bird and shared with the pheasant popularity. These designs are easily recognizable among the genuine antiques. There were larger animals, too, such as the horse, an example of which is given in Fig. 45. This favourite beast of burden was oftentimes represented as a dray horse; in more sporting circles as a hack or a hunter. In agricultural districts the wagoner, the huntsman, and dogs and hounds were chiefly favoured. They were generally set on a base or plinth, an exceptionally good country brass of the earlier type representing a shepherd with his typical crook. Little statuettes represented politicians and historical and even allegorical figures. Among the portrait brasses Napoleon was a favourite subject in the days when his name was familiar in every household. Izaac Walton, the exponent of the gentle art, was often modelled in brass, and even Robinson Crusoe and his man Friday formed the subject of a rare group. The Continents of America, Africa, and Asia are rare and interesting allegorical groups. Other brasses show traces of Chippendale influence, especially those in miniature which represent familiar household objects, among which are wonderful little models of circular tables and of the oval loo tables, like those then seen in the best parlour. There are also miniature brass trivets and stools and models of grandfather chairs.

Brass ornaments such as those described are not altogether confined to chimney ornaments, for on a larger scale they were frequently used on the old hob-grates, the polished brass or copper contrasting with the shining blacklead put on with plenty of elbow grease. They were used, too, as door porters and also as sideboard ornaments. The ornaments of the early nineteenth century in metal were, however, almost entirely associated with utilitarian purposes, the artist decorating the commoner objects, giving special attention to the repoussÉ work and engraving on those portions which would be in view when the dustpan, warming-pan, hearth brush, or other object was hung up.

Classified Arrangement.

In addition to those articles mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs there are many domestic utensils highly decorative, such as candlesticks and lighting apparatus, referred to in other chapters in this volume. These all come under the special notice of the collector of copper and brasswork who turns his attention to domestic antiques. Such collectable objects as already suggested should be arranged in a room furnished in similar style to that prevailing at a time when these metal curios were in daily use. If such a room is not available an alternative method is to arrange the domestic curios so that by comparison the progress made by makers as each succeeding generation came and went can be seen and appreciated. Incidentally that method is very interesting in that it reveals the periods at which art was uppermost, and indicates those times when the utility of domestic copper and brass was in the ascendant rather than their ornate appearance. Popular taste was followed by the maker at all times, and the more progressive manufacturers were ever on the look-out for some slight improvement either in design or decoration—seldom, however, making any radical change—so that the progress in metal-work was one of development slowly unfolded.

IX
CANDLESTICKS
AND LAMPS